FORAGES - University of Idaho Materials/Forage (Dr Chibisa... · Forage Quality (cont.) Factors...
Transcript of FORAGES - University of Idaho Materials/Forage (Dr Chibisa... · Forage Quality (cont.) Factors...
Gwinyai E. Chibisa, Ph.D.
FORAGES
http://craig-stephen.photoshelter.com/image/I0000yWGWHAEnwSI
What is Forage?
Characteristics
i. Bulky
Implications on animal nutrition?
ii. High fiber
Is fiber important?
iii. Lower digestibility than grains
High quality (60 – 68%) E.g., ?
Medium quality (53 – 59%) E.g., ?
Low quality (<53%) E.g., ?
What is Forage Quality?
?
Forage Quality is “Milk in the Bucket”
Ball et al, 2001. American Farm Bureau Federation Publication 1-01
Forage Quality is “Calves on the Ground”
Ball et al, 2001. American Farm Bureau Federation Publication 1-01
Forage Quality is “Pounds on The Scale”
Ball et al, 2001. American Farm Bureau Federation Publication 1-01
Forage Quality
Factors that affect animal responses?
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
Forage Quality (cont.)
Nutrient composition
i. Crude protein
ii. Fiber
NDF (cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin)
ADF (cellulose, lignin)
iii. Other nutrients?
Plant Cell
NDF?
ADF?
Forage Composition
Ball et al, 2001. American Farm Bureau Federation Publication 1-01
Forage Fiber (NDF & ADF)
Dietary NDF and DMI (and pH)
pH
DMI
Zebeli et al., 2012. JDS. 95:1041-1056
Estimating DMI (as % of BW)
DMI (% of BW) = 120 ÷ %NDF
Forage Quality NDF, % DMI, % of BW
Excellent 38 3.16
42 2.86
46 2.61
50 2.40
Poor 54 2.22
ADF and Digestibility
Undersander, 2003. http://www.uwex.edu/ces/forage/
Estimating %Digestible DM
% Digestible DM = 88.9 – (ADF% × 0.779)
ADF, % DDM, %
30 65
35 61
40 58
45 54
50 50
Effects of ADF and NDF on Hay Price
Putnam et al., 2008. Irrigated Alfalfa Management in Mediterranean & Desert Zones
Forage Quality (cont.)
Factors that influence forage quality?
i. Maturity stage
Leaf-to-stem ratio
ii. Species differences
Grasses vs. Legumes
Cool-season vs. Warm-season
iii. Variety differences
iv. Growth conditions
v. Harvesting & Storage conditions
i. Maturity Stage
lignin
Maturity & Nutrient Composition
U.S.-Canadian tables of feed composition, third edition. 1982.
Lignification and Digestibility
Lignin (% of NDF) Jung, 2012. Proceedings: Florida Ruminant Nutrition Symposium
Maturity, Yield & Quality
http://www.gov.mb.ca/agriculture/crops/production/forages/print,annual-crops-an-excellent-way-to-increase-your-feeding-flexibility.html
ii. Grasses vs. Legumes
Grasses Legumes
Crude protein
Cell wall, %
Lignin
Energy
Minerals (E.g., Ca & Mg)
Bloat
ii. Grasses vs. Legumes (cont.)
Ball et al, 2001. American Farm Bureau Federation Publication 1-01
Grasses
Non-leguminous, require less management
Cool vs. warm season
Keyser, 2012. UT Ext. Pub. SP731-A
Cool vs. Warm Season Grasses
Navarrete-Tindall. 2010. Missouri Prairie Journal. 31:20-25
Cool Season Grasses
i. Orchardgrass
ii. Bromegrass
iii. Tall Fescue
iv. Ryegrass
v. Bluegrass
vi. Wheatgrass
vii. Red Canarygrass
viii. Timothy, etc.
Cool Season: Orchardgrass
https://gobotany.newenglandwild.org/species/bromus/inermis/?pile=poaceae
Cool Season: Orchardgrass (cont.)
Shade tolerant perennial
Much of PNW irrigated pasture
Highly productive
Highly palatable
Compatible with alfalfa/clover mixes
Marginal winter hardiness
Cool Season: Smooth brome
https://gobotany.newenglandwild.org/species/bromus/inermis/?pile=poaceae
Cool Season: Smooth brome (cont.)
Shade tolerant, Winter hardy
Highly productive, Slow regrowth
Very palatable
High protein content
Erosion control e.g., ‘Lincoln’
Cool Season: Downy brome
https://gobotany.newenglandwild.org/species/bromus/inermis/?pile=poaceae
Cool Season: Downy brome (cont.)
“Cheatgrass” (Annual weed)
Drought and grazing tolerant
A lot of negatives
Outcompetes most grasses (domination)
Quick decrease in quality (maturity)
Fire prone!
