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Introduction
Throughthe20thcenturyconcretehasbecomethemostusedbuildingmaterialintheworld.Theusageof
concrete
has
led
to
a
new
architecture
which
exploits
the
isotopic
properties
of
concrete
to
generate
new
shapes.Despitetheconsiderableamountofconcreteusedinarchitecture,theconcreteissurprisinglylittle
visible.Oftenconcreteisonlyusedasthematerialfortheloadbearingstructuresandafterwardshidden
behindotherfacadematerials.
Butconcretehasabigunexploitedpotentialinordertocreatebeautifulshapeswithspectaculartextures
onthesurface.Thispotentialhasbeenexploredthroughanumberofbuildingswhichcanbecharacterized
asconcretearchitecture.Inthiscontextconcretearchitectureisdefinedas:
- Architecturewhereconcreteisusedasadominatingandvisiblematerialand/or- Architecturewhereconcreteisexpressedthroughthegeometry.
Inthefollowing,anumberofprojectscharacterizedasNordicconcretearchitectureispresentedtogether
withadescriptionoftheepochsofthehistoryofconcretearchitecturetowhichtheybelong.
NordicConcreteArchitecture
InScandinavia,conditionsdifferentfromthemostotherplacesintheworldprevail.TheNordicclimate
causessignificantchangingweatherconditionsduringthe4seasons.Thisresultsinsignificantfewerhours
withsun.Addtothisthatthesunstandslowintheskyespeciallyinthewinterseason.Thisconditionhas
hadgreatinfluenceonthearchitecturecombinedwiththeculturaldevelopmentinScandinavia.Thestyle
ofbuildinghasalwaysbeeninspiredoftheneighboursinthesouthbutalwayswithalocalinterpretation
andtheusageoflocalbuildingmaterials.
ConcretehasnotplayedabiggerroleintheNordicarchitecturecomparedtoothercountries.ButspecialabouttheNordicconcretearchitectureisamongotherthingsthedistinguishedusageofconcretewitha
specialfeelingfortheinteractionbetweenthedetailandthewhole.
Fig.7:Concretewallcastagainstroughwoodenboards.Themodernwhitereinforcedconcrete
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TheexhibitioninStockholmin1930wasanimportanteventfortheNordicarchitectureandespeciallyfor
theusageofconcrete.Itmarkedashiftfromtheclassicisminthe1920stothemodernism.IntheNordic
countries
the
modernism
was
called
functionalism
first
of
all
the
architecture
should
be
functional,
and
everythingthatdidnotservethepurposeofthebuildingshouldberemovedandthearchitecturecould
therebybereleasedfromearlierstyles.Thecharacteristicsofthisperiodwerethepureoftenwhite
paintedsurfaces.Thereforethisstylewasalsoreferredtoasthewhitestyle.
Concretewasanintegratedpartofthefunctionalism.Earliertheconcretehadnotbeenpopularamong
architectswhoclaimedthatconcretewasmissingsymbolicvalueandaculturalhistory,butinthisnew
styleconcretebecameveryinteresting.Althoughwhitepaintedconcretewastheaim,alotofthebuildings
wasactuallybuiltinbricksandplasteredwithmortar,andthenwhitepainted.Butthewhitepainted
concretesurfaceswereconsideredthemosthonestexamples.
BesidethegreatSwedisharchitectErikGunnarAsplundwhowasleadingarchitectontheexhibitionin
Stockholm,SvenMarkeliusanotherSwedisharchitectstoodbehindanumberofinterestingworksfrom
theperiod.AmongthesearetheTekniskaHgskolansStudentsHousefrom1930andtheconcerthousein
Helsingborgfrom1932.
Fig.8:SveaplansHighSchoolfrom1936inStockholm,Sweden.Anexampleofabuildingfromthefunctionalism.InDenmark,thearchitectsMogensLassen,VilhelmLauritzenandArneJacobsenweresuccessfulinthenew
style.ArneJacobsensBellavistaandBelevueTheaterismasterpiecesfromthisperiodjustinthespiritof
theidealsofwhite,cubicbuildingswithwhitesurfaces.AndwhereArneJacobsenprobablywasmost
inspiredbytheGermanarchitectWalterGropius,MogensLassenwasmostsuccessfulintranslatingthe
ideasfromLeCorbusierintoaNordicversion.Thiswasevidentthroughanumberofonefamilyhouses.
