Gwinyai E. Chibisa, Ph.D.

FORAGES

http://craig-stephen.photoshelter.com/image/I0000yWGWHAEnwSI

What is Forage?

Characteristics

i. Bulky

Implications on animal nutrition?

ii. High fiber

Is fiber important?

iii. Lower digestibility than grains

High quality (60 – 68%) E.g., ?

Medium quality (53 – 59%) E.g., ?

Low quality (<53%) E.g., ?

What is Forage Quality?

?

Forage Quality is “Milk in the Bucket”

Ball et al, 2001. American Farm Bureau Federation Publication 1-01

Forage Quality is “Calves on the Ground”

Ball et al, 2001. American Farm Bureau Federation Publication 1-01

Forage Quality is “Pounds on The Scale”

Ball et al, 2001. American Farm Bureau Federation Publication 1-01

Forage Quality

Factors that affect animal responses?

i.

ii.

iii.

iv.

v.

Forage Quality (cont.)

Nutrient composition

i. Crude protein

ii. Fiber

NDF (cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin)

ADF (cellulose, lignin)

iii. Other nutrients?

Plant Cell

NDF?

ADF?

Forage Composition

Ball et al, 2001. American Farm Bureau Federation Publication 1-01

Forage Fiber (NDF & ADF)

Dietary NDF and DMI (and pH)

pH

DMI

Zebeli et al., 2012. JDS. 95:1041-1056

Estimating DMI (as % of BW)

DMI (% of BW) = 120 ÷ %NDF

Forage Quality NDF, % DMI, % of BW

Excellent 38 3.16

42 2.86

46 2.61

50 2.40

Poor 54 2.22

ADF and Digestibility

Undersander, 2003. http://www.uwex.edu/ces/forage/

Estimating %Digestible DM

% Digestible DM = 88.9 – (ADF% × 0.779)

ADF, % DDM, %

30 65

35 61

40 58

45 54

50 50

Effects of ADF and NDF on Hay Price

Putnam et al., 2008. Irrigated Alfalfa Management in Mediterranean & Desert Zones

Forage Quality (cont.)

Factors that influence forage quality?

i. Maturity stage

Leaf-to-stem ratio

ii. Species differences

Grasses vs. Legumes

Cool-season vs. Warm-season

iii. Variety differences

iv. Growth conditions

v. Harvesting & Storage conditions

i. Maturity Stage

lignin

Maturity & Nutrient Composition

U.S.-Canadian tables of feed composition, third edition. 1982.

Lignification and Digestibility

Lignin (% of NDF) Jung, 2012. Proceedings: Florida Ruminant Nutrition Symposium

Maturity, Yield & Quality

http://www.gov.mb.ca/agriculture/crops/production/forages/print,annual-crops-an-excellent-way-to-increase-your-feeding-flexibility.html

ii. Grasses vs. Legumes

Grasses Legumes

Crude protein

Cell wall, %

Lignin

Energy

Minerals (E.g., Ca & Mg)

Bloat

ii. Grasses vs. Legumes (cont.)

Ball et al, 2001. American Farm Bureau Federation Publication 1-01

Grasses

Non-leguminous, require less management

Cool vs. warm season

Keyser, 2012. UT Ext. Pub. SP731-A

Cool vs. Warm Season Grasses

Navarrete-Tindall. 2010. Missouri Prairie Journal. 31:20-25

Cool Season Grasses

i. Orchardgrass

ii. Bromegrass

iii. Tall Fescue

iv. Ryegrass

v. Bluegrass

vi. Wheatgrass

vii. Red Canarygrass

viii. Timothy, etc.

Cool Season: Orchardgrass

https://gobotany.newenglandwild.org/species/bromus/inermis/?pile=poaceae

Cool Season: Orchardgrass (cont.)

Shade tolerant perennial

Much of PNW irrigated pasture

Highly productive

Highly palatable

Compatible with alfalfa/clover mixes

Marginal winter hardiness

Cool Season: Smooth brome

https://gobotany.newenglandwild.org/species/bromus/inermis/?pile=poaceae

Cool Season: Smooth brome (cont.)

Shade tolerant, Winter hardy

Highly productive, Slow regrowth

Very palatable

High protein content

Erosion control e.g., ‘Lincoln’

Cool Season: Downy brome

https://gobotany.newenglandwild.org/species/bromus/inermis/?pile=poaceae

Cool Season: Downy brome (cont.)

“Cheatgrass” (Annual weed)

Drought and grazing tolerant

A lot of negatives

Outcompetes most grasses (domination)

Quick decrease in quality (maturity)

Fire prone!