Cool Season: Tall Fescue
http://www.pggwrightsonseeds.com.au/products/grasses/tallfescue/resolute/; http://www.biopix.com/trifid-bur-marigold-bidens-tripartita_photo-.aspx
Cool Season: Tall Fescue (cont.)
Adapted to wide range of soil types
Highly productive
Negatives
Summer slump
Fescue toxicity (endophyte fungus)
Some varieties e.g., Alta (vs. Johnstone, Fawn)
Endophyte fungus
Causes plants to produce ergot alkaloids
Numerous negative effects e.g., vasoconstriction
Ergot alkaloid e.g., Lysergic acid Biogenic amines e.g., Serotonin
Fescue foot, heat stress
Ergot Alkaloids
http://thestockexchangenews.com/vet-talk-ergot-poisoning-in-cattle/; http://blog.nature.org/science/2014/02/03/bison-good-cattle-bad-a-prairie-ecologists-perspective/cows-in-pond/
Cool Season Grasses
Refer to “Improved grasses and legumes for
Idaho” for information on the following:
i. Ryegrass
ii. Bluegrass
iii. Wheatgrass
iv. Red Canarygrass
v. Timothy
Warm Season Grasses
i. Bermudagrass
ii. Bahia
iii. Switchgrass
iv. Bluestem
v. Bluegrass
vi. Indiangrass, etc.
Warm Season Annuals
i. Sorghum
ii. Sudan grass
iii. Sorghum × Sudan hybrids
High alkaline soil tolerant
Drought tolerant
Very productive
Prussic acid & nitrate poisoning?http://www.cattletoday.com/forum/viewtopic.php?f=14&t=99322/
Prussic Acid Poisoning
Plant HCN content influenced by:
Stage of growth, Drought, Frost, etc.
HCN + Hemoglobin Cyanoglobin
(Hydrocyanic acid/Prussic Acid)
(Cyanogenic glucoside)
http://homepage.ruhr-uni-bochum.de/Markus.Piotrowski/Index.html?Research_Nitrilase.html
Nitrate Toxicity
Plant nitrate content influenced by:
Drought & high T˚C, Lack of sunlight, disease etc.
http://www.agweb.com/article/get-to-know-nitrate-toxicity-naa-wyatt-bechtel/
Warm Season Annuals
iv. Small cereals (Barley,
Rye, Wheat, Oats…)
Use with annual legume (e.g.,
Spring pea) for good silage
Aim for grain development
(late milk-early dough)http://www.progenellc.com/images/imagepage/oats/oats.html
Gwinyai E. Chibisa, Ph.D.
FORAGES
http://craig-stephen.photoshelter.com/image/I0000yWGWHAEnwSI
Summary - Grasses
i. Many different species
ii. Good source of nutrients
Mix with legumes
iii. Potential anti-quality factors
E.g., Ergot alkaloids, Prussic acid, etc.
2
Legumes
i. Alfalfa
ii. Birdsfoot Trefoil
iii. Red Clover
iv. White Clover
v. Sainfoin
vi. Annual legumes e.g., beans, peas
3
Legumes (cont.)
Fixation of atmospheric N
Positives Negatives
1. High CP 1. Low fiber, high lignin
2. High Ca and Mg 2. Phytoestrogens
3. High vitamin A 3. Induce bloat
4. High yield
3 to 4 cuttings
4
Alfalfa “Queen of Forages”
http://corlandseeds.ca/Deep%2003.JPG; http://portaldelinterior.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/recomendaciones-para-el-cultivo-de-alfalfa-Fuente-Wikipedia.jpg
5
Alfalfa “Queen of Forages” (cont.)
Highly productive
Idaho = 3.9 tons/acre, 4.3 M tons, $871 M (2014)
Good perennial
5 to 6 year stands
Drought resistant
Very nutritious
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Structural Components of Alfalfa
Ball et al, 2001. American Farm Bureau Federation Publication 1-01 7
Alfalfa “Queen of Forages” (cont.)
Needs well-drained soils
Winterkill
“Heaving”
Low tolerance to overgrazing
Low NSC relative to soluble CP
Bloat problems
8
Bloat
Accumulation of gasses
“Bloat guard”- Poloxalene
https://quizlet.com/75133666/bovine-gi-rumen-flash-cards/; http://lvspa.org/inc/index.php/more-info/k2-tags/item/74-bloat
Gas
9
Birdsfoot Trefoil
http://www.extension.umn.edu/garden/diagnose/weed/broadleaf/creeping/birdsfoottrefoil.html;
10
Birdsfoot Trefoil (cont.)
