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ACCA Paper F5Performance Management
For exams in 2011
Notes
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Contents
About ExPress Notes 3
1. Specialist Cost & Management AccountingTechniques
7
2. Decision Making Linear Programming 103. Pricing Decisions 124. Make-or-buy and other short-term decisions 165. Risk and Uncertainty in Decision Making 196. Budgeting an Introduction 227. Budgeting and Standard Costing #1 268. Budgeting and Standard Costing #2 329. Performance Measurement & Control 35
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Chapter 1
Specialist Cost & ManagementAccounting Techniques
KEY KNOWLEDGEActivity Based Costing (ABC)
ABC is a method that seeks to group overhead costs according to the activities causingthose costs. The activities giving rise to the costs are called cost drivers. By linking costs toactivities (cost drivers), it becomes possible to charge costs to the agents undertaking thoseactivities.
EXAMPLE
A factory clinic with total annual costs of $500,000 serves two Workshops A and B.Workshop A has 200 employees and Workshop B has 300 employees.
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A conventional way of apportioning the cost would be on the basis of employees:
Workshop A: (200/500) x 500,000 = 200,000Workshop B: (300/500) x 500,000 = 300,000
500,000
An ABC approach might look at the number of visits to the clinic by the employees of A andB.
Workshop A: 150 visits p.a.Workshop B: 70 visits p.a.
In this case, the apportionment could be:
Workshop A: (150/220) x 500,000 = 340,909Workshop B: ( 70/220) x 500,000 = 159,091
500,000
The different levels of usage may reflect different degrees of occupational hazard present inthe two workshops.
ABC advantages: provides a more precise way to determine costs per unit of output,especially since not all overhead costs are driven by production volumes.
Budgetary planning, pricing decisions and managing performance are all facilitated by ABC.
ABC disadvantages: it can be complex and costly to implement. It is not a plug-in-and-gosystem! It is therefore imperative that management carefully weigh the costs against the(expected) benefits from ABC before deciding to implement it.
KEY KNOWLEDGETarget costing
This is a market-oriented approach to costing which starts by identifying the likely price thata product can fetch in the market, deducts the profit that the product is expected to earn,and arrives at the maximum (target) cost of manufacturing the product.
Such a method usually requires successive iterations in order to close a cost gap, i.e.where the costs are above the targeted level. Product re-design, alternative materials andproduction processes are examined in order to achieve the desired level of costs.
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KEY KNOWLEDGELife-cycle costing
A product normally lives beyond one accounting period and the costs connected to itsdevelopment/design, launch and maintenance fall unevenly across time periods. Thismethod takes a comprehensive view of the costs relating to the product throughout its life-cycle.
KEY KNOWLEDGEBack-flush Accounting
This is a simplified costing method which can be used in conditions of short operationalcycles and low inventories. Companies working on a Just-In-Time (JIT) basis may practise it,as it avoids the detailed tracking of costs during production; instead, it records costs whengoods are completed. These costs are then back-flushed through the system based onstandard costs.
KEY KNOWLEDGEThroughput accounting
This method is also consistent with a JIT environment and focuses on the bottlenecks in aproduction process; by eliminating these bottlenecks, it raises the amount of output that canflow through the process (assuming there is demand for the output the idea is not toproduce for inventory!).
The throughput accounting approach itself considers all costs (including direct labour) asfixed and treats only direct materials as being variable in the short term.
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Chapter 2
Decision Making LinearProgramming
KEY KNOWLEDGEMulti-limiting factors and the use of linearprogramming and shadow pricing.
When resources are scarce, or other limiting factors are present in a given situation, thenmanagement is concerned with achieving the most efficient allocation of available resources.
Whereas planning with one limiting factor involves the use of key factor analysis (in whichtypically one seeks to maximize the contribution per unit of the limited, or bottleneck,resource see Paper F2), the presence of several limiting factors requires the use of linear
programming.
