Frameworks for studies of information behaviour and use

Dr Diane Rasmussen PenningtonLecturer in Information ScienceUniversity of Strathclyde12 April 2016

Information Science Scotland: Advanced training for PhD students 

Agenda

• Some core definitions and explanations• Some examples of theories and models

and how they can be integrated into LIS empirical research

• Explorations into how to create a conceptual framework and all its parts

• Practice with developing and discussing your conceptual framework

Questions for you

• What are you studying? • Why are you studying it? • Who cares, and why do they care?

What is a “framework”?

http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/framework

What is a “conceptual framework”? (Ravitch & Riggan, 2017)

• It depends on who you ask!– A graphic communicating the study’s

organisation or theoretical bases– Conceptual frameworks and theoretical

frameworks (we’ll come back to these later) are the same thing

– A linking up of the entire research process (researchers’ interests, context, theory, methods, analysis, etc.)

• Some precise definitions follow

What is a “conceptual framework? (Ravitch & Riggan, 2017, p. 5)

“[A]n argument about why the topic one wishes to study matters, and why the means

proposed to study it are appropriate and rigorous.”

What is an “argument”? (Ravitch & Riggan, 2017, p. 5)

“[A] conceptual framework is a series of sequenced, logical positions the purpose of which is to ground the study and convince readers of the study’s importance and rigor. Arguments for why a study ‘matters’ vary greatly in scale, depending on

the audience.”

What is “appropriate and rigorous”? (Ravitch & Riggan, 2017, p. 5)

“A conceptual framework should argue convincingly that:

a) the research questions are an outgrowth of the argument for relevance;

b) the research design maps onto the study goals, questions, and context(s);

c) the data to be collected provide the researcher with the raw material needed to explore the research questions; and

d) the analytic approach allows the researcher(s) to effectively address (if not always answer) those questions.”

Elements of a conceptual framework (Ravitch & Riggan, 2017, p. 9)

Conceptual frameworks(Ravitch & Riggan, 2017, p. 12)

• Integrate many things: – literature reviews

• theoretical frameworks• topical research

– personal interests, goals, and experiences– social standing and position to the research

• Can and should evolve throughout the course of your research based on what you learn from your data and your process

• Guide every stage of the research, from finding a problem to writing up

Other views on the “conceptual framework”

“A conceptual framework explains, either graphically or in narrative form, the main

things to be studied – the key factors, variables, or constructs – and the presumed relationships among them. Frameworks can be simple or elaborate, commonsensical or

theory driven, descriptive or casual.” (Miles, Huberman, & Saldaña, 2014, p. 20, as cited in Ravitch & Riggan, 2017, p. 6)

Other views on the “conceptual framework”

“[The] conceptual framework for your research is something that is constructed, not found. It incorporates pieces that are borrowed from

elsewhere, but the structure, the overall coherence, is something that you build, not

something that exists ready-made”(Maxwell, 2013, p. 41, as cited in Ravitch & Riggan, 2017, p. 7)• Combines researcher’s experience and

previously existing theory/research

Other views on the “conceptual framework”

• Gives us evidence that the study can potentially advance practice or policy by connecting to existing ones

• The conceptual framework reflects “the important intellectual traditions that guide the study”

• “[I]dentifies gaps in what is known – by critiquing previous research, by extending existing theory, or by pointing to practices and policies that are not working”

(Marshall & Rossman, 2011, p. 58, as cited in Ravitch & Riggan, 2017, p. 7)

What is a “literature review”?

• Finding out what has been written about a topic• Learning what methods have been used to study the topic• Thinking about how the existing literature connects to each other and to

your work• Reading and synthesising critically• The written version should not be a “book report”

– e.g. “Pennington said this. Hall said this. Tait said this…”• It should not only include work that supports your own views on the topic• It should evolve with your research• Guidance for your conceptual framework; should include both topical

research and theoretical frameworks (theories)

• For help with your literature review, read:Jesson, J. K., Matheson, L., & Lacey, F. M. (2011). Doing your literature review: Traditional and systematic techniques. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

What is “theory”?

• Again, it depends on who you ask• Attempts to explain a phenomenon by

examining relationships between things• Could include formal relationships, an idea

of a researcher, beliefs about how to study something, etc. (Ravitch & Riggan, 2017)

• “Critical” theory: the stance that social structures (race, gender, etc.) influence our understandings of social phenomena

What is a “theoretical framework”?

