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East-West Culture arning Institute
East-West Center L Honolulu, Hawaii
May 1983
Volume 9 Number 1/2
THE FORMALIZED TRANSMISSION OFCULTURESelectivity in Traditional Teaching/LearningSystems in Four High Skill Music Traditions
By Ricardo D. Triniillos
In this essay, I wish to
consider the processes of cultural
continuity as reflected in teachingand learning in the performingarts, specifically in music. Four
systems of formalized
transmission, one each from
Hawai'i, India, the southern
Philippines, andJapan, serve as
data and as illustration.Formalized systems of
transmission occupy a specialplace in studies of cultural
continuity because they are
selective in the aspects of atradition they emphasize, handle,and ignore. Analysis of these
systems, therefore, provides
This issue of the East-West Culture
Learning institute Report is devoted
to articles describing activities of the
institute's Culture and the Arts
Program, one of the several
programs that provide the focus for
the work of CLI staff researchers and
participants The program includes a
performing arts series, an
international film festival, and
research into cross-cultural
01 00)
insight into characteristics of an
art deemed by the culture to be
significant. At the same time,
such systems include
teaching/learning strategies a
society has developed for itself
and, in many cases, those it
prefers to employ in thetransmission of culture.
Therefore, the examinationof transmission systems for an art
not only illuminates the art
expression itself, but also carries
important implications for
cross-cultural learning, forrevitalization of traditional arts,
and for developing (or in somecases, rebuilding) educational
systems that contain a high
degree of cultural relevance.
Introduction
For the purpose of thediscussion, tradition denotes a
specific body of knowledge or a
complex of skills associated with a
genre of performance. Althoughthe title of the discussion suggeststhat the field includes fourcultures, there is in fact a fifth
the format and the categories of
information employed belong to
the cultural milieu of the United
States, whose cultural identity is
often described in the more
general term of Western.
Viewed in a multicultural
setting, each society exhibits a
distinctive, hierarchical
configuration of individual
aspects within an art tradition.Further, such aspects are
evaluated differently by each
society; some are seen as critical
to the identity of a tradition,
some are considered desirable (butnot critical), and yet others are
regarded as incidental.For example, in the Western
symphonic tradition adherence to
specific pitches is critical. Eachviolinist must agree to tune his
A-string to 440 cycles per second.
On the other hand, it is onlydesirable that all the bows of the
first violin section move in the
same direction. Failure to do so
does not invalidate the
performance or compromise the
identity of the piece performed.
(Continued on page 2)
The FormalizedTransmission(From page 1)
Finally it is incidental albeit
traditional -that symphonymusicians wear tuxedos. A
symphonic work can be
acceptably performed in aloha
shirts or panama suits. Clothingin this case is not a critical aspect.
These same three aspects -
clothing, coordinated movement,
and pitch among othercultures, however, do havedifferent values. The aspect of
clothing (taking the three in
reverse order) is critical in the
gagaku (court music) tradition of
Japan. Both style and color ofdress are prescribed; further,there is a different costume used
in the performance of
compositions attributed to
Chinese sources (liigaku) fromthat used in pieces of Korean
origin (komagaku).Coordinated, uniform
movement is critical in the
ancient dance-song tradition of
Hawaii, often called hula kahiko.
Uniformity of movement in
producing musical sounds
sometimes supersedes the
purpose of the movement itself'.For example, in one form of
hula each dancer-musician holdsa short percussion stick in the
right hand and a long staff in theleft. Standing shoulder to
shoulder with the other membersof the group, the performerstrikes the short percussion stick
in his right hand against the longstaff held by his neighbor to the
right. The performer at the
extreme right end of the line hasno staff to strike against;however, he still executes the
movement. The striking motionhas musical intent, but in the case
of this performer there is nomusical rationale. Clearly,however, the close dance-music
relationship in the tradition
suggests a dance rationale is
operative.The third aspect is pitch.