In such cases, linear programming is typically used to either maximise contribution or tominimize costs. The usual steps to be followed are:
1) Define the variables2) Define the objective function3) Express the constraints as equations4) Solve the equations simultaneously as well as feasible values corresponding to
the corner points;5) Determine the combination of specific values that satisfies the objective function.
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The answer can also be graphed and Step 5 determined visually. A graph also shows thefeasible region of value combinations that are consistent with the constraints.
EXAMPLE
An aircraft manufacturing company producing propellers and wing ribs operates under thefollowing conditions:
Propellers Wing ribs (set)Materials (kg) 6 12
Labour (hrs) 8 6Contribution ($) 50 30
Materials are limited to 120 kg. per week while labour must not exceed 100 hours.
1) Define the variables:p = propellersw = wing ribs
2) Maximise contribution = 50p + 30w3) Materials: 6p + 12w 120Labour: 8p + 6w 1004) Simultaneous solving results in: p = 8 and w = 6; the feasible corner points are p =
12.5 (when w=0) and w = 10 (when p=0)
5) Calculate the highest contribution at each of the combinations in Step 4This can also be graphed for easier visualisation of the feasible region and solution.
Shadow (dual) price
A shadow price is the additional value to be obtained (usually an increase in contribution) byhaving available one more unit of a scarce resource. In the example above, the shadowprice of 1 kg of material can be determined by re-solving the simultaneous equations with121 (kg) substituted for 120. Similarly, the shadow price of an additional hour of labour canbe expressed by re-solving the equations with labour equal to 101, and determining whatthe increase in contribution will be.
Slack
This represents the amount of a resource that has not been exhausted (i.e. its availabilitydoes not act as a constraint or limiting factor in a given set of circumstances).
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Chapter 3
Pricing Decisions
STARTThe Big Picture
The pricing of a product or service is crucially influenced by several factors:
Internal: How much does it cost us to produce it?
External: How much is a customer willing to pay for it?
The latter is further influenced by how much the competition is charging for the same (orsimilar) product or service.
KEY KNOWLEDGEThe price elasticity of demand (PED)
This measures the sensitivity of (customer) demand to a change in prices. There is usuallyan inverse relationship: when price goes up, demand goes down (and vice versa).
PED = % change in demand% change in price
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EXAMPLE
A cinema increases its ticket prices from $4 to $6; as a result, the number of cinema goersdrops from 2,000 to 1,500.
The PED = (500/2000) = 25% = 0.5 (Note:Ignore + or signs; take the absolute value)(2/4) 50%
In the above example, demand is considered inelastic, because the PED < 1. When PED >1, then demand is considered elastic.
KEY KNOWLEDGEDemand Equation
Whereas the PED is expressed in percentages, the demand equation (or function) isportrayed as a downward sloping straight line which shows price and demand combinationsin their full values. The equation is expressed as
P = a bQ
Where:
P = price corresponding to the dependent variable (y-axis) on a graph;
Q = (Quantity) demanded corresponding to the independent variable (x-axis);
a = the maximum price (where Q = 0) -- corresponding to the y-intercept; and
b = the slope of the (negatively-sloping) line (change in P / change in Q)
EXAMPLE
On an average Saturday night, a cinema (capacity: 225) attracts 150 visitors at a price of$5. If the price of the ticket is decreased by $0.50 then 25 more people will come.
In order to fill up the cinema, the ticket price would have to be set at:
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5 = a (0.50/25) x 150; therefore, a = 8, and
P = 8 0.02Q
At Q = 225, P = $3.50
KEY KNOWLEDGETotal Cost Function
An equation can also be formulated to express the relationship between total costs andvariable costs:
Y = aX + b
Where:
Y = Total costs;
X = Output corresponding to the independent variable;
a = fixed cost corresponding to the Y-intercept;
b = the variable cost per unit -- corresponding to the slope of the total cost line
EXAMPLE
The variable cost per unit of a bottling process is 10 cents per unit. Fixed costs amount to$5,000. At an output level of 20,000 units, what is the total cost?