InNorwayitwasprimarilythearchitectsArneKorsmo,OveBangandKnutKnutsenwhointroducedthe
functionalisminarchitecture.AmongthebuildingsisVillaStenersenfrom1939byArneKorsmoandthe
EkesbergRestaurantbyLarsBackerfrom1929,situatedbeautifullyonahillsidewithagreatviewover
Oslo.
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OveradecadeAlvarAaltowasthemostinternationallyrecognizedarchitectinFinland.Someofhisworks
represented
a
Finnish
version
of
the
functionalism.
Among
these
are
the
Sanatory
in
Paimo
and
the
library
inViipuri.VillaMaireawasconsideredaFinnishcounterparttooneoftheinternationalmasterpiecesinthe
modernism;LeCorbusiersVillaSavoye.VillaMaireaalsomarkedashiftinAaltosarchitecturetowardsa
morelocalandorganicarchitecture.
Thebrutalconcrete
AsacontrasttothepurewhitearchitectureademandforamorehonestarchitecturecameafterSecond
WorldWar.Thisnewarchitecturewascharacterisedbyemphasizedstructuresandrawsurfaces.This
periodwascalledthebrutalismandconcreteplayedaleadingrole.Theconcretewasoftenexposedand
untreatedcastagainstroughwoodenboardswhichresultedinaveryroughtextureintheconcrete
surfacewitharichnessinthedetailsofthesurface.
InDenmark,especiallythearchitectsFriisandMoltkeadoptedthisnewusageofconcreteanddevelopeda
localDanishversionofthebrutalism.AnexamplesofthisisaschoolinEbeltoftinDenmarkwherealmost
everystructureandeverysurfaceisuntreatedconcrete.AlsoHotelLakolkonRmfrom1966isworth
mentioningwhichatthattimewasalmostchokinglybrutalbothoutsideandinsideofthebuilding.
Fig.9:SchoolinEbeltoft,DenmarkbytheDanisharchitectsFriisandMoltkebuiltin1968.AlsoGugKirkefrom1968inAalborgbyIngerandJohannesExnerandthecollegefrom1967inHolbkby
thearchitects
Gerdth
Bornebusch,
Max
Brel
and
Jrgen
Selchau
is
brilliant
examples
of
how
concrete
can
givethearchitecturebothweightanduniformity.Thisisespeciallyachievedbecauseoftheabilityofthe
concretebothtobethebuildingmaterialforthemainstructuresandatthesametimetheaesthetic
surfaces.TheVikingshipmuseuminRoskildebytheDanisharchitectErikChristianSrensenisaverygood
exampletodemonstratethisabilityofconcrete.Hereyoucanseethepowerfulconcretestructureswith
roughanduntreatedsurfaces.
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Fig.10:HighSchoolinHolbk,DenmarkbytheDanisharchitectsGerdthBornebusch,MaxBrelandJrgenSelchaubuiltin1967.InNorway,itwasespeciallythearchitectsKjellLundandNilsSlaattowhodevelopedaNorwegianversion
ofthebrutalism.AmongtherepresentativeworksisSt.Hallvardchurchwithpowerfulstructuresin
concretewithinfillofredbrickworkandtheNorwegianStudentsocietyinOslo.AlsoGratangenChurchby
thearchitectOskarNordervalwheretwotriangularshapedconcreteslabsraisetotheairisamasterpiece
oftheperiod.
InFinland,thedominatingarchitectwhousedtheconcreteroughanduntreatedwasAarnoRuusuvuori.
Especiallythroughseveralchurchesheusedconcreteasthedominatingbuildingmaterialandwitha
distinguisheddetailinginthefacadewheretheverticalpatternsfromthewoodenboardsusedinthe
formworkemphasizedthehorizontalityofthebuildings.ThisisalsoshowninHuutoniemichurchfrom1964
andJrvenpchurchfrom1967.Intheseexamplesconcretehasbeenusedasatotaldominatingmaterial
bothinsideandoutside.
InSwedentherough,untreatedconcretesurfaceswasntusedasoftenasintherestoftheNordic
countries.Anexceptionisthelibraryfrom1967inNorrkpingbythearchitectStenSamuelson.
Organizedconcreteelements
TheindustrialisationreachedtheNordiccountriesinthelate1950sandasasolutiontothealarming
needforhousing,amassproductionofbuildingcomponentwasstartedjustlikeintherestofEurope.
