Post on 23-Apr-2018
Asif FaizThe World Bank
Kathmandu, Nepal
GITERegional Workshop on Transport Sector
Inspection and Maintenance Policy in Asia
Bangkok, 10-12 December 2001
Overview of Inspection and MaintenancePolicy and Programs
Keynote Presentation
Air Pollution in Asia
• Air pollution has been worsening in urban areas• PM is the most significant pollutant• Other criteria pollutants include CO,VOCs, NOx,
SO2, Pb,
• ,Impact on human health is serious• Major sources: transport vehicles, power plants,
industries, bio-mass and refuse burning, domestic and commercial fuel combustion, resuspension of road dust .
Air Pollution from Motor Vehicles anAcute Environmental Problem in almost
all Asian Megacities
Bangkok, Beijing, Delhi, Dhaka, Jakarta,Karachi, Kolkota, Manila, Mumbai, Shanghai,Seoul, Tehran, Tianjin
• Problem rapidly spreading to urban centers ofover 5 million population
• Sporadic episodes in cities in vulnerablelocations
Overview of Ambient Air Quality in Selected CitiesSubjective Assessment of Monitoring Data
(1990-1995)Pollutants
Cities CO NO2 Lead SPM SO2 O3
OECD London Los Angeles New York TokyoEast Asia Seoul Beijing Jakarta Bangkok ManilaSouth Asia Karachi Mumbai DelhiLatin America Mexico City Sao Paulo Buenos Aires Rio de Janeiro
Central Asia, Africa & Europe Tehran Cairo Lagos Moscow
Low pollution WHO guidelines are normally met (short-term g/lines may be exceeded occasionally). Moderate to heavy WHO guidelines exceeded by up to a factor of two (short-term pollution guidelines exceeded on a regular basis at certain locations). Serious problem WHO guidelines exceeded by more than a factor of two.
Not available Information on ambient pollutant concentrations not available.
Global Distribution of the Motor VehicleFleet (1994)
(percent)
0
10
20
3040
50
6070
80
OE
CD
E.E
urop
e
LA
C
Afr
ica
Asi
a
CarsBuses and Trucks2-3 Wheelers
Motorization Trends in Asia
• Unabated increase in motorization bringing unprecedentedmobility to Asian societies;
a) China - 11 percent per year over the last 30 years;
b) India - 7 per cent per year for the past 10 years;
• Vehicle ownership per capita in most Asian countries still verylow compared to OECD countries and will continue to grow.
Road Transport Characteristics in Asian Countries
• Concentration of motor vehicles in major metropolitan regions with inadequate andinefficient infrastructure ;
• Aging and poorly-maintained diesel engine vehicles run on fuel with a higher sulfurcontent; these are a principal source of respirable PM, smoke and SO2 emissions inurban areas;
• Motorcycles and other motorized 2-3 wheelers, mostly with 2-stroke engines,constitute a major part of the vehicle fleet in Asian countries; these are a majorsource of HC, smoke and particulate emissions containing unburnt lubricant oilaerosols;
• Higher average age of the vehicle fleet and low scrappage rates in some countries(Bangladesh, Philippines,Vietnam); rapid motorization and fleet turnover in others(China, Korea,Thailand).
• Poor fuel quality, particularly the high lead and /or aromatic content of gasoline andthe high sulfur content of diesel; adulteration of diesel and gasoline with other fuels--kerosene and fuel oil– because of price differentials or imbalance in domesticrefinery outputs;
• Insufficient urban road space, heterogeneous traffic composition and ineffectivetraffic management, poor public /mass transportation services and inadequateinvestment in transport infrastructure.
Comparison of Vehicle Composition inEight Asian Cities
Commercialized Motorcycles Truck/Bus/Auto
Motorcycle Commercial NMVs
Bicycle/Tricycle
Composition (%)
Hanoi Phnom Penh Manila Chiang MaiKanpur Dhaka George Town Surabaya
0
20
40
60
80
100
Why Inspection and Maintenance ?
• Vehicle Roadworthiness and Safety• Control of Noise and Pollutant Emissions
Vehicle safety standards are necessary to ensure unsafe vehiclesare not manufactured locally or imported from abroad, and todevelop a safety culture among vehicle operators, owners, andusers. Standards must be backed by regular safety inspectionincluding roadside checks. The end result is a reduction in thecontribution of vehicle defects to road accidents.
Vehicle Safety Inspection
Items typically inspected:• Braking system• Steering• Tires• lights
Objective of I/M Programs: To ensure that benefits of emissioncontrol technologies are not lost through poor maintenance andtampering with emission controls.
Two Main Purposes:• Help identify vehicles with high emissions caused by
maladjustments or other mechanical problems• Discourage tampering with emission control equipment so that
emission controls remain effective over useful life of the vehicle.