Y = $5,000 + ($0.10) x 20,000
= $7,000
When working with bulk discounts and other sales volumes, it is important to make surethat fixed costs remain unchanged over the output range covered. If they increase (as aresult of expanding the production capacity, for example) then the new (higher) level offixed costs need to be included in the calculation of total costs.
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KEY KNOWLEDGEPricing Strategies
There are a variety of pricing strategies with which one should be familiar:
Cost plus:A mark-up is added to a given cost base (which can be variable or full production
cost).
Skimming: Enter the market at a high price to catch customers willing and able to pay the
price.
Penetration pricing: Go in at a very low price to win market share.
Premium pricing: Maintain a high price due to the nature of the product.
Target pricing: This method backs into the price by calculating the required profit and the
possible production costs first.
Promotional Pricing: These are in support of campaigns to raise customer awareness of a
product.
Perceived value pricing: Plays on perception of value and what the market is willing to pay.
Value Pricing: Increasing the value content of the product so as to defend market share (intimes of difficult economic conditions or competition).
Product-line pricing: Sell a core product cheaply and price high related products.
Volume-discounting pricing: The bigger the order, the lower the price per unit.
Discriminatory pricing: Pricing the same product at different levels in different markets
(geographical) or market segments (customers).
Psychological Pricing: Plays on the emotion of the consumer.
Product Bundle Pricing: Combining products into one pack and pricing it overall.
Complementary product pricing: This refers to products that are used in conjunction withother products (e.g. printers and cartridges, razor grips and blades, staplers and staples,automobiles and spare parts). Typically, the approach to pricing may be low for the mainproduct and more expensive for the re-fills.
Relevant cost pricing: Basing the price on a keen (accurate) understanding of the real costsof the product or service.
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Chapter 4
Make-or-buy and other short-term
decisions
STARTThe Big Picture
One of managements responsibilities involves making decisions affecting the firm in the
short-run based on relevant costs.
What is relevance?
A relevant cost is a cash cost which is uniquely incurred (or avoided) as a consequence of
taking a decision; cash, because it is the main determinant of value (unlike accounting
profit); and unique in the sense that is not common to the alternative choices that are under
consideration.
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EXAMPLE
A company seeking to determine whether to continue to transport its products by truck or to
switch to the railroad discovers that insurance costs are identical in both choices; in that
case, insurance costs are not relevant to the decision.
If, however, there is a difference in the two insurance costs, then one can speak of the
difference between the two choices as being incremental; this difference (referred to in
some places as the differential) is relevant to the decision under consideration.
Future
Relevant costs refer to the future, i.e. they can be influenced prospectively by choice. It
follows that:
Sunk costs are not relevant: They have already taken place and cannot be reversed.
Committed costs, if they cannot be avoided, are likewise not relevant, even if the timing of
their occurrence is in the future. Their unavoidability has already been established in the
past (making them effectively the equivalent of sunk costs).
In keeping with the above logic, relevant costs therefore involve cash, are incremental and
relate to the future.
Relevant costs need to be identified with care, as they may include opportunity costs.
EXAMPLE
A company considers building a storage facility on the site of a parking lot. If the parking lot
had been generating parking fees which will now be lost, then this foregone revenue is an
opportunity cost.
Make-Buy
A make-buy decision requires the determination of all relevant costs.
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EXAMPLE
An automotive components producer can supply itself externally with car heaters for $210
per unit. In considering whether to make these internally, the company calculates that an
equivalent unit can be made in 2 labour hours using $100 worth of materials.
Labour is currently at full capacity producing carburettors which generate contribution of
$100. A carburettor takes 2.5 hours to produce. Labour costs $10 per hour. The carburettor
also absorbs fixed overhead costs at the rate of $20 per labour hour.
