Harnessing Blockchain Technology for the Delivery of Global Environmental Benefits

Harnessing Blockchain Technology for the Delivery of Global Environmental Benefits

A STAP Advisory Document December 2019

A STAP Advisory Document December 2019

LEAD STAP AUTHORS: Saleem Ali, Jamidu Katima, and Sunday Leonard

STAP CONTRIBUTOR: Rosina Bierbaum

STAP SECRETARIAT CONTRIBUTOR: Christopher Whaley

SUGGESTED CITATION: Ali, S., Katima, J., Leonard, S.A., 2020. Harnessing Blockchain Technology for the Delivery of Global Environmental Benefits. A STAP Advisory Document. Scientific and Technical Advisory Panel to the Global Environment Facility. Washington, DC.

COPYRIGHT: This work is shared under a Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial-No Derivative Works License.

ABOUT STAP: The Scientific and Technical Advisory Panel (STAP) provides independent scientific and technical advice to the GEF on its strategies, programs and projects. https://stapgef.org

ABOUT GEF: The Global Environment Facility (GEF) was established on the eve of the 1992 Rio Earth Summit to help tackle our planet’s most pressing environmental problems. Since then, the GEF has provided close to $20.5 billion in grants and mobilized an additional $112 billion in co-financing for more than 4,800 projects in 170 countries. Through its Small Grants Programme, the GEF has provided support to nearly 24,000 civil society and community initiatives in 133 countries. http://www.thegef.org

COPY EDITOR: Emily Youers

DESIGN AND LAYOUT: Phoenix Design Aid A/S, Denmark

COVER PHOTO: whiteMocca – Shutterstock ID: 735743386

Harnessing Blockchain Technology for the Delivery of Global Environmental Benefits

A STAP Advisory Document December 2019

2

CONTENTS

1. BACKGROUND.................................................................................................................. 3

2. WHAT IS BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY ............................................................................ 4

3. WHAT CAN BLOCKCHAIN DO FOR THE ENVIRONMENT AND WHAT CAN IT NOT DO? .......................................................................................... 6

4. WHAT OPPORTUNITIES DOES BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY OFFER THE GEF? ............ 8

5. WHAT ARE SOME OF THE CHALLENGES AND BARRIERS TO BLOCKCHAIN? ............. 18

6. STAP’S ADVICE AND RECOMMENDATIONS .................................................................. 19

ANNEX 1: WEB LINKS TO THE EXAMPLES OF BLOCKCHAIN APPLICATIONS PRESENTED IN FIGURES 2A–2I ................................................................................................................. 21

ENDNOTES ............................................................................................................................ 24

3

1. BACKGROUNDThe Scientific and Technical Advisory Panel (STAP) paper on novel entities1 identified six novel entities and technologies of relevance to the Global Environment Facility (GEF): technology-critical elements, blockchain technology, next generation nanotechnology, gene editing/CRISPR, cellular agriculture, and new engineered bio-based materials.

This paper is the result of STAP’s further work on one of those novel entities – blockchain technology

– and is based on a review of the relevant literature and a STAP workshop that brought together experts on the environmental application of blockchain and members of the GEF Partnership. The paper explains what blockchain is, how blockchain could be used to deliver environmental benefits (particularly for the GEF), points out some of the challenges and barriers to using the technology, and concludes with recommendations to the GEF.

4

2. WHAT IS BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY?

A blockchain is a type of database that is replicated over a peer-to-peer network and allows multiple users in the network to access, share, maintain and update the content of the database in real time, safely and securely, according to an agreed consensus mechanism and without the need for a trusted central authority.2

In a blockchain, data are grouped and organized into linked blocks; each block is secured using a cryptographic digital fingerprint called a “hash”.3 Each hash points to the next block, creating an unbroken chain of continuous data that can only be changed by modifying every block in the network, thus ensuring that the information within the network is secure and cannot be easily manipulated.4 Blockchain uses an “append only” structure (i.e. data can only be added to the database; data cannot be deleted or altered on earlier blocks). This ensures that historical data and transactions are permanently stored and are immutable.5

Blockchain has several unique features that distinguish it from traditional database systems: more accurate record-keeping, greater transparency, increased trust, enhanced security, improved traceability, increased efficiency and speed, and lower-cost transactions.6 Figure 1 shows how blockchain works.

Blockchain technology has been widely used as (i) a system for the secure, transparent and immutable distributed storage of digital identities and records; (ii) a basis for digitally representing and tracking real-world assets, such as commodities, natural resources, ecosystem services and waste (usually referred to as “digital tokens”7); and (iii) a platform for the formation and automated execution of digital relationships, transactions and markets (usually referred to as “smart contracts”8).

Everything Possible – Shutterstock ID: 1100852378

5

Figure 1: How blockchain works. (Source: Piscini et al. 20169)

Each block is identified by a hash, a 256-bit number, created using an algorithm agreed upon by the network. A block contains a header, a reference to the previous block’s hash, and a group of transactions. The sequence of linked hashes creates a secure, interdependent chain.

BLOCK N+1BLOCK N

PENDING

Two parties exchange data; this couldrepresent money, contracts, deeds, medical records,customer details, or any other asset that can be described in digital form.

1Depending on the network’s parameters,

the transaction is either verified instantly or transcribed into a secured record and placed in a queue of pending transactions. In this case, nodes—the computers or servers

Blockchain allows for the secure management of a shared ledger, where transactions are verified and stored on a networkwithout a governing central authority. Blockchains can come in different configurations, ranging from public, open-source networks to private blockchains that require explicit permissions to read or write. Computer science and advanced mathematics (in the form of cryptographic hash functions) are what make blockchains tick, not just enabling transactions but also protecting a blockchain's integrity and anonymity.

in the network—determine if the transactions are valid based on a set of rules the network has agreed to.

BLOCK N+2

When a block is validated, the miners that solved the puzzle are rewarded and the block is distributed through the network. Each node adds the block to the majority chain, the network’s immutable and auditable blockchain.

BLOCK N

Blocks must first be validated to be added to the blockchain. The most accepted form of validation for open-source blockchains is proof of work—the solution to a mathematical puzzle derived from the block’s header.

If a malicious miner tries to submit an altered block to the chain, the hash function of that block,and all following blocks, would change. The other nodes would detect these changes and reject the block from the majority chain, preventing corruption.