Thiscausedademandforstandardisationofbuildingcomponentswhichcouldbeseeninthearchitecture
thefollowingyears.Thearchitecturebecamerationalandwithoutvariation.
Concreteelementswereakeytothisnewarchitecture.Almostidenticalconcreteelementscouldbeused
forfloors,wallsandroofwithoutfurthertreatment.Furthermore,theycouldbeproducedfastandcheap.
Butwhatseemedlikeaverygoodideainthefirstplaceslowlychangedtowardsmassivecriticismofthe
hugehousingcomplexesandtheconcretewaspointedouttobethevillain.Eventhoughitwasntthe
concretesfault,theconcretewasinalongperiodafterwardsmainlyusedasaconstructionmaterial
coveredwith
other
building
materials.
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Eventhoughthefocuswasonthetrivialhousingcomplexes,theperioddidhavesomeverygoodexamples
ofconcretearchitecturewhereconcreteelementswereusedmoreinterestingly.
TheNorwegianarchitectErlingViksjwassuccessfulinusingconcreteelementsasthedominatingbuilding
materialforseveralworks.AmongtheseisBergenTownHallfrom1974.Hegotapatentonhissocalled
natureconcretewhichwasaproductionmethodwheregravelwasplacedinthemouldandhereafter
exposedusingsandblasting.Amongthemostwellknownworksisagatheringofbuildingshousing
governmentofficesinOslo.
SwedenwasjustliketheotherNordiccountriesdominatedbythemonotonoushousingcomplexes.But
oneofthebrilliantexamplesofinterestingusageofconcreteelementsisBergwaldhalleninStockholmof
thearchitectsErikAhnborgandSuneLindstrmin1979.
InDenmark,thehospitalinHerlevofBornebusch,SelschauandBrelwasabrilliantexampleofpowerful
architecturemadeasanindustrialisedassemblingbuilding.AlsotheRoskildeTownHalloftheDanish
architectKnudMunkisafantasticillustrationofthepossibilitieswithconcreteelements.
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Fig.11:HospitalinHerlev,DenmarkbytheDanisharchitectsGerdthBornebusch,MaxBrelandJrgenSelchaubuiltin1976.Utzonsfloatingconcretestructures
JrnUtzonisprobablytheDanisharchitectwhohashadmostinfluenceonthedevelopmentoftheDanish
concretearchitecture.Hehaschallengedthepotentialofconcreteandcreateduniquearchitecture,and
especiallyhiscreativitywithconcreteelementsisworthmentioning.
ThereareespeciallyfiveofUtzonsworkswhichcanbecharacterisedasactuallyconcretearchitecture.The
firstoneisawatertowerinSvanekeinDenmark.Here,apyramidshapedwatertankisliftedupbythree
slopingconcretelegswhichmakethestructurethinbutyetpowerful.
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Fig.12:WatertowerinSvanke,DenmarkbytheDanisharchitectJrnUtzon.Builtin1952.ThenextoneTheOperaHouseinSydneybecameUtzonsmainworkandprobablythemostfamous
buildinginmodernhistoryofarchitecture.EventhoughtheSydneyOperaHousewasbuiltalongwayfrom
Scandinavia,someoftheinspirationconcerningthesituationplanwasgatheredfromthecastleKronborg
inDenmark.Concerningtheconcrete,especiallytheexpressiveshellsisamasterpieceonitsown.Inside
theyareshapedlikeanorganicribstructurewithuntreatedconcretesurfaces.
IftheSydneyOperaHousewashisInternationalmasterpiece,BagsvrdChurchwashismasterpiecein
Denmark.Againtheroofstructureinconcreteshowssomeofthepossibilitiestoshowtheplasticityofthe
concrete.InthisbuildingthelightisveryimportantbrokendowntothecharacteristicsoftNordiclight.
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Fig.13:BagsvrdChurchinDenmarkbytheDanisharchitectJrnUtzon.Builtin1976.In1982,theKuwaitNationalAssemblywasbuilt.AsintheSydneyOperaHouseitwasmainlyprefabricated
concreteelementswhichwerejointtogethercreatingthelargeconcretestructures.Especiallythe
monumentalcovercreatingabigwavetowardstheoceanisimpressive.Itisstretchingthepossibilities
withconcrete.