The relevant costs are ($):
Materials: 100
Contribution lost (carburettors): 80
Labour (added-back): 20
200
It is cheaper to produce internally.
Shut Down decisions
Whether to close a plant making (accounting) losses depends on relevant costs:
Superior
Revenues (m) 40
Costs (m) (44)
Profits (m) (4)
If 25% of the costs are fixed costs allocated by H.O., then it appears that closing the plantwill leave the company worse off, as 40m in revenues and only 33m in costs will disappear.
A careful examination of all costs needs to be made before arriving at a final decision.
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Chapter 5
Risk and Uncertainty in DecisionMaking
STARTThe Big Picture
Risk, whichever way it is defined, is a quantification of probability. In other words, it issusceptible to measurement, statistically or mathematically. Risk may be viewed as relatingto objective probabilities.
Uncertainty, in contrast to risk, is not capable of being quantified. It has also been referredto as subjective probability (or unmeasurable uncertainty).
Expected Value
Profit/(Loss) ProbabilityExpectedValue
340 10% 34.0
766 20% 153.2
278 50% 139.0
450 18% 81.0
(230) 2% (4.6)
100% 402.6
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KEY KNOWLEDGESensitivity
Sensitivity Analysis
This asks the following question: What happens to the NPV of a project if certain keyvariables are altered. It is a one-dimensional approach as it isolates and alters each (key)variable in turn in order to measure the impact.
Sensitivities by scenario
One can also go beyond determining project sensitivity to one variable and define scenarios,in which several variables move simultaneously (as outlined in the previous paragraph).Based on these scenarios, the NPV outcomes can be evaluated.
KEY KNOWLEDGESimulation
Simulation -- Monte Carlo
This is a simulation model that uses probability distribution analysis to analyze the possibleoutcomes of a project. It is built on the simultaneous changes of many variables, therelationships between these variables being defined in advance, e.g. if price is reduced, howmuch demand may go up.
Each variable itself has a probability distribution and the combinations of variables aremodeled through running the model repeatedly by computer, resulting in a distribution ofsimulation results.
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KEY KNOWLEDGEMaximax, maximin and minimax regret
In the absence of (numerical) probabilities, a decision maker may act on the basis of hisattitude toward uncertainty. Here are examples of three techniques as they relate to thefollowing choices regarding developing a business:
Profits Strategy1 2 3
Outcomes:A 25 30 20
B 50 35 55C 60 40 45
Maximax going for the upside: Chooses Strategy 1 (to keep the door open to a profit of60).
Maximin limit the downside: Choose Strategy 2 (one cannot do worse than 30).
Minimax regret limit the opportunity cost of getting it wrong.
To determine this, one needs to quantify the regrets under each Outcome. For example:
If the Outcome turns out to be A, then Strategy 2 (=30) would have been the best strategy.
Regrets: Choosing Strategy 1 (=25) would have missed by 5 (30-25); whileChoosing Strategy 3 (=20) would have missed by 10 (30-20).
We can modify the table above to show all the regrets (opportunity costs) under eachOutcome:
Regrets Strategy1 2 3
Outcomes: A (5) Best (10)B (5) (20) BestC Best (20) (15)
Maximum regrets (5) (20) (15)
Conclusion: Minimizing the maximum regret leads to Strategy 1.
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Chapter 6
Budgeting an introduction
STARTThe Big Picture
Budgets
A budget is a quantitative plan addressing the future.
Budgetary control systems seek to monitor performance against the budget in a timely wayso that deviations can be identified and rectified. The system can only work as well as thecare and thought that went into defining performance targets to be measured, and theincentives (and sanctions) that follow from achievement (or not) of those targets.
Goal congruence at all levels of the organisation corporate, divisional and individual mustexist for a budget, and its attendant control systems, to be effective.