Miners try to “solve” the block by making incremental changes to one variable until the solution satisfies a network-wide target. This is called “proof of work” because correct answers cannot be falsified; potential solutions must prove the appropriate level of computing power was drained in solving.

BLOCK N

2

3 4

6

7

5

6

3. WHAT CAN BLOCKCHAIN DO FOR THE ENVIRONMENT AND WHAT CAN IT NOT DO?

Blockchain cannot solve environmental problems on its own. Blockchain is an enabling technology that can help with the secure monitoring and tracking of environmental data and natural resources, thereby facilitating their effective management and enabling sustainable outcomes.

Environmental uses of blockchain typically require pairing it with a complementary technology, for example environmental sensors, satellite remote sensing, Internet of Things devices, artificial intelligence, biometrics, smart meters, QR Codes, or radio-frequency identification chips.

Environmental applications of blockchain:

• Improved environmental monitoring, reporting and verification. Blockchain can provide accurate record-keeping, as well as trust and transparency in recording and tracking environmental information and in monitoring compliance with multilateral environmental agreements,10 such as the Paris Climate Agreement. For example:

— The Yale OpenLab Open Climate project11 aims to track the global carbon budget, monitor climate pledges and actions, and provide a platform for the international carbon market and the mobilization of climate finance.

— The Regen Network blockchain12 records ecosystem health and can be used, for example, to verify improvements or regeneration after an intervention.

• Sustainable resource management. Using blockchain to create a monetary value for natural resources and ecosystem services could encourage more sustainable consumption and production and create value in things that are currently wasted or undervalued.13 For example:

— The Plastic Bank14 blockchain platform pays people for collecting and recycling plastic waste, thereby changing their perception of plastic waste from garbage to resource and simultaneously reducing ocean plastic pollution.

— The GainForest blockchain15 provides incentives for farmers to maintain forests at risk of deforestation by paying them for every period that the forest is preserved.

• Sustainable and transparent supply chains. Blockchain makes it is possible to track products from their origin through every stage and transaction to their final destination.16 This can improve the transparency, credibility, efficiency and safety of commodity production and supply chains. Traceability will allow consumers to identify whether a product is from a sustainable source. A blockchain-based supply chain can also be used to reward sustainable behaviours directly.17 For example:

— Unilever is implementing a blockchain project to track and validate its tea supply chain. This will provide preferential pricing to farmers who use sustainable farming methods to produce more tea without increasing the land take.18

• Transformation of carbon and other environmental markets. Blockchain can help facilitate environmental markets (e.g. carbon emissions trading) by creating digital tokens to represent environmental improvement activities (e.g. tree planting, soil conservation actions, sustainable agriculture activities, renewable energy generation) that individuals or organizations can directly pay for to offset their environmental footprints. For example:

— The CarbonX19 and ClimateCoin20 are blockchain networking platforms for individuals and companies to offset their

7

carbon emissions and to create demand for their low-emission products and services.

— The blockchain-based Nori Carbon Removal Marketplace21 allows companies to offset their carbon emissions by paying farmers to restore soil health and pull carbon from the atmosphere.

— The OXÏ-ZEN Programme22 makes it possible for carbon emitters to offset their emissions through payments to entities who mitigate carbon emissions by planting trees or conserving forests.

— The Earth Bank of Codes23 collects and makes available data on biological assets. This allows scientists and innovators to tackle biopiracy and ensure a fair and equitable sharing of the economic benefits, in alignment with the objectives of the Nagoya Protocol.

• Sustainable urban and rural development. Blockchain can be used to:

— Prepare a historical and immutable record of land and asset ownership.24 Examples include the Bitland25 and ChromaWay26 blockchains, in use in Ghana and Sweden, respectively.

— Improve the efficiency of waste management processes and incentivize recycling, for example Plastic Bank,27 the End of Waste Foundation28 and Recereum,29 which are using blockchain to track waste, connect waste owners with entities that need the waste, and promote recycling and resource efficiency.

— Support the implementation of decentralized systems for energy, water and other public utility management, which can help promote sustainable production and use; for example, FlexiDAO,30 WePower31 and WaterChain.32

— Implement peer-to-peer renewable energy trading systems, both in rural and urban areas,33 which could increase the uptake of renewable energy; for example, SunContract34 and the Exergy Brooklyn Microgrid.35

— Support smart transportation and parking systems, as well as peer-to-peer electric vehicle charging stations and vehicle sharing;36 for example, Omnitude uses GPS data, passenger information and journey tracking on a blockchain platform to deliver real-time transport solutions in Malta.37

— Increase transparency and reduce bureaucracy in urban planning, city management and governance.38

• Innovative and sustainable environmental financing models. Blockchain can be used to create new financing structures and business models. It can be used for crowdfunding or impact investing39 and to broaden opportunities for sustainable investment.40 Its transparent and decentralized nature makes it easier to track investment and see whether the desired impacts are delivered. This may be particularly important in developing countries where regulatory standards for impact investment may have led to a perception that such investments are high risk. Blockchain may also help ensure that funding goes directly to the intended recipients. For example:

— The IXO Foundation uses blockchain coupled with remote sensing and satellite imagery to monitor a tree-planting scheme and conservation efforts and to track associated impacts.41 The blockchain platform also allows people to donate and receive real-time updates about the impacts of the scheme.

8

4. WHAT OPPORTUNITIES DOES BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY OFFER THE GEF?The environmental applications discussed in section 3 show that blockchain can be useful in delivering the GEF’s objectives. To illustrate this, the objectives of the focal areas and Impact Programs of the GEF were mapped against a (non-exhaustive) list of existing and proposed blockchain uses. Figures 2a–2i present the outcome of this mapping

exercise. The figures show that many proposed and existing blockchain applications are relevant to the objectives of the GEF, and the GEF can learn from them to improve its delivery of global environmental benefits. Annex 1 contains web links to the examples of blockchain applications in the figures.

Alexey Godzenko – Shutterstock ID: 715107421

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arketp

lace f

or in

cent

ivizin

g and

rewa

rding

farm

ers fo

r pres

erving

soil c

arbon

, e.g.

, Nor

i Carb

on Re

mov

al

Mark

etplac

e • B

lockc

hain-

enab

led ve

rifica

tion o

f eco

logica

l out

com

es, s

uch a

s dec

rease

d lan

d deg

radati

on, e

.g., R

egen

Netw

ork

• I

ncen

tivizi

ng an

d sup

porti

ng su

staina

ble ag

ricult

ure b

y sm

allho

lder fa

rmers

, e.g.