• “a considerably more focused, refined, and bounded integration of formal theory and topical research more broadly” (Ravitch & Riggan, 2017, p. 12)

• Comprised of formal theories found or created by the researcher that support the conceptual framework

What is a “theoretical framework”? (Anfara, 2008)

• “Any empirical or quasi-empirical theory of social and/or psychological processes … that can be applied to the understanding of phenomena”

• Incorrect notions abound that qualitative research is not guided by theory

• Qualitative research can also “discover” theory through grounded theory studies

What is a “theoretical framework”? (Anfara, 2008)

• The effects of a TF on research:– To focus a study (sort data, write RQs, control

bias, give structure to coding)– Reveal/conceal meaning and understanding– Situate research in the theory’s language– Reveal strengths and weaknesses; don’t force the

data to “fit” a certain theory• “The question remains, ‘Is it possible to

observe and describe what happens in natural settings without some theory to assist in naming what is happening?’”

Metatheories, theories, & models in LIS (Bates, 2005)

• Metatheory: theory concerned with theory, sometimes also called a paradigm

• Metatheories in LIS include:– Historical– Constructivist– Constructionist or discourse-analytic– Philosophical-analytic– Critical theory– Ethnographic– Socio-cognitive– Cognitive– Bibliometric– Physical– Engineering– User-centered design– Evolutionary

Metatheories, theories, & models in LIS (Bates, 2005)

• Theory: “the idea of a developed understanding, an explanation, for some phenomenon” (p. 2)– LIS doesn’t have many theories of its own– 72 listed in Theories of Information Behavior

• Model: “a tentative proposed set of relationships, which can then be tested for validity” (p. 3) – Principle of Least Effort: “people invest little in

seeking information, preferring easy-to-use, accessible sources to sources of known high quality that are easy to use and/or less accessible (p. 4)

Example: Theory of Information Poverty

(Chatman, 1996, pp. 197-198)1. People who are defined as information poor perceive themselves to be devoid of any sources that might help them. 2. Information poverty is partially associated with class distinction. That is, the condition of information poverty is influenced by outsiders who withhold privileged access to information.3. Information poverty is determined by self-protective behaviors which are used in response to social norms.

Example: Theory of Information Poverty

(Chatman, 1996, pp. 197-198)4. Both secrecy and deception are self-protecting mechanisms due to a sense of mistrust regarding the interest or ability of others to provide useful information. 5. A decision to risk exposure about our true problems is often not taken due to a perception that negative consequences outweigh benefits. 6. New knowledge will be selectively introduced into the information world of poor people. A condition that influences this process is the relevance of that information in response to everyday problems and concerns.

“This study explores the use of online newsgroups and discussion groups by people in situations of information poverty ... Our work contributes to the study of both information seeking within the context of information poverty and the use of Internet groups as sources of information and support, bridging the two by exploring the manifestation of information poverty in this particular online setting.”

Theory of Information Poverty applied to a study of information seeking and use (Hasler, Ruthven, & Buchanan, 2014, p. 25)

• Cognitive authority: the extent to which users think they can trust the information they find; is it useful? Accurate? Current? (Wilson, 1983)

• Affective authority: the extent to which users think the information is subjectively appropriate, empathetic, emotionally supportive, and/or aesthetically pleasing (Neal & McKenzie, 2010)

• Original theory from LIS

Wilson’s cognitive authority, extended into Neal and McKenzie’s affective authority

• Basic Level Theory (Rosch et al, 1976)

Combining multiple models and theories to create and test a new model

Pyramid model (Jörgensen et al., 2001) – A “conceptual framework” from electrical engineering and LIS

Combining multiple models and theories to create and test a new model

Nine classes of image content (Burford, Briggs, & Eakins, 2003) – from LIS

Combining multiple models and theories to create and test a new model

Most popular tags of all time on Flickr (2008)

Combining multiple models and theories to create and test a new model

http://web.archive.org/web/20080325030216/http://www.flickr.com/photos/tags/

Our resulting model: Hierarchy for Online Photograph Representation (HOPR) (Lee & Neal, 2010)I. Abstract scene

A. EmotionB. OpinionC. TransferenceD. Talk bubblesE. Assumption

II. Abstract objectIII. Specific scene(etc. – entire model can be viewed in the paper)

Combining multiple models and theories to create and test a new model

Critical theory in LIS(Leckie & Buschman, 2010)

• When LIS researchers use theory from other fields, it’s not always based on a good understanding of its origins

• Greater use of critical theory in LIS:– Will help us understand scholarly trends– Examine information services/seeking/use more

critically (the power of Google!)– Is appropriate because we are a social field

• 23 critical theorists’ work applied to LIS in Critical theory for library and information science

• Denotation: a simple description of what the sign is picturing; easy to decode

• Anchorage: the text that accompanies the image and may clarify the denotation for viewers (called a relay-function)

• Connotation: more abstract levels of meaning in the image; requires cultural knowledge

Example of critical theory in LIS: Barthes’ semiology (Barthes, 1967)

• What is the denotation of the image, the relay-function, and the connotation of the image?