Problems frequently encountered when using conventional budgets:
They invite gaming of the system; They can be inflexible; They are often imposed from the top Top Down; There is an indirect connection with the companys strategy; They are used for too many different purposes; They reinforce centralising tendencies in the company; There is a lack of goal congruence between corporate, divisional and individual goals
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KEY KNOWLEDGEBudgetary Systems / Types of Budgets
Fixed
A fixed budget is not adjusted to the actual volume of output (activity level)
Flexible vs. Flexed
The distinction is sometimes overlooked:
Flexible: designed to change according to actual volumes of output; usually donebefore the start of the budgetary period as a sort of scenario planning;
Flexed: This is done after the fact and is based on the actual level of activityachieved.
Zero-based (ZBB)
Each year, budget owners must justify the entire budget (build it from zero) At odds with incremental budgeting (where only changes need justification, hence
encouraging the spend it or lose it mentality)
A three-step approach to ZBB:1. Define decision packages (i.e. activities that result in costs or revenues),
distinguishing between mutually exclusive packages (alternative activities to
achieve the same result) and incremental packages (base level of input needed
+ additional inputs)
2. Evaluate and rank packages (based on the benefit to the organisation)3. Allocate resources across packages, considering ranking and seniority of
responsible managers
Activity-based (ABB)
No budget owners (departments, functions), but budgeted activity cost (ABC costing) Budgeted activity cost = demand for activity * unit cost of activity More detailed and accurate than traditional budgets, especially regarding indirect
costs
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Incremental
Such budgets are based on what went on during the period before. Typically, this approach
results in modest changes and adjustments to the earlier budget. At worst, they retain andperpetuate inefficiencies and old assumptions. This might be termed the lazy mansbudget.
KEY KNOWLEDGEQuantitative Analysis in Budgeting
The High-Low method and regression analysis have been covered in F2.
Learning Curves
Learning curve effects can be applied to variance analysis, as they allow standards to beadapted to a dynamic situation, i.e. one where the time to produce units declines with theincrease in output.
EXAMPLE
A product requires 20 hrs of labour per unit at a cost of $6 per hr.
A traditional labour standard would expect 4 units to be produced in 80 hrs at a labour costof $480.If a 90% learning curve effect applies, then one would expect the 4 units to be completed inless time. How long will they require?
Utilizing the formula: y = axb
Where:
y = cumulative time required per unita = time to produce the first unit (in the example above = 20)x = cumulative number of units produced ( = 4 units)b = log r/log2r = learning curve ( = 90%)
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We solve for: y = 20 X 4-.1522
= 16 (remember: this is the cumulative time per unit)
Therefore, 4 units will require 64 hrs (16x4)
Conclusion: Based on the above, 64 hrs define the standard against which the time requiredto produce 4 units should be compared when calculating the labour efficiency variance.
KEY KNOWLEDGEBehavioural Aspects of Budgeting
There are numerous inter-relationships between types of budgets, budgeting processes andthe motivation of employees:
Top-Down budgets may be necessary from a coordination point of view; however they canbe de-motivating to employees;
Bottom-Up budgets allow useful employee input, but they may create exaggeratedexpectations on the part of the employee that his/her voice will be heard.
Unrealistic budgets with unachievable targets can be de-motivating (as can budgetswhich are easily achieved, since most people stop working when they reach the targets!).
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Chapter 7
Budgeting and Standard Costing #1
STARTThe Big Picture
Standard costs are useful in that they assist the budgeting and planning process before anactivity commences, as well as the analysis of actual costs (including variance analysis) as
the activity proceeds.
KEY KNOWLEDGEBasic Variances and Operating Statements
Variances
Variance analysis is the process by which the differences between actual and budgeted(standard) results are quantified and examined.
Variances can either be favorable (F)or adverse (A).