, Agr

iLedg

er, Ag

Unity

,

GainF

ores

t, IBM

Afric

a & H

ello T

ractor

, Rain

Trust

Agro

-Bloc

kcha

in, Sh

amba

Reco

rds,

Unile

ver p

ilot fo

r tea

supp

ly ch

ain

• Bloc

kcha

in-po

wered

data

recor

ding o

f soil

cond

itions

and f

arming

prac

tice t

o info

rm ag

ricult

ure fi

nanc

ing,

inc

rease

d pro

ducti

on, a

nd su

staina

ble fa

rm m

anag

emen

t, e.g.

, HAR

A Tok

en

• Bloc

kcha

in-ba

sed s

ustai

nable

fores

t man

agem

ent, e

.g., B

VRio

Resp

onsib

le Tim

ber E

xcha

nge P

latfor

m,

Ch

ainW

ood,

Hang

zhou

Yi Sh

u Bloc

kcha

in Te

chno

logy

• Bloc

kcha

in-su

ppor

ted su

staina

ble m

ining

prac

tice b

y trac

king t

he so

urce

of m

ineral

s, e.g

., IBM

Trus

tCha

in,

Fo

rd’s

coba

lt pilo

t pro

ject

• Bloc

kcha

in-su

ppor

ted ag

ri-foo

d sup

ply ch

ain tr

ackin

g and

trac

eabil

ity, e

.g., A

griLe

dger,

Ambr

osus

Block

chain

, Bex

t360

Bloc

kcha

in Su

pply

Chain

, Orig

inTrai

l, Pro

vena

nce B

lockc

hain

Poult

ry Su

pply

Chain

,

Ripe.i

o Bloc

kcha

in of

Food

, Sku

chain

Supp

ly Ch

ain, T

E-FOO

D Fo

odCh

ain, U

nilev

er pil

ot for

tea s

upply

chain

GEF7

Obj

ectiv

eCr

eate

an en

ablin

g env

ironm

ent to

supp

ort v

olunt

ary La

nd

Degr

adati

on N

eutra

lity ta

rget

imple

men

tation

Exist

ing o

r Pro

pose

d Blo

ckch

ain U

se• B

lockc

hain-

base

d lan

d ten

ure r

egist

ry an

d adm

inistr

ation

,

e.g., B

enBe

n, Big

chain

DB, B

itfury,

Bitlan

d, Ch

rom

aWay

,

Cons

enSy

s, Ep

igrap

h

• Inc

entiv

izing

and s

uppo

rting

susta

inable

agric

ultur

e by

sm

allho

lder fa

rmers

, e.g.

, Agr

iLedg

er, Ag

Unity

, Gain

Fores

t,

IBM

Afric

a & H

ello T

ractor

, Rain

Trust

Agro

-Bloc

kcha

in, Sh

amba

Reco

rds,

Unile

ver p

ilot fo

r tea

supp

ly ch

ain

13

Figu

re 2

e: B

lock

chai

n ap

plic

atio

ns re

leva

nt to

the

GEF

’s in

tern

atio

nal w

ater

s fo

cal a

rea.

GEF7

Obj

ectiv

eStr

engt

hene

d blue

econ

omy o

ppor

tunit

ies• C

reatin

g sus

taina

ble he

althy

coas

tal an

d mari

ne

ecos

ystem

• Cata

lyzing

susta

inable

fishe

ries m

anag

emen

t• A

ddres

sing p

ollut

ion in

mari

ne en

viron

men

t

GEF7

Obj

ectiv

eIm

prov

ed m

anag

emen

t in th

e Area

s Bey

ond

Natio

nal J

urisd

iction

• Red

ucing

harm

ful fis

hing a

nd ov

erexp

loitat

ion of

fish s

tocks

, com

batti

ng Ill

egal,

Unr

epor

ted,

Un

regula

ted fis

herie

s, an

d stre

ngth

ening

regio

nal

fis

herie

s man

agem

ent o

rgan

izatio

n

Exist

ing o

r Pro

pose

d Blo

ckch

ain U

se• B

lockc

hain-

base

d pro

vena

nce t

rackin

g of fi

sh an

d

other

seafo

ods,

e.g., F

ishco

in, Sa

wtoo

th Bl

ockc

hain,

WW

F Bloc

kcha

in Su

pply

Chain

Trac

eabil

ity Pr

oject

• B

lockc

hain-

enab

led oc

ean p

lastic

prev

entio

n, e.g

., Pla

stic B

ank a

nd Re

cycle

ToCo

in • B

lockc

hain-

enab

led m

onito

ring o

f illeg

al fis

hing

Exist

ing o

r Pro

pose

d Blo

ckch

ain U

se• B

lockc

hain-

base

d pro

vena

nce t

rackin

g of fi

sh an

d

other

seafo

ods,

e.g., F

ishco

in, Sa

wtoo

th

Blo

ckch

ain, W

WF B

lockc

hain

Supp

ly Ch

ain

Tra

ceab

ility P

rojec

t • B

lockc

hain-

supp

orted

mon

itorin

g of il

legal

fishin

g

Exist

ing o

r Pro

pose

d Blo

ckch

ain U

se• B

lockc

hain-

enab

led w

ater m

onito

ring a

nd

man

agem

ent, e

.g., B

lockc

hain

Wate

r Plat

form

• Bloc

kcha

in-ba

sed d

ecen

traliz

ed w

ater m

anag

emen

t sy

stem

s for

incre

ased

effic

iency

, e.g.

, Wate

rCha

in• B

lockc

hain-

supp

orted

real-

time m

onito

ring o

f na

tural

haza

rds

• Tok

en sy

stem

for c

lean d

rinkin

g wate

r and

smart

wa

ter m

eters,

e.g.,

AQUA

Righ

ts

GEF7

Obj

ectiv

eEn

hanc

ed w

ater s

ecur

ity in

fresh

water

ecos

ystem

s• A

dvan

cing i

nform

ation

exch

ange

and e

arly w

arning

• Enh

ancin

g reg

ional

and n

ation

al co

opera

tion o

n sh

ared f

reshw

ater s

urfac

e and

grou

ndwa

ter ba

sins

• Im

prov

ing w

ater, f

ood,

energ

y and

envir

onm

ental

se

curit

y

14

Figu

re 2

f: Bl

ockc

hain

app

licat

ions

rele

vant

to th

e G

EF’s

chem

ical

s an

d w

aste

foca

l are

a.N

ote:

SA

ICM

= S

trat

egic

App

roac

h to

Inte

rnat

iona

l Che

mic

als

Man

agem

ent.