Barthes’ semiology applied to image representation (Rasmussen Pennington, in press)

How to create a conceptual framework: Questions to consider first

• “What do I want to study?• Who cares?• What literature do I want to include, and when have I read

enough?• How do I know what kind of data to collect and how to

analyse them?• How does my own position and way of seeing the world

shape the framing and execution of my research? • How do I deal with surprises in the data or unexpected

developments in the field?”

(Ravitch & Riggan, 2017, pp. 18-19)

How to create a conceptual framework(Ravitch & Riggan, 2017)

• “Reflexive engagement”• Starting questions: why you are studying this, what your

audience knows, influence of others, influence of theories • Continuously self-examine and reflect on everything in

every stage of the process• Concept maps: visual or narrative display of a theory or a

conceptual framework• Research memos: structured reflection• Research journal: unstructured, but reflective and critical• Reflective writing video: https://

www.youtube.com/watch?v=QoI67VeE3ds

How do you find a theoretical framework? (Anfara, 2008; Anfara & Mertz, 2015)

• Usually you must actively search for one• Look at top journals that require explicitly

stated TF sections in their articles• Ask your supervisors • Stay open to multiple perspectives• May change during your study• Look at other disciplines’ theories

In conclusion…

• “Working with conceptual frameworks and empirical research has never been an easy task” (Chatman, 1996, p. 205).

• “[T]he conceptual framework– organizes and informs research;– ensures a close alignment between topic,

questions, and methods;– and provides a mechanism for integrating and

new data, findings, questions, and literature as a study evolves” (Ravitch & Riggan, 2017, p. 193)

Your turn – time to practice!

• Think about and write down:– What your framework is right now for your

dissertation research– What you think you need to do next to

continue developing your framework• Then share your thoughts in groups of 3-4• We’ll discuss together at the end

Anfara, V. A. (2008). Theoretical frameworks. In L. M. Given (Ed.), The Sage encyclopedia of qualitative research methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Anfara, V. A., & Mertz, N.T. (2015). Setting the stage. In V. A. Anfara & N. T. Mertz (Eds.), Theoretical frameworks in qualitative research (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Bates, M. J. (2005). An introduction to metatheories, theories, and models. In K. E. Fisher, S. Erdelez, & L. E. F. McKechnie (Eds.), Theories of information behavior. Medford, NJ: Information Today.

Barthes, R. (1967). Elements of semiology (A. Lavers & C. Smith, Trans.). New York, NY: Hill and Wang.

Burford, B., Briggs, P., & Eakins, J. P. (2003). A taxonomy of the image: On the classification of content for image retrieval. Visual Communication, 2(2),123-161.

Chatman, E. A. (1996). The impoverished life-world of outsiders. Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 47(3), 193-206.

Hasler, L., Ruthven, I., & Buchanan, S. (2014). Using internet groups in situations of information poverty: Topics and information needs. Journal of the Association for Information Science and Technology, 65(1), 25-36.

References

Jörgensen, C., Jaimes, A., Benitez, A. B., & Chang. (2001). A conceptual frameworkand empirical research for classifying visual descriptors. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 52(11), 938-947.

Leckie, G., & Buschman, J. (2010). Introduction: The necessity for theoretically informed critique in library and information science (LIS). In G. J. Leckie, L. M. Given, & J. E. Buschman (Eds.), Critical theory for library and information science. Santa Barbara, CA: Libraries Unlimited.

Lee, H-J, & Neal, D. (2010). A new model for semantic photograph description. Journal of Information Science, 36(5), 547-565.

Neal, D., & McKenzie, P. (2011). Putting the pieces together: Endometriosis blogs, cognitive authority, and collaborative information behavior. Journal of the Medical Library Association, 99(2), 127-134.

Rasmussen Pennington, D. (in press). Coding of non-text data. In A. Quan-Haase & L. Sloan (Eds.), The Sage handbook of social media research methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Ravitch, S. M., & Riggan, M. (2017). Reason & rigor: How conceptual frameworks guide research (2nd ed.) Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Wilson, P. (1983). Second hand knowledge: An inquiry into cognitive authority. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.

References

Dr Diane Rasmussen Penningtondiane.pennington@strath.ac.uk@infogamerist

Thank you!