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EXAMPLE
The following is a fully-worked illustration based on the following data:
Cost card (per unit)Materials (5kgs x $9 per kg) 45Labour (3hrs x $6 per hr) 18Variable O/Hs (3 hrs x $3 per hr) 9Fixed O/Hs (3 hrs x $5 per hr) 15
87
BudgetProduction: 1,100 unitsSales: 1,000 unitsSales Price: $120 / unit
Actual resultsProduction: 1,000 unitsSales: 950 unitsMaterials: 4,900 kg, $45,025Labour: 3,100 hrs, $19,050
Variable O/Hs: $9,250Fixed O/Hs: $17,000Sales price: $115 / unit
Variances analysis is best performed by asking a series of parallel questions in a systematicway:
Material variances
(i) Material price variance Materials used (4,900 kg) should have cost @ $9 44,100 Materials (4,900 kg) did cost 45,025
Materials price variance $925 (A)
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(ii) Material usage variance 1,000 units should have used @ 5 kg 5,000 kg 1,000 units did use 4,900 kgMaterials usage variance 100 kg (F)
@ standard $9 $900 (F)
Materials total variance: $ 25 (A)
Labour variances
(i) Labour rate variance
Labour (3,100 hrs) should have cost @ $6 18,600 Labour (3,100 hrs) did cost 19,050
Labour rate variance $450 (A)
(ii) Labour efficiency variance 1,000 units should have taken @ 3 hrs 3,000 hrs 1,000 units did take 3,100 hrs
Labour efficiency variance 100 hrs (A)@ standard $6 $600 (A)
Labour total variance: $ 1,050 (A)
Note: Labour variances can be influenced by learning curve effects: as work processes aremastered, the time required to produce a given level of output should decline.
Variable O/H variances
(i) Variable O/H expenditure variance 3,100 hrs should have cost @ $3 9,300 3,100 hrs did cost 9,250
Variable O/H expenditure variance 50 (F)
(ii) Variable O/H efficiency variance 1,000 units should have taken @ 3 hrs 3,000 hrs 1,000 units did take 3,100 hrs
Variable O/H efficiency variance 100 hrs (A)@ standard $3 $300 (A)
Variable O/H total variance: $ 250 (A)
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Fixed O/H variances
Fixed O/H total variance
Overhead actually incurred $17,000 Overhead absorbed (1,000 units x $15) $15,000
Fixed O/H total variance $ 2,000 (A)
This can be broken down into two components:
(i) Fixed O/H expenditure variance Budgeted O/H should have cost (1,100 units x $15) 16,500 Actual O/H cost 17,000
Fixed O/H expenditure variance $500 (A)
(ii) Fixed O/H volume variance Budgeted production 1,100 units Actual production 1,000 units
Fixed O/H volume variance 100 units (A)@ standard $15 $1,500 (A)
Sales volume variance
The absorption costing system calculates sales volume variances as follows:
Budgeted sales volume 1,000 Actual sales volume 950
Sales volume variance 50 (A)@ standard margin ($120-$87) $1,650 (A)
Sales price variance
950 units should have sold @$120 114,000 Actual revenues (950 units x $115) 109,250
Sales price variance 4,750 (A)
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Operating statement
A reconciliation between profit budgeted (absorption costing) and that realized follows:
Budgeted profit 33,000
Sales volume variance 1,650 (A)Sales price variance 4,750 (A)
26,600
Cost variances:
Materials F APrice 925Usage 900
LabourRate 450Efficiency 600
VariableExpenditure 50Efficiency 300
FixedExpenditure 500Volume 1,500
950 4,275 3,325 (A)
Actual profit 23,275
Note: Closing inventory is valued at standard cost
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Marginal costing
A marginal approach to costing focuses on the variable (marginal) costs generated in a
business and considers fixed costs as period costs. This allows the company to be able toquantify the amount by which its costs rise, if it produces/sells an additional unit of output.