Cool Season: Tall Fescue

http://www.pggwrightsonseeds.com.au/products/grasses/tallfescue/resolute/; http://www.biopix.com/trifid-bur-marigold-bidens-tripartita_photo-.aspx

Cool Season: Tall Fescue (cont.)

Adapted to wide range of soil types

Highly productive

Negatives

Summer slump

Fescue toxicity (endophyte fungus)

Some varieties e.g., Alta (vs. Johnstone, Fawn)

Endophyte fungus

Causes plants to produce ergot alkaloids

Numerous negative effects e.g., vasoconstriction

Ergot alkaloid e.g., Lysergic acid Biogenic amines e.g., Serotonin

Fescue foot, heat stress

Ergot Alkaloids

http://thestockexchangenews.com/vet-talk-ergot-poisoning-in-cattle/; http://blog.nature.org/science/2014/02/03/bison-good-cattle-bad-a-prairie-ecologists-perspective/cows-in-pond/

Cool Season Grasses

Refer to “Improved grasses and legumes for

Idaho” for information on the following:

i. Ryegrass

ii. Bluegrass

iii. Wheatgrass

iv. Red Canarygrass

v. Timothy

Warm Season Grasses

i. Bermudagrass

ii. Bahia

iii. Switchgrass

iv. Bluestem

v. Bluegrass

vi. Indiangrass, etc.

Warm Season Annuals

i. Sorghum

ii. Sudan grass

iii. Sorghum × Sudan hybrids

High alkaline soil tolerant

Drought tolerant

Very productive

Prussic acid & nitrate poisoning?http://www.cattletoday.com/forum/viewtopic.php?f=14&t=99322/

Prussic Acid Poisoning

Plant HCN content influenced by:

Stage of growth, Drought, Frost, etc.

HCN + Hemoglobin Cyanoglobin

(Hydrocyanic acid/Prussic Acid)

(Cyanogenic glucoside)

http://homepage.ruhr-uni-bochum.de/Markus.Piotrowski/Index.html?Research_Nitrilase.html

Nitrate Toxicity

Plant nitrate content influenced by:

Drought & high T˚C, Lack of sunlight, disease etc.

http://www.agweb.com/article/get-to-know-nitrate-toxicity-naa-wyatt-bechtel/

Warm Season Annuals

iv. Small cereals (Barley,

Rye, Wheat, Oats…)

Use with annual legume (e.g.,

Spring pea) for good silage

Aim for grain development

(late milk-early dough)http://www.progenellc.com/images/imagepage/oats/oats.html

Gwinyai E. Chibisa, Ph.D.

FORAGES

http://craig-stephen.photoshelter.com/image/I0000yWGWHAEnwSI

Summary - Grasses

i. Many different species

ii. Good source of nutrients

Mix with legumes

iii. Potential anti-quality factors

E.g., Ergot alkaloids, Prussic acid, etc.

2

Legumes

i. Alfalfa

ii. Birdsfoot Trefoil

iii. Red Clover

iv. White Clover

v. Sainfoin

vi. Annual legumes e.g., beans, peas

3

Legumes (cont.)

Fixation of atmospheric N

Positives Negatives

1. High CP 1. Low fiber, high lignin

2. High Ca and Mg 2. Phytoestrogens

3. High vitamin A 3. Induce bloat

4. High yield

3 to 4 cuttings

4

Alfalfa “Queen of Forages”

http://corlandseeds.ca/Deep%2003.JPG; http://portaldelinterior.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/recomendaciones-para-el-cultivo-de-alfalfa-Fuente-Wikipedia.jpg

5

Alfalfa “Queen of Forages” (cont.)

Highly productive

Idaho = 3.9 tons/acre, 4.3 M tons, $871 M (2014)

Good perennial

5 to 6 year stands

Drought resistant

Very nutritious

6

Structural Components of Alfalfa

Ball et al, 2001. American Farm Bureau Federation Publication 1-01 7

Alfalfa “Queen of Forages” (cont.)

Needs well-drained soils

Winterkill

“Heaving”

Low tolerance to overgrazing

Low NSC relative to soluble CP

Bloat problems

8

Bloat

Accumulation of gasses

“Bloat guard”- Poloxalene

https://quizlet.com/75133666/bovine-gi-rumen-flash-cards/; http://lvspa.org/inc/index.php/more-info/k2-tags/item/74-bloat

Gas

9

Birdsfoot Trefoil

http://www.extension.umn.edu/garden/diagnose/weed/broadleaf/creeping/birdsfoottrefoil.html;

10

Birdsfoot Trefoil (cont.)

Tolerant to adverse soil conditions

Acidic, poor drainage, low native fertility, heavy

Exceptional pasture legume

Withstand grazing

Works well with grass e.g., brome & tall fescue

Does not cause bloat (condensed tannins)

E.g., ‘Empire’, ‘Viking’

11

Red Clover

http://www.donwiss.com/pictures/F-2011-05-22/0073.jpg

12

Red Clover (cont.)