GEF7

Obj

ectiv

eEli

mina

te/res

trict/

cont

rol e

miss

ions o

f Stoc

kholm

chem

icals;

elim

inate

emiss

ions a

nd re

lease

of

merc

ury i

n acti

vities

and p

roce

sses;

enco

urag

e pub

lic-pr

ivate

partn

ership

; sup

port

SAIC

M ob

jectiv

es

Prog

ram

s

Exist

ing o

r Pro

pose

d Blo

ckch

ain U

se• B

lockc

hain-

base

d trac

eabil

ity an

d trac

king i

n che

mica

l sup

ply ch

ains,

e.g., C

hem

chain

• Bloc

kcha

in-en

abled

mon

itorin

g of c

hem

ical u

se in

agric

ultur

e• B

lockc

hain-

facilit

ated r

egula

tory e

nforce

men

t and

custo

ms c

ontro

l, e.g.

, CAD

ENA b

lockc

hain,

Trad

elens

• Was

te m

anag

emen

t sys

tem su

ppor

ted by

bloc

kcha

in, e.

g., 4N

ew W

aste-

to-En

ergy B

lockc

hain,

Agor

a Tec

h Lab

, End

of W

aste

Foun

datio

n, Pla

stic B

ank,

Rece

reum

, Rec

ycleT

oCoin

,

Swac

hhco

in

• Trac

king o

f was

te, in

parti

cular

e-wa

ste an

d its

docu

men

tation

up to

final

desti

natio

n, e.g

., Was

teLed

ger

• Bloc

kcha

in-en

abled

circu

lar an

d sha

ring e

cono

my,

e.g., B

undle

s pay

-per-u

se w

ashin

g mac

hine,

Circu

larise

, Circ

ulor O

racle

Block

chain

for S

upply

Chain

Trac

king,

La’Zo

oz, P

lastic

Bank

, Pro

vena

nce,

Trade

Lens

• B

lockc

hain-

enab

led tr

ackin

g of m

ineral

reso

urce

s like

gold,

coba

lt, dia

mon

ds, e

.g., C

irculo

r Orac

le Blo

ckch

ain fo

r Sup

ply Ch

ain Tr

ackin

g, Em

ergen

t Tec

hnolo

gy Re

spon

sible

Gold,

Force

field

Meta

ls Tra

de Bl

ockc

hain

Cons

ortiu

m, E

verLe

dger,

Trac

r bloc

kcha

in

Elim

inate

or re

duce

indu

strial

ch

emica

ls un

der S

tockh

olm, M

inam

ata,

SAIC

M an

d Mon

treal

Proto

col

Addr

ess a

nd re

duce

use o

f Sto

ckho

lm an

d Mina

mata

-relat

ed

agric

ultu

ral c

hem

icals

Soun

d man

agem

ent o

f che

mica

ls an

d was

te in

Leas

t Dev

elope

d Cou

ntrie

s an

d Sm

all Is

land D

evelo

ping

Stat

es

Supp

ort c

onve

ntion

s-rela

ted

enab

ling a

ctivit

ies

15

Figu

re 2

g: B

lock

chai

n ap

plic

atio

ns re

leva

nt to

the

GEF

’s Fo

od S

yste

ms,

Lan

d Us

e, a

nd R

esto

ratio

n Im

pact

Pro

gram

.

GEF7

Obj

ectiv

eCr

eate

efficie

nt an

d effe

ctive

food

value

ch

ains f

or m

ultipl

e ben

efits

GEF7

Obj

ectiv

eRe

mov

e defo

restat

ion fro

m su

pply

chain

sGE

F7 O

bjec

tive

Expa

nd re

storat

ion of

degr

aded

land

s

Exist

ing o

r Pro

pose

d Blo

ckch

ain U

se• B

lockc

hain-

base

d inc

entiv

izing

and s

uppo

rt of

su

staina

ble ag

ricult

ure b

y sm

allho

lder fa

rmers

, e.g.

,

AgriL

edge

r, AgU

nity,

GainF

ores

t, Hell

o Trac

tor, R

ainTru

st

Agro

-Bloc

kcha

in, Re

gen N

etwor

k, Sh

amba

Reco

rds,

Un

ileve

r pilo

t for t

ea su

pply

chain

• Bloc

kcha

in-ba

sed r

ecor

ding o

f pes

ticide

use i

n agr

icultu

re • B

lockc

hain-

base

d pro

vena

nce t

rackin

g of fo

od va

lue ch

ain,

e.g

., Bee

fCha

in, Be

efLed

ger, W

WF B

lockc

hain

Supp

ly

Chain

Trac

eabil

ity Pr

oject

for Tu

na fis

h • M

arketp

lace f

or in

cent

ivizin

g and

rewa

rding

farm

ers fo

r

pres

erving

soil c

arbon

, e.g.

, Nor

i Carb

on Re

mov

al

Mark

etplac

e

Exist

ing o

r Pro

pose

d Blo

ckch

ain U

se• M

arketp

lace f

or in

cent

ivizin

g and

rewa

rding

farm

ers fo

r

pres

erving

soil c

arbon

, e.g.

, Nor

i Carb

on Re

mov

al

Mark

etplac

e • B

lockc

hain-

enab

led ve

rifica

tion o

f eco

logica

l out

com

es,

su

ch as

decre

ased

land

degr

adati

on, e

.g., R

egen

Netw

ork

• Inc

entiv

izing

and s

uppo

rting

susta

inable

agric

ultur

e by

sm

allho

lder fa

rmers

, e.g.