Tolerant to adverse soil conditions
Acidic, poor drainage, low native fertility, heavy
Exceptional pasture legume
Withstand grazing
Works well with grass e.g., brome & tall fescue
Does not cause bloat (condensed tannins)
E.g., ‘Empire’, ‘Viking’
11
Red Clover
http://www.donwiss.com/pictures/F-2011-05-22/0073.jpg
12
Red Clover (cont.)
Require well drained soil (pH > 5.5)
Short-lived perennial
Suited for hay or silage
2 or 3 hay crops
Production of phytoestrogens
13
Phytoestrogens
E.g, Isoflavones (Formononetin)
Plant content varies
Genetics
Use of low-phytoestrogen varieties
Environmental conditions
E.g., fertilizer deficiency
14
Phytoestrogens (cont.)
Mimic estradiol
“Clover disease”
Low lambing rates, uterine prolapse, dystocia, death
Temporary or permanent infertility (‘defeminization’)
Estradiol Isoflavone, e.g., Formononetin
15
White Clover
http://www.gardeningknowhow.com/wp-content/uploads/2007/05/white-clover-lawn.jpg
16
White Clover (cont.)
Good pasture legume
Highly palatable, nutritious
Commonly planted with grasses
E.g., ‘Ladino’, ‘New York’ (Idaho-adapted)
Mix with Orchardgrass, Tall Fescue
17
Sainfoin
http://www.wildbeeinternational.com/wbi/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/2013-07-04-14.12.33.jpg
E.g., ‘Shoshone’18
Sainfoin (cont.)
Highly palatable
Highly nutritive
Contain phenolics e.g., condensed tannins
Improve protein utilization
Non-bloating nature
Anthelmintic properties (reduce parasites e.g., nematodes)
Can be incorporated into alfalfa pasture
19
Annual Legumes
E.g., Beans (Faba’s), Peas
Cool-season
Good as silage or for grazing
http://bayoulog.com/2014/10/01/cool-season-wildlife-food-plots/
20
Summary - Legumes
i. High quality forage
Opportunity to mix with grasses
ii. Reduce the cost of N fertilization
iii. Potential issues
Bloat, Phytoestrogens
21
Forage Preservation
http://hdwyn.com/hay_bales_agriculture_summer_hd-wallpaper-4733/
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Forage Preservation
Why do we preserve forages?
i. ?
ii. ?
iii. ?
23
Forage Preservation (cont.)
What are the common preservation methods?
i. ?
ii. ?
iii. ?
24
Forage Preservation (cont.)
What are the factors to consider?
i. ?
ii. ?
iii. ?
25
Forage Preservation (cont.)
Is forage preservation a perfect process?
26
Dry Matter Loss
Losses due to:
i. Plant metabolism
ii. Microbial metabolism
iii. Physical processes
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1. Hay
What is hay?
28
Haymaking
Objectives
i. Produce a high yielding, high quality crop
ii. Rapid curing
iii. Minimize leaf loss
iv. Minimize cell respiration
v. Avoid leaching losses & molding
vi. Maintain quality in storage
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Gwinyai E. Chibisa, Ph.D.
FORAGES
http://craig-stephen.photoshelter.com/image/I0000yWGWHAEnwSI
Haymaking
Objectives
i. Produce a high yielding, high quality crop
ii. Rapid curing
iii. Minimize leaf loss
iv. Minimize cell respiration
v. Avoid leaching losses & molding
vi. Maintain quality in storage
Haymaking
Phases
Harvesting/Cutting
Curing
Raking
Baling
Storage
Harvesting
http://www.deere.co.za/en_ZA/products/equipment/hay_and_forage_equipment/mower_conditioners/mower_conditioners.page?
When to Harvest?
Impact of plant maturity on DMI & digestibility
Ball et al, 2001. American Farm Bureau Federation Publication 1-01
When to Harvest?
Forage Species Time of Harvest
Alfalfa Bud stage (1st cutting); 1/10 bloom for 2nd and later cuts
Orchardgrass, Tall Fescue Boot to early head (1st cut);every 4-6 weeks after
Red Clover Early to ½ bloom.
Barley, Oats, Rye, Wheat Boot to early head stage.
Sudan-sorghum hybrids Early boot stage.
Weather conditions?
Curing
What is the objective of curing?
?
Curing (cont.)
Factors that affect the duration of curing
Initial DM%
Environmental
i. Temperature
ii. Humidity
iii. Wind speed
iv. Solar radiation
Conditioning
How Does Rain Affect Hay Quality
i. ?
ii. ?
iii. ?
iv. ?
v. ?
vi. ?
“Make Hay While The Sun Shines”
Ball et al, 2001. American Farm Bureau Federation Publication 1-01
What Would You Do?
If forage is ready to harvest for hay,
but rain is in the forecast?
Curing (cont.)
Factors that affect the duration of curing
Initial moisture %
Environmental
i. Temperature
ii. Humidity
iii. Wind speed
iv. Solar radiation
Conditioning
Conditioning
What is conditioning?