Based on the data above, an Operating Statement based on Marginal costing follows:
Budgeted contribution 48,000
Sales volume variance 2,400 (A)Sales price variance 4,750 (A)
40,850
Cost variances:
Materials F APrice 925Usage 900
LabourRate 450Efficiency 600
Variable
Expenditure 50Efficiency 300
950 2,275 1,325 (A)
Actual contribution 39,525
Fixed O/Hs Budgeted 16,500Fixed O/Hs Expenditure variance 500 (17,000)
Actual profit 22,525
Absorption costing and Marginal costing Operating Statements compared
When preparing the Operating Statements, note that Marginal Costing:
Starts with standard contribution (not profit); and Recognizes only Fixed O/H expenditure variance
Variance analysis can also be applied to the Activity-Based Costing (ABC) system.
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Chapter 8
Budgeting and Standard Costing #2
KEY KNOWLEDGEMix and Yield Variance
Mix and yield variance
When materials are combined in the production process in standard proportions, with thepossibility of substituting one for the other, then the materials usage variance can be brokendown into two further measures:
Mix: This examines the (monetary) impact of altering the proportions of the two materials.
Yield: This focuses on the total amount of inputs to produce the output achieved.
The sum of the mix and yield variances is equal to the materials usage variance.
EXAMPLE
One unit of product requires the following standard inputs:
$Material X: 5 kg @ $8 40Material Y: 10kg @ $3 30
70
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In a given period, actual production of 12 units required 50 kg of X and 145 kg of Y.
Mix variance:
Important!The analysis is made on the basis of actual usage: 195 kg (50 kg of X and 145 kg of Y):
X YThe standard mix of actual input should have been: 65 130 (X:Y = 5:10)
The actual mix was: 50 145
Mix variances (kg): 15 (F) 15 (A)Cost ($): $8 $3Variance ($): $120(F) $45(A)
Mix variance $75(F)
Interpretation: More of the cheaper material (Y) and less of the more expensive one (X)were used, resulting in an overall favorable variance relating to the mix.
Yield variance:
Important!The analysis is made on the basis of standard mix (X:Y = 5:10):
X YThe yield (12 units) should have used 180 kg 60 120
Actual input (195 kg) expressed in standard mix 65 130
Yield variances (kg): 5 (A) 10 (A)Cost ($): $8 $3Variance ($): $40(A) $30(A)
Yield variance $70(A)
Interpretation: This analysis eliminates the (distorting) influence of the differing mixes bynormalizing them (according to standard). It permits focus to be placed only on the impactof having used a greater amount of materials than the standard.
The sum of the mix and yield variances (above) equal the materials usage variance: $5 (F).
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Note: Some prefer an alternative approach to calculating the yield variance.
1) The actual usage (195 kg) should, according to the standard, produce 13 units(195/15 = 13)
2) The actual number of units produced: 12 units3) The difference of 1 unit (13-12) is adverse and valued at standard cost: $70 (A).
KEY KNOWLEDGEPlanning and Operational Variances
Due to changing market and technical circumstances, standards may become outdated. In
such cases, it may be necessary to alter a standard, even during a budget period already inprogress.
Planning and operational variances capture these changes in two steps:
Planning variance: Compares results based on the revised standard compared to the initialstandard. The result is usually considered to be outside the area of control of management.
Operational variance: Compares actual results with the budget based on the revisedstandard. This is often considered to be within the control of management.
The distinction above between controllable and uncontrollable factors is critical insofar asit relates to the idea of responsibility accounting, i.e. expecting people who have delegatedauthority to take responsibility for decisions within their area of control.
KEY KNOWLEDGEBehavioural Aspects of Standard Costing
Standard costing in the wrong environment can be like a duck out of water.
If products are non-standard; or Standards are changing rapidly (due to technical or market developments); or Manufacturing processes involve a high degree of automation with little labour input,
then standard costing may not be very useful.
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Chapter 9
Performance Measurement andControl
KEY KNOWLEDGE
The scope of performance measurement
Balanced scorecard
The balance scorecard addresses a number of parameters (or perspectives) in monitoring
business performance by asking the following questions:
Financial perspective: To succeed financially how should we appear to ourshareholders?