, Agr

iLedg

er, Ag

Unity

,

GainF

ores

t, Hell

o Trac

tor, R

ainTru

st Ag

ro-B

lockc

hain,

Rege

n Netw

ork,

Sham

ba Re

cord

s, Un

ileve

r pilo

t for t

ea

su

pply

chain

• Bloc

kcha

in-ba

sed d

ata re

cord

ing of

soil c

ondit

ions a

nd

far

ming

prac

tice t

o info

rm ag

ricult

ure fi

nanc

ing an

d

susta

inable

farm

man

agem

ent

Exist

ing o

r Pro

pose

d Blo

ckch

ain U

se• B

lockc

hain-

supp

orted

agri-

food s

upply

chain

track

ing an

d trac

eabil

ity, e

.g., A

griLe

dger,

Ambr

osus

Bloc

kcha

in, Be

xt360

Bloc

kcha

in

Supp

ly Ch

ain, O

riginT

rail, P

rove

nanc

e

Block

chain

Poult

ry Su

pply

Chain

, Ripe

.io

Blo

ckch

ain of

Food

, Sku

chain

Supp

ly Ch

ain,

TE

-FOOD

Bloc

kcha

in, U

nilev

er pil

ot for

tea

su

pply

chain

• Bloc

kcha

in-ba

sed s

ustai

nable

fores

t

man

agem

ent, e

.g., B

VRio

Resp

onsib

le

Timbe

r Exc

hang

e Plat

form

, Cha

inWoo

d,

Hang

zhou

Yi Sh

u Bloc

kcha

in Te

chno

logy

16

Figu

re 2

h: B

lock

chai

n ap

plic

atio

ns re

leva

nt to

the

GEF

’s Su

stai

nabl

e Ci

ties

Impa

ct P

rogr

amN

ote:

EV

= e

lect

ric v

ehic

le.

Prog

ram

Com

pone

nts

GEF S

usta

inab

le Ci

ties I

nves

tmen

t Cat

egor

ies

Prom

oting

inno

vativ

e bu

sines

s mod

els fo

r int

egrat

ed so

lution

s and

inv

estm

ents

at cit

y-lev

el

Stren

gthe

ning t

he G

lobal

Platfo

rm fo

r Sus

taina

ble Ci

ties

for kn

owled

ge ex

chan

ge an

d lea

rning

Supp

ortin

g evid

ence

-base

d sp

atial

plann

ing –

natio

nal,

region

al an

d loc

al

Exist

ing o

r Pro

pose

d Bl

ockc

hain

Use

• Bloc

kcha

in-ba

sed l

and

tenur

e reg

istry

and

adm

inistr

ation

, e.g.

, Be

nBen

, Bigc

hainD

B, Bit

fury,

Bitlan

d, Ch

rom

aWay

, Con

senS

ys,

Epigr

aph

• Bloc

kcha

in-ba

sed p

ublic

, co

rpor

ate, c

ivil a

nd as

set

regist

ry, e.

g., Bi

tfury,

Ub

itquit

y

Exist

ing o

r Pro

pose

d Bl

ockc

hain

Use

• Bloc

kcha

in-en

abled

finan

ce pl

atfor

ms f

or

rai

sing f

unds

and

inv

estm

ents

for

en

viron

men

tal

su

staina

bility

, e.g.

,

Crow

dwiz’

s WizF

und,

Su

n Exc

hang

e

• P

eer-t

o-pee

r pers

onal

or

corp

orate

carb

on

tra

ding,

e.g., C

arbon

X,

Clim

ateCo

in, Ea

rth

Do

llar

Exist

ing o

r Pro

pose

d Blo

ckch

ain U

se• B

lockc

hain-

supp

orted

intel

ligen

t tran

spor

t and

logist

ic sy

stem

s, e.g

., Bloc

kcha

in in

Trans

port

Allian

ce,

M

OBI b

lockc

hain,

NetO

bjex,

Omnit

ude &

Malt

ese

Go

vern

men

t, Volt

P2P D

elive

ry Pla

tform

• B

lockc

hain-

enab

led pe

er-to-

peer

distri

butio

n and

mark

et for

rene

wable

energ

y tho

ugh s

mart

cont

racts,

e.g., E

xerg

y Bro

oklyn

Micr

ogrid

, Pow

er Le

dger,

SunC

ontra

ct, W

ePow

er

• Trac

king o

f rene

wable

energ

y sou

rce an

d ene

rgy d

ata

m

anag

emen

t, e.g.

, Flex

iDao

, WeP

ower

• Sm

art EV

charg

ing sy

stem

s, e.g

., Elaa

dNL,

Exerg

y EV

ch

arging

, Matr

ix Ch

arging

Syste

m, P

owerL

edge

r,

Share

& Ch

arge

• B

lockc

hain-

enab

led ca

r sha

ring e

.g., L

a’Zoo

z.• B

lockc

hain-

supp

ort h

ouse

hold

waste

to en

ergy,

e.g.,

4N

ew W

aste-

to-En

ergy

Exist

ing o

r Pro

pose

d Blo

ckch

ain U

se• B

lockc

hain-

enab

led co

mm

unity

parti

cipati

on w

hich

ca

n enh

ance

urba

n plan

ning a

nd im

prov

e dec

ision

mak

ing, e

.g., P

olys V

oting

Bloc

kcha

in

• Bloc

kcha

in-ba

sed l

and t

enur

e reg

istry

and

ad

mini

strati

on, e

.g., B

enBe

n, Big

chain

DB, B

itfury,

Bitlan

d, Ch

rom

aWay

, Con

senS

ys, E

pigrap

h

• Bloc

kcha

in-ba

sed s

mart

grid

and e

nerg

y loa

d

man

agem

ent s

ystem

• W

aste

man

agem

ent s

ystem

supp

orted

by bl

ockc

hain,

e.g., 4

New

Was

te-to-

Energ

y Bloc

kcha

in, Ag

ora T

ech

La

b, En

d of W

aste

Foun

datio

n, Pla

stic B

ank,

Re

cereu

m, R

ecyc

leToC

oin, S

wach

hcoin

• B

lockc

hain-

enab

led ci

rcular

and s

harin

g eco

nom

y, e.g

.,

Bund

les pa

y-per-

use w

ashin

g mac

hine,

Circu

larise

,

Circu

lor O

racle

Block

chain

for S

upply

Chain

Trac

king,

La

’Zooz

, Plas

tic Ba

nk, P

rove

nanc

e, Tra

deLe

ns

Deca

rbon

izing

urba

nizati

on w

ith

infras

tructu

re int

egrat

ion at

natio

nal,

region

al, an

d loc

al sca

les

Build

ing de

ep re

silien

ce

with

smart

syste

ms

and s

lum so

lution

s

Casca

ding fi

nanc

e so

lution

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18

5. WHAT ARE SOME OF THE CHALLENGES AND BARRIERS TO BLOCKCHAIN?

In considering blockchain, the GEF should be aware of some of the challenges and barriers to its use. These include:

• Carbon and material footprint. The first blockchain systems, including Bitcoin, have large computational and energy requirements owing to the algorithm used for consensus building.42 Servers to power blockchain also use a range of metals. Newer blockchain systems that use less energy are being developed, but the overall energy and material use should be considered when deciding whether to use blockchain.