Require well drained soil (pH > 5.5)

Short-lived perennial

Suited for hay or silage

2 or 3 hay crops

Production of phytoestrogens

13

Phytoestrogens

E.g, Isoflavones (Formononetin)

Plant content varies

Genetics

Use of low-phytoestrogen varieties

Environmental conditions

E.g., fertilizer deficiency

14

Phytoestrogens (cont.)

Mimic estradiol

“Clover disease”

Low lambing rates, uterine prolapse, dystocia, death

Temporary or permanent infertility (‘defeminization’)

Estradiol Isoflavone, e.g., Formononetin

15

White Clover

http://www.gardeningknowhow.com/wp-content/uploads/2007/05/white-clover-lawn.jpg

16

White Clover (cont.)

Good pasture legume

Highly palatable, nutritious

Commonly planted with grasses

E.g., ‘Ladino’, ‘New York’ (Idaho-adapted)

Mix with Orchardgrass, Tall Fescue

17

Sainfoin

http://www.wildbeeinternational.com/wbi/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/2013-07-04-14.12.33.jpg

E.g., ‘Shoshone’18

Sainfoin (cont.)

Highly palatable

Highly nutritive

Contain phenolics e.g., condensed tannins

Improve protein utilization

Non-bloating nature

Anthelmintic properties (reduce parasites e.g., nematodes)

Can be incorporated into alfalfa pasture

19

Annual Legumes

E.g., Beans (Faba’s), Peas

Cool-season

Good as silage or for grazing

http://bayoulog.com/2014/10/01/cool-season-wildlife-food-plots/

20

Summary - Legumes

i. High quality forage

Opportunity to mix with grasses

ii. Reduce the cost of N fertilization

iii. Potential issues

Bloat, Phytoestrogens

21

Forage Preservation

http://hdwyn.com/hay_bales_agriculture_summer_hd-wallpaper-4733/

22

Forage Preservation

Why do we preserve forages?

i. ?

ii. ?

iii. ?

23

Forage Preservation (cont.)

What are the common preservation methods?

i. ?

ii. ?

iii. ?

24

Forage Preservation (cont.)

What are the factors to consider?

i. ?

ii. ?

iii. ?

25

Forage Preservation (cont.)

Is forage preservation a perfect process?

26

Dry Matter Loss

Losses due to:

i. Plant metabolism

ii. Microbial metabolism

iii. Physical processes

27

1. Hay

What is hay?

28

Haymaking

Objectives

i. Produce a high yielding, high quality crop

ii. Rapid curing

iii. Minimize leaf loss

iv. Minimize cell respiration

v. Avoid leaching losses & molding

vi. Maintain quality in storage

29

Gwinyai E. Chibisa, Ph.D.

FORAGES

http://craig-stephen.photoshelter.com/image/I0000yWGWHAEnwSI

Haymaking

Objectives

i. Produce a high yielding, high quality crop

ii. Rapid curing

iii. Minimize leaf loss

iv. Minimize cell respiration

v. Avoid leaching losses & molding

vi. Maintain quality in storage

Haymaking

Phases

Harvesting/Cutting

Curing

Raking

Baling

Storage

Harvesting

http://www.deere.co.za/en_ZA/products/equipment/hay_and_forage_equipment/mower_conditioners/mower_conditioners.page?

When to Harvest?

Impact of plant maturity on DMI & digestibility

Ball et al, 2001. American Farm Bureau Federation Publication 1-01

When to Harvest?

Forage Species Time of Harvest

Alfalfa Bud stage (1st cutting); 1/10 bloom for 2nd and later cuts

Orchardgrass, Tall Fescue Boot to early head (1st cut);every 4-6 weeks after

Red Clover Early to ½ bloom.

Barley, Oats, Rye, Wheat Boot to early head stage.

Sudan-sorghum hybrids Early boot stage.

Weather conditions?

Curing

What is the objective of curing?

?

Curing (cont.)

Factors that affect the duration of curing

Initial DM%

Environmental

i. Temperature

ii. Humidity

iii. Wind speed

iv. Solar radiation

Conditioning

How Does Rain Affect Hay Quality

i. ?

ii. ?

iii. ?

iv. ?

v. ?

vi. ?

“Make Hay While The Sun Shines”

Ball et al, 2001. American Farm Bureau Federation Publication 1-01

What Would You Do?

If forage is ready to harvest for hay,

but rain is in the forecast?

Curing (cont.)

Factors that affect the duration of curing

Initial moisture %

Environmental

i. Temperature

ii. Humidity

iii. Wind speed

iv. Solar radiation

Conditioning

Conditioning

What is conditioning?