Pitch in Indian classical music isnot an array of specific, codified
frequencies, such as the WesternA'440 cycles per second. Rather,
pitch is regarded as a series of
musical intervals or distances
figured from a single basic pitch(sa in Indian theory), whoseactual frequency depends uponthe preference of the artist. The
basic pitch can vary widely
(particularly among singers), but
the accuracy in reckoning theintervals from that basic pitch is
critical. To contrast, the conceptof pitch in the West is one ofabsolute pitch and is
product-oriented to be in tune
the pitch must be 440 vibrations
per second. The concept of pitchin India, however, is one of
relative pitch and is
process-oriented to be in tune
the pitch must be a prescribeddistance away from the basic
pitch previously selected.A system of transmission that
produces musicians able to
operate in an absolute pitchcontext is qualitatively different
from one that produces musiciansto operate using relative pitch.The corollary is also significant:in order to train musicians for a
music based upon absolute pitchit is necessary to develop a systemdifferent from that needed formusic based upon relative pitch.This corollary has particular
relevance at present, when
traditional musics of Asia and the
Pacific are being taught in
Western-model conservatories
and universities.
Finally, a word to explain the
term high-skill tradition: it denotes
a tradition which requires a
specialist and demands a level of
training in excess of what the
"ordinary" individual in a societycould achieve or commit himself
to. The term should not beconfused or equated with high art
tradition, an unfortunate termthat continues to be used indiscussions of world music.
High-skill tradition refers to a
genre in which superlative levels
of performance are expected and
carries none of the elitist,
status-defined connotations of theother term.
Ricardo D. Trimillos is currently aFellow in the Culture Learning Institute. An FWC alumnusfrom the1960s, he aprofessor ofmusic at the University ofHawaii at Manoa. He serves as music consultant for theMara Institute (Malaysia), theAcademy ofPerformingArts (HongKong), andthe Iligan Institute (Philip-pines).
The East-West Culture LearningInstitute Report, formerly the Culture
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1983 The East-West Center
The Nature of Formalized
Transmission
Broadly viewed, formalizedtransmission includes any processin which a mutuallyacknowledged transactional
relationship has been established
between teacher and learner. It
may be all-encompassing in
content and permanent in
duration as exemplified by the
guru-shishya (teacher-disciple)relationship of India; or it maybe limited in subject and
short-lived in duration, as
reflected in the teacher-student
relationship of a typical music
appreciation course in an
American university.The guru of India teaches his
shishya the skills of music and howto conduct his entire life; the
superordinate-subordinate
relationship extends throughoutthe lifetime of both parties. TheAmerican university teacher, on
the other hand, is responsibleonly for the topic of the courseand can be open to criticism for
handling content beyond that
purview. The contractual
relationship is documented by aclass syllabus; it is expected toend after the final examination iswritten by the student and the
grade is assigned by the teacher.
4 roSe-VV rsi uwLure 1.earulng lusutule Report
Formalized transmission as a
system varies from culture toculture and often among genreswithin the same culture. Thevariables includefocus the
perceived goals for each aspect ofthe tradition handled in thetransmission process; scope thenumber and the specific aspectshandled; degree the amount of
attention given one aspect relativeto the others; and efficiency - theamount of effort and time
required to achieve the goals.As an example of difference
in focus, teaching song text as
language in the ancient mdc
[chant] tradition of Hawai'i
highlights different aspects of
language than does the classical
singing tradition of India. In
Hawai'i the focus is upon the
ability to control and accuratelyreplicate the sounded word, the
text, to which all other elements
melody, rhythm, and dance-
are subservient. The sounded
word implies cosmological power,an implication that demands of
the performer absolute accuracyin memorization and error-free
replication of that text.
On the other hand, the
Indian musician learns to regard
language as one of'a group of
coordinate elements - text,
melody, and rhythm- that can
be subjected to variation and
improvisation during
performance. For example, he is
taught the skill of taking a songtext (which is semantically
meaningful) and applying an
improvisational technique called
gopuca-yati [tail of a cow] to it.
The words are fragmented into
syllables, which are then used as
acoustic clusters with little or no
semantic content.
Formalized transmission
exists in a complementary
relationship to informal
transmission. Through informal
means, an individual "picks up"or absorbs aspects of a tradition.