• Data collection and security. Ideally, the collection of blockchain data should not involve human data entry, because this is more prone to error and manipulation. Blockchain therefore needs to be paired with automated, secure and accurate data-collection systems. The need for these complementary technologies makes using blockchain more challenging, especially in many developing countries, where access to these technologies may be limited.

• Scalability. Many blockchain applications have not been scaled beyond context-specific, proof-of-concept pilot applications, largely because of the need for high computational power and the limited speed of transactions. These issues would need to be addressed if blockchain were to be used on large-scale environmental problems that required several actors within the blockchain.

• Digital access and literacy in developing countries. The lack of digital literacy and Internet access may make it difficult for some rural communities to participate in blockchain-enabled solutions, for example in supply chains involving smallholder farmers or natural resource management involving local participation. Investment in infrastructure or research to create low-cost alternatives suitable for developing countries may be required.43

Other issues that may impede the adoption of blockchain are the lack of an agreed governance structure and the absence of standards and protocols.

whiteMocca – Shutterstock ID: 735743386

19

6. STAP’S ADVICE AND RECOMMENDATIONS STAP recommends that the GEF consider how blockchain can improve its delivery of global environmental benefits. In particular, STAP recommends the following:

• Consider blockchain pilot projects. Some areas seem particularly ripe for the GEF

to incorporate blockchain. For example:

— Tracking and verifying sustainable charcoal production (Land Degradation focal area; Sustainable Forest Management Impact Program)

— Reducing deforestation in agricultural systems by improving transparency in supply chains and incentivizing producers to implement more sustainable environmental practices (Food Systems, Land Use, and Restoration Impact Program; Land Degradation and Biodiversity focal areas)

— Improving the security and accuracy of land tenure systems (Land Degradation focal area; Sustainable Forest Management; Food Systems, Land Use, and Restoration Impact Program; Sustainable Cities Impact Program)

— Improving water and energy resource management (Climate Change and International Waters focal areas; Sustainable Cities Impact Program)

— Improving energy access through decentralized renewable energy sources paired with microgrids, which can enable peer-to-peer markets and community trading (Climate Change focal area; Sustainable Cities Impact Program)

— Improving the traceability of energy sources, which can allow differentiation between renewables and fossil fuels (Climate Change focal area)

— Decarbonizing transportation systems (Climate Change focal area; Sustainable Cities Impact Program)

— Improving the traceability and tracking of chemical supply chains (Chemicals and Waste focal area)

— Improving waste management and the circular economy (Chemicals and Waste focal area; Sustainable Cities Impact Program)

• Assess the value proposition of blockchain to be sure it would add value before adoption.

Blockchain can be used in many ways but may not always be necessary or add enough value to justify its use. Investment in blockchain, as an early-stage technology, will involve some degree of risk. The GEF should therefore assess blockchain’s value proposition in the context of a specific investment before proceeding. Using blockchain should be balanced against its potential drawbacks, including its cost and energy requirements, as well as whether it is appropriate to achieve the intended objectives. A reasoned and structured approach is needed to guide blockchain adoption in specific situations.

Possible assessment questions may include:

— Can this project be implemented without blockchain?

— Is blockchain the best available solution to the problem? Are there alternatives? How is blockchain better than the best status quo alternative? By what measure?

— Are decentralization, transparency and traceability essential to achieve the project’s goals?

— Does using blockchain increase the capacity of the project to deliver global environmental benefits?

— Will the blockchain solution require complementary technologies, and are these in place?

— Does the community have the digital readiness and financial literacy to engage with a blockchain application, or is capacity-building a prerequisite for implementation?

— If capacity-building is needed, can it be included in the project? If not, how would the capacity building be achieved?

20

— What are the possible unintended consequences of adopting blockchain, and how will they be managed?

— What are the environmental impacts associated with the blockchain solution? Are they justifiable? What is the net environmental benefit?

— How would the blockchain application manage data privacy and data security?

— Is the blockchain solution scalable, and are the outcomes transformational?

— Does the project have the right ecosystem of stakeholders?

• Explore possible blockchain benefits to existing GEF programmes and processes.

For example:

— Consider existing internal GEF processes or programmes to see if blockchain could improve record-keeping, transparency, trust, security, efficiency or cost, without unintended negative impacts.

— Consider whether and, if so, how blockchain technology could be used in knowledge management and in monitoring and evaluation.

— Consider whether blockchain could be used to monitor the long-term durability of GEF projects.

• Engage with existing initiatives that are developing environmental applications of blockchain.

The GEF can leverage initiatives and programmes already working on blockchain applications in relation to environmental challenges to create blockchain solutions for GEF-specific environmental challenges or to access technical assistance for potential GEF projects that are considering blockchain. Examples of these initiatives include:

— Climate Chain Coalition44 – A collaboration of diverse stakeholders that aims to use blockchain and other digital technologies to mobilize climate finance and improve measuring, reporting and verification of climate actions.

— Yale OpenLab45 – A collaboration that aims to create open source and disruptive projects to address planetary challenges.

— BitHub Africa46 – A blockchain accelerator organization focused on financial and energy access in Africa.

— GIZ Blockchain Lab47 – A blockchain lab with a focus on using the technology to achieve the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.

— The World Bank Group’s Technology and Innovation Lab48 – A lab that focuses on using technologies including blockchain to address issues like land administration, supply chain management, health and carbon market trading to reduce poverty.