Customer perspective: To achieve our vision how should we appear to ourcustomers?
Internal business processes: To satisfy our shareholders and customers whatbusiness processes must we excel at?
Learning and growth: To achieve our vision how will we sustain our ability tochange and improve?
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Fitzgerald and Moon
This is another model of performance management.
Qualitative measures
Service quality is an area that can be difficult to assess in objective terms. Certain actionscan be measured numerically and serve as an indication for quality; for example, measuringthe turn-around time (in days or minutes) in responding to customer requests: naturally, thequicker (one reacts), the better. To be fully useful, however, such a measure assumes twothings: (1) that the action being measured is of value (or relevance) to the customer; and(2) that one has a rule or a benchmark as to what constitutes a maximum acceptable turn-around time (from the clients point of view).
Purely qualitative factors, such as client satisfaction, can be measured by employing a scale;e.g. a scale of 1-5, with 5 = Very satisfied, to 1 = Dissatisfied. (Note: to avoid confusion, itmay be better to use the labels without numbers, and to assign numbers when analyzingthe results.)
KEY KNOWLEDGEDivisional Performance and Transfer Pricing
There are various bases on which transfer prices can be determined:
Market price Outlay cost (standard) + opportunity cost to the seller Outlay cost (actual) + opportunity cost to the seller Outlay cost + notional mark-up Production cost (full absorption) Best bargain (negotiation between divisions)
Divisional performance and internal (transfer) pricing
Divisional objectives may not be aligned with one another or with corporate objectives.
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Return on Investment (ROI) at the Divisional Level
Earnings can be measured at the divisional level in relation to the financial resources they
use. The ROI measure is very similar to ROCE (return on capital employed) with the onlyexception being the use of profit in the formula:
ROI = Net ProfitCapital Employed
ROI as defined above is commonly used for investment appraisal and for business sector(divisional) performance, whereas ROCE is common at the overall corporate level.
EXAMPLE
A division head with an actual ROI of 20% may be reluctant to accept a project offering a
15% ROI, especially if his bonus is based on ROI achieved.
If the corporate overall ROI target is 12%, then the division head is missing a value-creating
opportunity.
Residual Income (RI)
Convert results into monetary magnitudes:
Residual Income = Divisional EBIT (minus) Imputed interest
Where
Imputed interest = Capital Employed X Capital charge (or cost of capital)
A positive result adds profits to the division beyond the incremental capital cost. Aninvestment should be accepted if the RI is positive.
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Drawbacks of RI and ROI
EXAMPLE
A division of a corporation currently generating an ROI of 12% is examining a new projectwhich requires an investment of $4.5m.
Cash inflows are expected to be $1.5m p.a. and the cost of capital: 10%
ROI and RI computations will be as follows:
Year 1 2 3 4
NBV initial 4500 3375 2250 1125
Net cash inflow 1500 1500 1500 1500
Depreciation -1125 -1125 -1125 -1125
Profit 375 375 375 375
Capitalcharge(10%) -450 -337.5 -225 -112.5
RI -75 37.5 150 262.5
ROI 8% 11% 17% 33%
From both RI and ROI points of view, the project does not look favorable to the division,even if it would be from the corporate point of view. (Eg, at a cost of capital of 10%, the
project has a positive net present value).
Performance analysis in not for profit organisations and the public sector
Not-for-profit organizations share many similar issues with profit-making firms in terms ofcareful management of costs and ensuring that organizational objectives are being fulfilled.
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External considerations and behavioural aspects
Performance management systems which are completely internal (introverted) in focus risk
losing touch with the external world. A system of external bench-marking serves tocounteract the tendency of individuals to perform only to a sufficient level rather than to a
superior level.
Organizations that figure out how to motivate and actualize the true potential in people will
win.
(end of ExPress notes)