ThePaustianfurniturehousefrom1987isanotherDanishexamplewhereUtzonusestheconcretecolumns
tocreatevaryingspacesinsidethebuildingwiththeinspirationfromtheDanishforests.
Fehnssitestorytellinginconcrete
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TheNorwegianarchitectSverreFehnisprobablythemostrecognizedarchitectinmodernNorwegian
historyofarchitectureandconcretewasoftenapreferredbuildingmaterialinhisworks.
ThefirstprojectchosenhereisaveryNordichousebutplacedinVeniceinItaly!ItwastheNordic
pavillionfortheExpo62.Withtheslimconcretebeamsintwolayersthesunlightisbrokendowntoasoft
indirectlightandtherebycreatinganalmostNordicmodeontheinside.
IntheHedmarksMuseumfrom1969,Fehndemonstrateshowconcreteamodernbuildingmaterialcan
interactincoexistencewitholdstonesfromtheMiddleage.WiththeGlacierMuseuminNorwayfrom
1991heshowshowanimportantpartthesiteandthelandscapeplayinhisarchitecture.Bothinshapeand
thechoiceofmaterialshetellsastoryoftherockstheglaciershasformedandleftbehind andhedoes
thiswithconcrete.
Fehnbuiltanumberofonefamilyhouses.AmongtheseistheVillaBusk.Thehouseisbuiltonasloping
rockgroundandconcretewaschosentocreateastrongbaseandabuildingthatcouldharmonizewiththe
dramaticlandscape.
Largescaleconcretestructures
Concretehassincetheendofthe19thcenturybeenwidelyusedinconnectiontolargescalestructuresin
Scandinavia.Thishasleadtoanumberofimpressivelargescaleconcretestructures,andthedevelopment
canbeseeninanumberofbridgestructureswhereconcretehasbeenusedasthedominatingbuilding
material.
AmongthesearetheSvinesundBridgebythearchitectsLundandSlaattoconnectingNorwayandSweden
overtheSvinesundInlet.AnotherbridgeistheBigBeltBridgeinDenmarkbytheDanisharchitectsDissing
andWeitlingin1998,whichisademonstrationofhowconcretestructuresatthesametimecanbebothpowerfulandelegant.AlsotheresundbridgeconnectingDenmarkandSwedenisimpressivewiththe4
almost200metershighconcretetowersinthemiddleofresundwhichistheculminationontheelegant
structure.
Fig.14:TheBigBeltBridgeinDenmarkfrom1998.Newconcreteideals
Exceptfor
afew
projects
the
concrete
is
not
very
visible
in
the
1980s
aperiod
dominated
by
the
postmodernism.Asarebellionagainstthehistoricalviewinpostmodernismthedeconstructivismarose
characterisedbyafragmentedarchitecture.ThedeconstructivismneverreallygetspopularinNordic
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architectureasinotherpartsofEurope,probablybecauseofatobigcontrastcomparedtotheNordic
traditionwhereuniformityandharmonyisabelovedquality.Neverthelessatleastonesignificant
deconstructive
work
was
built
in
Denmark
Arken,
a
new
museum
for
modern
art
by
the
Danish
architect
SrenRobertLundbuiltinconcrete.
Fig.15:ArkenMuseuminIshj,DenmarkbytheDanisharchitectSrenRobertLund.Builtin1996.Inthe1990sconcretearchitecturemakesprogressagain.Thiswasduetoanumberofnewandyoung
architectswhocouldseesomenewpossibilitieswithconcretenotoppressedbythehistoryofconcrete.
Characteristicfortheusageofconcreteintheyearsuptotodayis,thattheconcreteisoftenused
untreated.Thisresultsinanhonestexpressionwheretheproductionmethodisvisibleintheconcrete
surface.Onemightsaythatitisakindofamodernanddistinguishedversionofthebrutalism.
OneofthenewarchitecturalfirmsistheDanishcompanyEntasis.Withthenewheadentranceforthe
ZoologicalGardeninCopenhagentheyshowedthishonestusageofuntreatedconcrete.Inthehousing
complexEmaljehaven
in
Copenhagen
they
use
concrete
elements
that
are
merged
together
setting
new
standardsintheconstructionwithconcreteelements.