21

ANNEX 1. WEB LINKS TO THE EXAMPLES OF BLOCKCHAIN APPLICATIONS PRESENTED IN FIGURES 2A–2I (IN ALPHABETICAL ORDER)

4New Waste-to-Energy Blockchain: https://4new.io

Adaptation Ledger: https://www.adaptationledger.com

Agora Tech Lab: https://www.agoratechlab.com

AgriLedger: http://www.agriledger.io

AgUnity: https://www.agunity.com

Amazon Bank of Codes: https://www.earthbankofcodes.org/

Ambrosus Blockchain: https://ambrosus.com

Aon/Etherisc/Oxfam Crop Insurance: https://etherisc.com

AQUA Rights: https://aquarights.com

BeefChain: https://beefchain.com

BeefLedger: https://beefledger.io

BenBen: http://www.benben.com.gh

Bext360 Blockchain Supply Chain: https://www.bext360.com

BigchainDB: https://www.bigchaindb.com

Bitfury: https://bitfury.com

Bitland: http://landing.bitland.world

Blockchain Climate Risk Crop Insurance: https://www.climatefinancelab.org/project/climate-risk-crop-insurance

Blockchain in Transport Alliance: https://www.bita.studio

Blockchain Water Platform: https://www.blockchainwater.ai

Bundles pay-per-use: https://www.circle-economy.com/case/bundles/#.XdmlTOhKiUk

BVRio Responsible Timber Exchange Platform: https://www.bvrio.com

CADENA blockchain: https://mag.wcoomd.org/magazine/wco-news-87/cadena-a-blockchain-enabled-solution-for-the-implementation-of-mutual-recognition-arrangements-agreements

CarbonCoin: https://carboncoin.cc

CarbonX: https://www.carbonx.ca

Care for the Uncared: https://www.investereum.com/2019/02/09/the-happy-blockchain-animals

ChainWood: https://www.chainwood.eu

Chemchain: https://www.chemcha.in

ChromaWay: https://chromaway.com

Circularise: https://www.circularise.com

Circulor Oracle Blockchain: https://www.circulor.com

Clearway Energy Group & Power Ledger: https://www.powerledger.io/project/clearway-energy-group-united-states

ClimateCoin: https://climatetrade.com

Climate Ledger Initiative: https://www.climateledger.org

ConsenSys: https://consensys.net/blockchain-use-cases/real-estate

22

CrowdWiz WizFund: https://crowdwiz.io

Earth Bank of Codes: https://www.earthbankofcodes.org

Earth Dollar: https://earthdollar.org

Earth Token: https://earth-token.com

Ecosphere+ REDD+ Unchained: https://ecosphere.plus/2018/11/05/redd-unchained-blockchain-and-climate-change-mitigation-2

ElaadNL: https://www.elaad.nl

Emergent Technology Responsible Gold: https://www.emergenttechnology.com/companies/responsible-gold

End of Waste Foundation: https://endofwaste.com

EnergiMine: https://energimine.com

Energi Tokens: https://www.energi.world

Epigraph: http://epigraph.io

Etherisc: https://etherisc.com

EthicHub: https://ethichub.com

EverLedger: https://www.everledger.io

Exergy: https://exergy.energy

Exergy EV charging: https://lo3energy.com

Fishcoin: https://fishcoin.co

FlexiDAO: https://www.flexidao.com

Forcefield Metals Trade Blockchain: https://www.ledgerinsights.com/commodities-blockchain-consortium-forcefield-accenture-ing-anb-amro-anglo-american

Ford’s cobalt pilot project: https://www.supplychaindive.com/news/Ford-IBM-team-up-track-minerals-blockchain/546301

GainForest: https://www.gainforest.app

Givetrack: https://www.givetrack.org

Hangzhou Yi Shu Blockchain Technology: https://cointelegraph.com/news/chinese-county-establishes-blockchain-company-to-develop-forestry-industry

HARA Token: https://haratoken.io

IBM Africa & Hello Tractor: https://www.hellotractor.com/ibm

IBM TrustChain: https://www.trustchainjewelry.com

IUCN Green List standard token: https://gls.porini.foundation

La’Zooz: http://lazooz.org

LO3 Energy: https://lo3energy.com

Matrix Charging system: https://www.ico.li/blockchain-and-e-mobility

MOBI: https://dlt.mobi

Natural Asset Exchange: https://www.naturalasset.exchange

Natural Capital Coalition: https://naturalcapitalcoalition.org/the-natural-capital-blockchain-revolution

NetObjex: https://www.netobjex.com/use-cases

Nori Carbon Removal Marketplace: https://nori.com

Omnitude & Maltese Government: https://omnitude.tech/omnitude-the-maltese-govt

OriginTrail: https://origintrail.io

OXÏ-ZEN Programme: https://www.oxi-zen.io

Plastic Bank: https://plasticbank.com

Polys voting blockchain: https://polys.me

23

Power Ledger: https://www.powerledger.io

Provenance: https://www.provenance.org

Provenance Blockchain Poultry Supply Chain: https://www.provenance.org/case-studies/grass-roots

RainTrust Agro-Blockchain: https://raintrust.io

Recereum: https://recereum.com

RecycleToCoin: https://iywto.com/things/recycle-cans/recycle-to-coin

REDD-Chain: http://cleantech21.org/fileadmin/content/NBE/C21_H4C_REDD-Chain_Sum082018_v04.pdf

Regen Network: https://www.regen.network

Ripe.io Blockchain of Food: https://www.ripe.io

Sawtooth Blockchain: https://sawtooth.hyperledger.org/examples/seafood.html

Shamba Records: https://shambarecords.co.ke

Share & Charge: https://shareandcharge.com

Skuchain Supply Chain: https://www.skuchain.com

SolarCoin: https://solarcoin.org

South Pole/IXO/Gold Standard MRV Blockchain: https://www.goldstandard.org/tags/blockchain

SunContract: https://suncontract.org

Sun Exchange: https://thesunexchange.com

Swachhcoin: http://www.swachhcoin.com

TE-FOOD FoodChain: https://tefoodint.com

Tracr blockchain: https://www.tracr.com

TradeLens: https://www.tradelens.com

Travel4Green: http://t4gpng.org

Ubitquity: https://www.ubitquity.io

Unilever pilot for tea supply: https://www.greenbiz.com/article/unilever-teams-big-banks-blockchain-supply-chain

Veridium: https://www.veridium.io

Verv: https://verv.energy

Volt P2P Delivery Platform: https://ico-tokensale.com/volt

WAGIF LineageCode: https://www.lineagecode.com

WasteLedger: https://www.f6s.com/wasteledger

WaterChain: https://www.waterchain.io

WeatherBlock: http://www.weatherblock.org

WePower: https://wepower.network

WFP Building Blocks: https://innovation.wfp.org/project/building-blocks

WorldCover: https://www.worldcovr.com

WWF Blockchain Supply Chain Traceability Project: https://www.wwf.org.nz/what_we_do/marine/blockchain_tuna_project

Xride: https://laboratories.telekom.com/blockchain-scooter

Yale OpenLab Open Climate: https://openlab.yale.edu/open-climate

24

ENDNOTES

1 Ricardo Barra and Sunday A. Leonard, Novel Entities (Washington, D.C., Scientific and Technical Advisory Panel of the Global Environment Facility, 2018).