Vehicle Emissions Inspection
Note: A small malfunctioning fraction of the fleet contributes asubstantial portion of overall vehicular emissions. Typicallyless than 10% of the fleet contributes more than 50% ofemissions for any given pollutant. Thus targeting of gross(high) emitters in emission control programs can yield majoremission reductions.
Significant Milestone in Evolution ofUS Motor Vehicle Emissions Control Technologies
Crankcase Emissions Control• Positive Crankcase Ventilation (PCV) to eliminate blow-by
emissions (1964 to current)
Engine Emissions Controls• Engine Adjustments (1968 to 1974)
• Oxidizing Catalysts (1975 to 1980)
• Closed Loop Three-Way Catalysts (1981 to current)
Primary control consisted of modifications to mixture strengthand spark timing.
Lean mixtures and oxidization catalysts were used forhydrocarbons (HC) and carbon monoxide (CO) control. Exhaustgas recirculation (EGR) was used to control nitrogen oxides(NOx).
Precise mixture control and three-way catalyst control of HC,CO and NOx.
Significant Milestone in Evolution ofUS Motor Vehicle Emissions Control Technologies
(Cont.)
Evaporative Emissions Control• Early Trap Test Technology (1971 to 1977)
• Early sealed housing for evaporative determination (SHED) TestTechnology (1978 to 1995)
• Enhanced Evaporative Emissions Controls (1996 to 2003)
Tank and carburetor bowl were vented to a small carboncanister
Material in the detail seals on the carburetor are claimed forreduced permeation and increased purge.
Three-day diurnals, measuring running losses, high-temperaturehot soaks, and 10-year life required larger canisters and morepermeation control. Refueling controls were added to carsstarting in 1998.
Significant Milestone in Evolution ofUS Motor Vehicle Emissions Control Technologies
(Cont.)
On Board Diagnostic Systems (OBD)
• Pre-regulatory Systems (1981 to 1993)GM and Ford had OBD Systems starting on 1981 models.
• OBD I (1994 to 1995)
• OBD II (1996 and beyond)
Vehicle Emissions TestingExhaust Emissions
• Mass Emission tests– directly measure mass of emitted pollutantswith vehicle driven on a dynamometer (gm/mile). Examples: FTP –City Driving Test; SFTP; IM240; BAR31; IM93/CT93; IM147;VMASS(BAR97 coupled to a transient dynamometer)
• Concentration tests- measure concentration of pollutants in exhaustemissions (% or ppm). Examples: Low/High Idle Test (No load);ASM (loaded mode, steady state); BAR97; BAR84, 90, 94 (only idletests); Remote Sensing
Test Conditions for Measuring Exhaust Emissions• Steady State – one stable operating condition, constant load on the
engine• Transient – varying operating conditions with different engine
speeds and loads, transitory in nature
Vehicle Emissions Testing
Evaporative Emissions
• Gas-cap check• Fuel-tank Vapor System Pressure check/Full pipe test• Purge check
Notes:1. No test prescribed to check for liquid fuel leaks. 2. Emissions Inspection includes visual and functional
inspection of the emission control hardware besides theemission tests.
3.0(g/mile)
3.0(g/mile)
2.5(g/mile)
7.0 (g/mile)
7.0 (g/mile)
3.5 (g/mile)
3.0 (g/mile)
2.0 (g/mile)
2.0 (g/mile)
1.2(g/mile)
7.5 (g/mile)
3.2 (g/mile)
3.2 (g/mile)
2.4 (g/mile)
60.0 (g/mile)30.0 (g/mile)
20.0(g/mile)
100 (g/mile)
80 (g/mile)
80 (g/mile)
60 (g/mile)
Arizona (Enhanced I/M)
Passenger Cars
1981-82
1983-90
1991 and later models
Trucks
1979-83
1984-87
1988-90
1991 and later models
50%
500 (ppm)
400 (ppm)
250 (ppm)
220 (ppm)
220 (ppm)
5.5 (%)
5.0 (%)
2.2 (%)
2.2 (%)
1.2 (%)
Arizona (Basic I/M)
Passenger cars and light trucks
1967-71
1972-74
1975-78
1979
1980 and later models
Diesel-fueled vehicles
n.a. n.a.
2.0(g/mile) n.a.
220 (ppm)
0.8(g/mile)
1.2 (%)
15 (g/mile)
U.S. EPA Basic I/M program
Passenger cars (1981 and later models)
U.S. EPA Enhanced I/M program
All vehicles (1981 and later models)
NOx Smoke OpacityHCCOJurisdiction/vehicle type/model year
In-Service Vehicle Emission Standards for Basic Inspection and MaintenancePrograms, United States
Distribution of FTP Emissions as aFunction of Highest to Lowest Emitters
Types of I/M Programs
• Centralized – High volume test facilities operatedby government or contracted to competitively-selected private operator.