Mechanical Conditioning
Conditioners bruise, lacerate, crush or crimp
plant to reduce differential drying of leaves vs.
stems
https://www.poettinger.at/img/landtechnik/scheibenmaeher/rc_aufbereiter_th.jpg
Chemical Conditioning
Desiccants/drying
agents
E.g.,
K2CO3,
NaCO3
http://extension.psu.edu/plants/crops/forages/hay-and-silage/harvest-management/chemical-conditioners-for-hay
Reducing Drying Time
http://www.farmingmagazine.com/dairy/forages/haymaking-101-mowing-tedding-and-raking/
Tedding
Reducing Drying Time
http://www.schinckelhayrakes.com.au/schinckel_inline_rakes.htm
Raking
Baling
https://www.deere.com/en_US/products/equipment/hay_and_forage_equipment/balers/9_series_round_balers/9_series_round_balers.page
Has to be done at the correct moisture
______% moisture?
Consequences of baling when too wet or dry?
DM Losses During Haymaking
Ball et al, 2001. American Farm Bureau Federation Publication 1-01
DM Losses During Haymaking (cont.)
Process % DM
Respiration 2 - 16
Conditioning (crimper) 1 - 4
Raking at 40-50% moisture 2 - 5
Raking at 10-15% moisture 25 - 30
Baling (rectangular) 2 - 5
Baling (large, round) 15 - 40
Baling When Too Wet
Growth of spoilage microbes (aerobic)
Spoilage bacteria, e.g., bacilli
Yeasts, molds, fungi
Hay (plant sugars, protein) + O2 CO2 + H2O + Heat
Effect of Feeding Moldy Hay in Cattle
Parameter Good Hay Moldy Hay
Hay intake, kg 7.1 6.5
Rumen fermentation characteristics
Total VFA, µ mol/mL 88.0 72.5
Rumen ammonia, mg/dL 23.4 15.5
Digestibility, %
DM 63.7 53.5
CP 76.9 53
Performance
Average daily gain, kg/d 0.73 0.61
Feed:Gain 12.0 13.4Mohanty et al. (25)
Hay Preservatives
Hay preservatives
Reduce losses due to molds & heating
Reduce drying times (can bale at higher T˚C)
Roberts, 2005. https://www.agry.purdue.edu/forageday/2005/article/management%20of%20preservatives-2005_Version3.pdf
Hay Preservatives (cont.)
Preservative Mode of Action
ApplicationMethod
Moisture Content of Hay
Pros & Cons
Weak acid e.g., Propionic acid
Controls mold & bacterialgrowth by altering pH
Liquid-added before baling
Up to 30% Can be stored Corrosive
Buffered acid e.g., Ammonium propionate
Controls mold & bacterial growth
Liquid-added before baling
Up to 30% Not ascorrosive
Not as effective
Bacterialinoculants
Compete with other microbes in hay
Liquid-added before baling
Up to 23% Cannot be stored
Designed for silage prodn
Hay Storage
Recommended % moisture for safe storage
Bale type % Moisture
Small rectangular bales 16 - 18
Round bales (soft center) 14 - 16
Round bales (hard center) 13 - 15
Large rectangular bales 12 - 14
Export hay < 12
Hay Storage (cont.)
Protect from the elements
http://hallhall.com/blog/haying-with-the-buffalo-on-colorado-ranches/, http://rurification.blogspot.ca/2012_12_01_archive.html
Hay Storage and Forage Quality
Ball et al, 2001. American Farm Bureau Federation Publication 1-01
USDA Hay Market Prices – Feb 16, 2016
http://hayandforage.com/article-521-USDA-Hay-Market-Prices-–-February-16-2016.html
USDA Hay Market Prices – Feb 16, 2016
http://hayandforage.com/article-521-USDA-Hay-Market-Prices-–-February-16-2016.html
USDA Hay Market Prices – Feb 16, 2016
http://hayandforage.com/article-521-USDA-Hay-Market-Prices-–-February-16-2016.html
USDA Hay Market Prices – Feb 16, 2016
http://hayandforage.com/article-521-USDA-Hay-Market-Prices-–-February-16-2016.html
Relative Feed Value (RFV)
Widely used index to market hay
RFV = % Digestible DM × DM intake (% of BW)
1.29
Total Digestible Nutrients (TDN)
Index that estimates energy supply
Earlier equations based on ADF;
TDNLegumes and grasses = 88.9 – (0.79 × ADF%)
NRC, 2001
TDN = dNFC + dCP + (dFA × 2.25) + dNDF – 7
Relative Feed Quality (RFQ)
Another forage quality measure
RFQ = TDN × DM intake (% of BW)
1.23
Summary
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