2 Garrick Hileman and Michael Rauchs, Global Blockchain Benchmarking Study (Cambridge, United Kingdom, Cambridge Centre for Alternative Finance, 2017); Deloitte, “Blockchain: A technical primer”, Deloitte Insights, 6 February 2018; Miriam Denis Le Sève, Nathaniel Mason and Darius Nassiry, “Delivering blockchain’s potential for environmental sustainability”, Overseas Development Institute, October 2018.

3 A “hash” is a unique string of letters and numbers created from text using a mathematical formula.4 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, OECD Blockchain Primer (Paris, 2019). 5 Blockchains are said to be almost immutable because of the huge effort that is needed to successfully change an entry in the database. To success-

fully change an entry, one would need to change all the historical data on every single node. 6 Matthew Hooper, “Top five blockchain benefits transforming your industry”, Blockchain Pulse: IBM Blockchain Blog, 22 February 2018; Shaan Ray,

“The difference between blockchains & distributed ledger technology”, Towards Data Science, 19 February 2018; Paul Nelson, Primer on Blockchain (Washington, D.C., U.S. Agency for International Development, 2018).

7 Digital tokens (also referred to as “crypto-tokens”) are used to represent a particular fungible and tradable asset or utility. Anyone in possession of the digital token, therefore, has the right to the item and can track and trade it digitally.

8 Smart contracts are digital protocol that help facilitate, authenticate and administer the negotiation and implementation of a contract as agreed by all parties, but without third parties.

9 Piscini et al. 2016. Blockchain: Democratized trust – Distributed ledgers and the future of value. Deloitte University Press. 10 PwC and WEF, Building block(chain)s for a better planet (PricewaterhouseCoopers and World Economic Forum, 2018). 11 https://openlab.yale.edu/open-climate12 https://www.regen.network13 PwC and WEF, Building block(chain)s for a better planet (PricewaterhouseCoopers and World Economic Forum, 2018); Le Sève et al., “Delivering

blockchain’s potential for environmental sustainability”. 14 https://plasticbank.com15 https://www.gainforest.app16 Christine Leong, Tal Viskin and Robyn Stewart, Tracing the Supply Chain: How Blockchain Can Enable Traceability in the Food Industry (Accenture,

2018); Gerard Sylvester, ed., E-agriculture in Action: Blockchain for Agriculture – Opportunities and Challenges (Bangkok, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations; International Telecommunication Union, 2019).

17 Chris Addison et al., Opportunities of Blockchain for Agriculture, Brussels Briefing No. 55 (Brussels Briefings, 2019).18 Heather Clancy, “Unilever teams with big banks on blockchain for supply chain”, GreenBiz, 13 December 2017. 19 https://www.carbonx.ca20 Also referred to as Climatetrade: https://climatetrade.com21 https://nori.com22 https://www.oxi-zen.io23 https://www.earthbankofcodes.org24 Aanchal Anand, Matthew McKibbin and Frank Pichel, “Colored coins: bitcoin, blockchain, and land administration”, Cadasta (16 February 2020);

Alexandru Oprunenco and Chami Akmeemana, “Using blockchain to make land registry more reliable in India”, United Nations Development Pro-gramme blog, 1 May 2018.

25 http://landing.bitland.world26 https://chromaway.com27 https://plasticbank.com28 https://endofwaste.com29 https://recereum.com30 https://www.flexidao.com31 https://wepower.network32 https://www.waterchain.io33 PwC and WEF, Building block(chain)s for a better planet (PricewaterhouseCoopers and World Economic Forum, 2018); Le Sève et al., “Delivering

blockchain’s potential for environmental sustainability”; Merlinda Andoni et al., “Blockchain technology in the energy sector: a systematic review of challenges and opportunities”, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 100 (February 2019), pp. 143–174.

34 https://suncontract.org35 https://exergy.energy36 Yong Yuan and Fei-Ye Wang, “Towards blockchain-based intelligent transportation systems”, in Proc. 2016 IEEE 19th International Conference on

Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITSC), Rio de Janeiro, 1–4 November 2016; Viktor Valastin et al., “Blockchain based car-sharing platform”, paper prepared for 61st International Symposium ELMAR, Zadar, Croatia, 2019. Available at https://www.researchgate.net/publication/335241161_Block-chain_Based_Car-Sharing_Platform

37 Omnitude, “Omnitude & the Maltese Govt” (16 February 2020). Available at https://omnitude.tech/omnitude-the-maltese-govt38 Alfonso Govela, “Blockchain, a tool for metropolitan governance?” Metropolis Observatory Issue Paper 05 (Barcelona, Metropolis). Available at

https://www.metropolis.org/sites/default/files/metobsip5_en_1.pdf 39 “Impact investing” is the channelling of investments towards socioenvironmental initiatives.40 PwC and WEF, Building block(chain)s for a better planet (PricewaterhouseCoopers and World Economic Forum, 2018); Le Sève et al., “Delivering

blockchain’s potential for environmental sustainability”.41 Maija Palmer, “Blockchain keeps environmental impact investors in the loop”, Financial Times, 22 September 2018. 42 PricewaterhouseCoopers Global Power & Utilities, Blockchain: An Opportunity for Energy Producers and Consumers (PricewaterhouseCoopers,

2016); Camilo Mora et al., “Bitcoin emissions alone could push global warming above 2°C”, Nature Climate Change, vol. 8 (2018), pp. 931–936; Alex de Vries, “Bitcoin’s growing energy problem”, Joule, vol. 2, No. 5 (16 May 2018), pp. 801–805.

43 Le Sève et al., “Delivering blockchain’s potential for environmental sustainability”.44 https://www.climatechaincoalition.io45 https://openlab.yale.edu46 https://bithub.africa47 GIZ, “Innovative solutions for sustainable development” (16 February 2020). Available at https://www.giz.de/en/worldwide/67045.html48 Yusuf Karacaoglu, Stela Mocan and Rachel Alexandra Halsema, “The World Bank Group’s Technology and Innovation Lab, from concept to develop-

ment”, Innovations: Technology, Governance, Globalization, vol. 12, No. 1–2 (summer–fall 2018), pp. 18–28.

www.stapgef.org