In American commercial music
such as rock and jazz, informal
transmission is the more common
and often preferred means of
acquiring expertise. Gainingmusical skills (as artistic status)
and acceptance among peers (associal status) through informal
processes is called "paying yourdues." It traditionally enjoyshigher approval among thecommercial music communitythan does a conservatoryeducation.
In traditions with aformalized system, some aspectsare still transmitted informally.The practice of blowing into aflute to warm the internal aircolumn (which seems to be almostuniversal) is one such instance.
The nature of the
performing arts themselves
suggests there is value in
considering their transmission.The arts occupy a special positionwithin a culture as one of its
distinctive and uniqueexpressions. They can distill thevalues, the beliefs, and the spiritof a people, and thencommunicate these componentsin an attractive and accessibleform.
Further, the arts representinitiative within a society, the
ways in which it chooses to
express particular relationships tothe perceived world in such
realms as religion, politics, and
entertainment. The performingarts in particular reflect stronglythe quality of cultural initiative:
they involve a real-time process,in which the process of
performing is valued at least as
highly as the performance event.
At the level of the individual,
creativity is voluntary and
internally generated. If the
performer is not in the mood or
not inspired, the result is judgedless successful in its execution
and if appropriate -in its
esthetic effect. Thus there is an
evaluative difference between
great performances and merely
craftsmanly ones. Creativity and
its successful expression arise
from within rather than being
externally imposed, a statement
that can be applied as readily to a
society as to a single individual.
If we accept this descriptionof the arts, then systems
developed to maintain them also
represent an internally generated,
self-initiated activity within a
society. The maintenance of atradition may be held importantby specific individuals or groups,such as a priestly class, aneconomic elite, or a populationsegment defined by sex. To
express it anthropomorphically, aculture through formalizedtransmission selects for survivalthose items and traditions thatare important to it. Some
significant aspects "selected forsurvival" will now be considered.
The four traditions andcultures selected for thediscussion include the mdc kahiko
[poetry-music-dance] tradition ofancient Hawai'i, the classicalmusic tradition of India, the lugumaulud [songs celebrating the
Prophet Mohammad] in thesouthern Philippines, and gagaku[court music] of Japan. Thetraditions vary in extent,
complexity and history as well as
in musical style. Their treatmenthere is necessarily incomplete,but particular attention is giventhose aspects that have
implications for cross-cultural
transmission, either into the
culture or out from it.
Ancient Hawai'i
Mele kahiko refers to the
Hawaiian performing art
traditions known to be extant
prior to European contact. The
term is a collective one,
embracing poetry, song or chant,
instrumental music, and dance.
At the present time it is more
often discussed in terms of its two
major components -oh [chant]and hula [dance]. Mdc kahiko in
its historical context is a clear
example of complementaritybetween one component of a
culture and the larger entity of
the general, collective culture.
Chant and dance served as the
principal means for passing on
knowledge and preservingculture. Religious belief was
articulated, historical events
commemorated, genealogiesdocumented, social and politicaltaxonomies reinforced, and
(Continued on page 4)
Last-west Culture Learning Ijisiltuic epor
The Formalized
Transmission(From page 3)
geographical sites described
through mele. The often
intangible facts of culture were
made perceivable through soundand sight, through the chant and
the hula. The tradition of mdccontinues to be a major mediumfor preservation, documentation,and dissemination of Hawaiianculture.
Thus the tradition providesan important service to the
general culture. In return the
general society devised a
transmission system that isextensive in scope and efficient inexecution. The system is based
upon the halau [school], which inearlier times was associated with a
temporal or spiritual leader. Itincludes a prescribed progressionof earned statuses, a focus upon
language-related aspects of
performance, and a series ofritual/ceremonial activities specificto the learning process.
The primacy of the word inthe tradition determines the
progression of training, which
begins with the dance. Dance, the
aspect of movement, is the leastinvolved with the word. The olapa[dancer] interprets the word butdoes not manipulate it. After the
training as a dancer, the student
may be allowed to begin trainingto become ho'opa'a[chanter-musician]. At this stagethe individual has the
responsibility of handling thesounded word. The word as idea
possesses mana [nascent
cosmological power], whichbecomes active (and potentiallydangerous) in the sounded,
energized form of the chant.
