From: Carter R (1998) Mapping the Mind. Seven Dials, London.

EMOTIONSPRIMARY SECONDARY(reflexive) (cognitive)

• fear• anger• happiness• sadness• disgust• surprise

• envy• shame• guilt• et cetera, et cetera,

et cetera

INDICES OF FEARIN ANIMAL MODELS IN GENERALISED ANXIETY

heart rate salivation• stomach ulcers• respiration change• scanning & vigilance startle• urination• defecation• grooming• freezing

• heart pounding• dry mouth• upset stomach respiration• scanning & vigilance• jumpiness, easy startle• frequent urination• diarrhoea• fidgeting• apprehensive expectation

From: www.cns.nyu.edu/home/ledoux

See: LeDoux JE (2002) Emotion, memory & the brain.In: “The Hidden Mind”, Scientific American.

“The subcortical visual pathway may transmit low-frequency images (left) that arouse the amygdala better than high-

frequency ones (right)”

From: Helmuth L (2003) Fear & trembling in the amygdala.

Science 300, 568-569.

From: Dolan RJ (2000)Emotional processing in the

human brain revealed throughfunctional neuroimaging. In:

Gazzaniga MS (Ed) The NewCognitive Neurosciences, 2nd

Edn, MIT Press. Pp 1115-1131.

Blood flow ( neuronal O2

consumption) increases in the right amygdala as

the facial expression becomes more fearful and

decreases as the facial expression becomes

happier.

Paquette V, et al. (2003) “Change the mind & you change

the brain”: effects of cognitive-behavioral therapy on the neural

correlates of spider phobia. NeuroImage 18, 401-409.

DEFICITS OF FEAR CONTROL

• Anxiety (social, generalized, situational)

• Phobias (e.g. dogs, air travel)

• Post-traumatic stress disorder

• Panic disorder

http://www.iac-usnc.org/Lectures/Symposium1/index.html

Patients with lesions that include the amygdala show:

• Deficits in fear conditioning

• Deficits in the perception of fear in facial expressions & voices