Mechanical Conditioning

Conditioners bruise, lacerate, crush or crimp

plant to reduce differential drying of leaves vs.

stems

https://www.poettinger.at/img/landtechnik/scheibenmaeher/rc_aufbereiter_th.jpg

Chemical Conditioning

Desiccants/drying

agents

E.g.,

K2CO3,

NaCO3

http://extension.psu.edu/plants/crops/forages/hay-and-silage/harvest-management/chemical-conditioners-for-hay

Reducing Drying Time

http://www.farmingmagazine.com/dairy/forages/haymaking-101-mowing-tedding-and-raking/

Tedding

Reducing Drying Time

http://www.schinckelhayrakes.com.au/schinckel_inline_rakes.htm

Raking

Baling

https://www.deere.com/en_US/products/equipment/hay_and_forage_equipment/balers/9_series_round_balers/9_series_round_balers.page

Has to be done at the correct moisture

______% moisture?

Consequences of baling when too wet or dry?

DM Losses During Haymaking

Ball et al, 2001. American Farm Bureau Federation Publication 1-01

DM Losses During Haymaking (cont.)

Process % DM

Respiration 2 - 16

Conditioning (crimper) 1 - 4

Raking at 40-50% moisture 2 - 5

Raking at 10-15% moisture 25 - 30

Baling (rectangular) 2 - 5

Baling (large, round) 15 - 40

Baling When Too Wet

Growth of spoilage microbes (aerobic)

Spoilage bacteria, e.g., bacilli

Yeasts, molds, fungi

Hay (plant sugars, protein) + O2 CO2 + H2O + Heat

Effect of Feeding Moldy Hay in Cattle

Parameter Good Hay Moldy Hay

Hay intake, kg 7.1 6.5

Rumen fermentation characteristics

Total VFA, µ mol/mL 88.0 72.5

Rumen ammonia, mg/dL 23.4 15.5

Digestibility, %

DM 63.7 53.5

CP 76.9 53

Performance

Average daily gain, kg/d 0.73 0.61

Feed:Gain 12.0 13.4Mohanty et al. (25)

Hay Preservatives

Hay preservatives

Reduce losses due to molds & heating

Reduce drying times (can bale at higher T˚C)

Roberts, 2005. https://www.agry.purdue.edu/forageday/2005/article/management%20of%20preservatives-2005_Version3.pdf

Hay Preservatives (cont.)

Preservative Mode of Action

ApplicationMethod

Moisture Content of Hay

Pros & Cons

Weak acid e.g., Propionic acid

Controls mold & bacterialgrowth by altering pH

Liquid-added before baling

Up to 30% Can be stored Corrosive

Buffered acid e.g., Ammonium propionate

Controls mold & bacterial growth

Liquid-added before baling

Up to 30% Not ascorrosive

Not as effective

Bacterialinoculants

Compete with other microbes in hay

Liquid-added before baling

Up to 23% Cannot be stored

Designed for silage prodn

Hay Storage

Recommended % moisture for safe storage

Bale type % Moisture

Small rectangular bales 16 - 18

Round bales (soft center) 14 - 16

Round bales (hard center) 13 - 15

Large rectangular bales 12 - 14

Export hay < 12

Hay Storage (cont.)

Protect from the elements

http://hallhall.com/blog/haying-with-the-buffalo-on-colorado-ranches/, http://rurification.blogspot.ca/2012_12_01_archive.html

Hay Storage and Forage Quality

Ball et al, 2001. American Farm Bureau Federation Publication 1-01

USDA Hay Market Prices – Feb 16, 2016

http://hayandforage.com/article-521-USDA-Hay-Market-Prices-–-February-16-2016.html

USDA Hay Market Prices – Feb 16, 2016

http://hayandforage.com/article-521-USDA-Hay-Market-Prices-–-February-16-2016.html

USDA Hay Market Prices – Feb 16, 2016

http://hayandforage.com/article-521-USDA-Hay-Market-Prices-–-February-16-2016.html

USDA Hay Market Prices – Feb 16, 2016

http://hayandforage.com/article-521-USDA-Hay-Market-Prices-–-February-16-2016.html

Relative Feed Value (RFV)

Widely used index to market hay

RFV = % Digestible DM × DM intake (% of BW)

1.29

Total Digestible Nutrients (TDN)

Index that estimates energy supply

Earlier equations based on ADF;

TDNLegumes and grasses = 88.9 – (0.79 × ADF%)

NRC, 2001

TDN = dNFC + dCP + (dFA × 2.25) + dNDF – 7

Relative Feed Quality (RFQ)

Another forage quality measure

RFQ = TDN × DM intake (% of BW)

1.23

Summary

?

?

?

?