• Decentralized – Emission testing and repairs donein private garages.
• Hybrid – Has elements of both decentralized andcentralized programs. Example: High volume “testonly” stations and low-volume “repair and retest”stations.
Decentralized programs less effective because of fraud andimproper inspection.
Centralized vs. Decentralized I/M
$8.42/veh.(contractor.)
$7.46/veh.(govt.)
$17.70/veh.Cost (US)
HighLowConsumer Satisfaction
Sophisticateddynamometer
Simple garage type analyzerEquipment
20 Staff
$0.35 million/year
100 Staff
$1.2 million/year
Management Cost(Bangkok Case)
Very LowHighPossibilities of Fraud
LowHighImproper Inspections
HighLowSkills/Competence
Few dozens to coupleof 100’s
Few 100’s to over 10,000Staffing
CentralizedDecentralized
According to a 1995 national environmental agency reviewof the I&M program in Country X, falsification of resultswere found in more than 30% of the cases!
Q: Which Was Country X?A: USA! USA! (Source: USEPA, 1995)(Source: USEPA, 1995)
Reason: Inherent conflict of interest if repair facilitychecks its own work!
A Cautionary Example
Cost of I/M ProgramsInspection Costs – Quite variable
Centralized: Expensive to set up:Less Expensive to operateDecentralized: Less expensive to setup: More expensive to operate
Repair Costs – Colorado experienceTwo-speed idle test: US$86/vehicleI/M 240: US$186/vehicle
Travel to/from Inspection Station andQueuing at Station – travel time,vehicle operating cost,waiting time.
Benefits of I/M Programs
• Emissions Reduction: CO-20 to 30%HC- 7 to 10%NOx - negligible (Idle test) - 5-9% (Dynamic test)
• Fuel Economy : 0 to 7%• Reduced Tampering and Misfueling:
HC: 10-fold increase; CO: 20-fold increase.I/M: can reduce tampering and misfueling by 50%
Note: “Emissions reductions attributable to US I/M programs are fromzero to about one half of the predicted reductions.”- US NationalAcademy of Sciences, 2001
Cost Effectiveness of I/M Programs
• United StatesReduction of HC emissions:
Enhanced I/M: $2700/tonDecentralized I/M: $18,000/ton
• Canada (British Columbia)Reduction of PM-10 emissions:
Road Side Smoke Patrol: $17,000/tonCentralized (dynamometer): $64,000/ton
• MexicoToxicity-Weighted Emission Reductions:
Centralized (high-use veh.): $839/tonCentralized (passenger cars): $1720/tonDecentralized (passenger cars): $2056/ton
Key Objectives and Choices in I&M
Choices• Type: Centralized, Decentralized, Hybrid• Ownership: Government vs. Private Sector• Vehicles Targeted: Commercial, Personal; Gross Polluters; Age;
Specific vehicles• Pollutants Targeted: CO, HC, Opacity, NOx, PM• Test Procedure: Idle, Dynamometer, Visual• Monitoring & Reporting: Manual vs. Automated
ObjectivesØ I/M programs should focus primarily on identification, diagnosis,
and repair of the highest emitting vehicles along with verificationof those repairs.
Ø I/M programs should clearly state which pollutants they areseeking to reduce.
In-Use Vehicle Emission ManagementPolicies
Target Implementation1. Maintenance (tune-up, etc.) Subsidy, Clinics
Emission testing + fines
2. Retrofit (CNG, EMV, LPG) Infrastructure Emission testing + fines
3. Higher and Earlier Scrappage Per unit subsidy Age limits
Trade-in subsidyEmission testing + fines
4. Engine replacement Trade-in subsidyEmission testing + fines
Conclusions and Recommendations• Special care required in designing I/M programs in developing countries:
what pollutants to reduce? which vehicles to control?• Possibilities of massive evasion or fraudulent practices exist with I/M
programs, especially the decentralized programs• I/M testing in centralized high-volume test only facilities with primary
focus on gross emitters, backed by effective enforcement (e.g. roadsidechecks).
• Automated reading of emission measurements and computerization ofpass/fail decisions to minimize fraud
• Linkage of vehicle registration with emissions testing to avoid potential forcounterfeiting of vehicle inspection certificates
• Increased role of remote sensing in identifying gross emitters, assessingmotor vehicle emission characteristics, and I/M program effectiveness
• Testing frequency based on use of fleet emissions profiles• Greater reliance on extended warranties and new vehicle compliance
programs to encourage production of vehicles with more robust emissioncontrol systems
• Greater emphasis on public outreach and education to support I/M programs• Inspection facilities operated by small number of private contractors• Government role limited to supervision and oversight of I/M process