Fig.16:Anexampleofnewbuildingsinconcrete.HindemosehusinOdense,DenmarkbytheDanisharchitectSophusSbyebuiltin2006.AlsothehouseforthehippopotamusesinthezoologicalgardeninCopenhagenbyTheDanisharchitectural
firmDallandLindhardtsenisaverygoodexampleofthenewideals.Amodernanddistinguishedversionof
concretesurfaces
cast
against
rough
wooden
boards.
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InSwedenitisthearchitectGertWingrdwhoisexperimentingwithnewpossibilitieswithconcrete.With
thecontroltowerinArlandaAirportheisexperimentingwithdifferentcoloursoftheconcrete.Andinthe
housing
project
Villann
concrete
is
used
untreated
with
smooth
surfaces.
Other
interesting
experiments
wereperformedbytheSwedisharchitectJohanCelsing.IntheofficeofRiksantikvariembetetfrom2008
heusesconcretefacadescastagainstsiliconemouldswithreliefs.
InFinlandthearchitectsHeikkinenandKomonenstandsforarenewaloftheFinnishconcretearchitecture.
ThisisamongotherprojectsillustratedthroughtheEmergencyServiceCollegefrom2005inKuopio.
Nordicconcretearchitectureinthefuture
Architectureofthefuturefacesmajorchallengesbutalsoanumberofnewpossibilities.Digital3D
modellingtoolsareusedamongarchitecttocreatenewadvancedshapeswhicharecharacterisedbythe
digitalarchitectureofthefuture.Still,ahugegapbetweenwhatcanbeproduceddigitallyandwhatcanbe
producedphysicallyexistsespeciallywheneconomyistakenintoaccount.However,thisisonlyamatter
oftimeinanearfuturethegapwillbesignificantsmaller.
Thetechnologiesarealreadyavailableinordertoproduceadvancedshapedarchitecture.AttheDanish
TechnologicalInstitute,arobothasbeeninstalledatoolthatcanbeusedfordigitalfabrication.Also
throughanumberofresearchanddevelopmentprojects,therobothasbeenusedforresearchinnew
digitalfabricationtechniqueswheretheaimhasbeentodevelopnewformworkforconcrete.
FromthenationalDanishprojectUniqueConcreteStructures,thefinalresultwasapavilioninconcrete
designedusingadvancedoptimizationtoolsandproducedusingrobottechnology.Thestructurehasavery
complexgeometryespeciallyintheorganicribstructure.
Fig.17:Concretepavilionfrom2010madeinconnectiontotheresearchprojectUniqueConcreteStructures.TheformworkwascreatedusingtherobotcellatDanishTechnologicalInstitute.Usingrobottechnologyinthefabricationofconcretestructuresgivessomenewpossibilitiestoproduce
complexgeometriesbutalsopossibilitiestomakenewtexturesandreliefstotheconcrete.Thiscanbe
illustratedby
an
experiment
at
Danish
Technological
Institute
where
10
different
concrete
elements
were
producedusingdifferentformworkmaterialsanddifferentmillingstrategiesontherobot.
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Fig.18:ExperimentsinconcreteusingrobottechnologyatDanishTechnologicalInstitute.AlsoasculpturalconcreteelementdesignedbyEsbenKlemannintegratedinthearchitectureoftheart
museumonBornholmisagoodexampleofthepossibilitieswithconcretesurfaces.
Withtechnologiesfordigitalfabricationlikerobottechnologyanewdigitalarchitecturewillbecommon
inthefutureandthedevelopmentintheNordiccountrieswillbeupfront.Asthetraditionhasshowedus,
thisnewarchitecturewillfinditsowninterpretationintheNordiccountries.
Concreteasanaestheticbuildingmaterialwillmostlikelyhaveanevenbiggerroleinfuturearchitecture
thantoday.Thisfloatingrockisanobviousbuildingmaterialwhenthefuturedigitalarchitectureisbuilt.It
isamaterialbothforthefreelyshapedmainstructuresofabuildingandtheaestheticsurfaces.Addtothis
thesustainabilityduetothelonglifetime.Withthepossibilitiesofdigitalfabrication,thearchitectscanlose
themselvesfurtherintothedetailswhicharesocharacteristicfortheNordicarchitecture.ThustheNordic
concretearchitecturewillmostlikelycontinuetointerpretthenewpossibilitieswithNordicpoetryand
distinguishedsenseforboththewholeandthedetail.