After considerable training,the status of ho'opa'a is conferred
upon the student. He mayeventually be given the status ofkumu hula [teacher] and be
empowered to teach others withinthe formalized transmission
system. From the ranks of thekumu hula are selected olohe [elderadvisors], who examine a studentbefore any new status is
conferred. The kumu hula canalso function as haku mdc [chant
composer]. Thus the creation ofnew chants is the purview ofthose with the greatest amount of
training.Performance aspects related
to the production of the word are
given great attention. To developclear and effortless diction, the
neophyte chants while holdingpebbles in his mouth. To increasevolume, the student matches hisvoice against the sound of the
crashing surf. To enlarge breath
capacity and control the air
supply, the chanter prolongs theword nk'ü, starting as the settingsun first touches the horizon and
trying to prolong the sound untilthe sun disappears completelybelow the horizon.
The vocal techniques taughtare avenues for individual
expression and style, since thetexts are prescribed and
incontrovertible. Vocal
ornamentation ['i'i] reveals the
Hawaiian appreciation for
subtlety of timbre and pitch,which are used as musicalmaterial and for esthetic effect.The creativity of the individual atthe moment of performance ischanneled through 'i'i. When the
performer is inspired, theduration and intensity of the
ornamentation increases.
Conversely if the performer is
not inspired (or has been forcedto chant), the words will becorrect, but the creativity andaloha [warm feeling] for thelistener communicated throughthe ornamentation are minimal.
The correct formation of the
sounded word is so importantthat there exists a negativereinforcement of it a style of
delivery called kake, in which thewords are deliberately garbled or
mispronounced. This practiceserves to further distance theactual meaning of the text fromthose not qualified to hear it orto protect the chanter from theawesome consequences of aninadvertent mistake.
The formalized transmission
system includes rituals andceremonies to mark stages of the
training process. For example, to
gain physical entry to the school,
a student performs a mdc hâhea
[hailing chant]. At the end of
each period of training an 'ünikz
[graduation ceremony],sometimes preceded by privaterituals, announces the newlyconferred status of the student to
the public.This transmission could be
considered archetypical for
traditions closely tied to belief
systems. Its concern is
perpetuating the whole of theculture and at the same time
bringing the individual safely into
close proximity and involvement
with that culture's essence and itslocus of cosmological powerthe word.
India
Although the traditions of
India and of Hawai'i might seem
at first glance to be quiteseparate, they have a number ofsimilarities. In common are a
beginning in religious belief, a
degree of secularization at the
present time, a vocal as
opposed to instrumental
orientation, and a major focus
upon text. In the consideration ofIndia, the significant features of
the transmission system to bediscussed include its vocal basis,
its kinetic interaction, its
preference for rote
memorization, and the resultant
stylistic consensus.The vocal basis of
transmission is apparent in the
study of instrumental music. For
example, the student of SouthIndian vina [lute] first learns to
sing the compositions, which all
have texts. The drummer learns
the many rhythmic patterns andtheir combinations by vocal
recitation of syllablesrepresenting drum strokes. Thisvocal mnemonic, called bol, is anefficient method of imprintingrhythmic patterns; it directlyinvolves the body of the student
through voice and breath. The
rhythmic pattern as concept isthus internalized and
subsequently transferred to the
4 East-West Culture Learning Institute Report
instrument, an object external to
the body. The use of bols has
implications for a gestaltist view
of Indian rhythm and for
drawing structural parallelsbetween music and other
domains of culture.
There is also a kinetic
dimension to formalizedtransmission in India. First, the
bols as spoken syllables constitute
a kinetic reinforcement of a
musical element. Secondly,
rhythmic accuracy - particularlyin perceiving the tale (a rhythmic
cycle with primary and secondaryaccents) - is kineticallyreinforced through a pattern ofhand claps and waves. This
practice, known as "keeping the
tala," is part of the learningsession and also part of the
concert setting, an instance in
which a single musical practicehas two functions.
During the lesson as the
teacher performs in
demonstration, the student keepsthe tale. For the student it
precludes any passive learningexperience; for the teacher it is
an aural and visual means of
monitoring the student's grasp of
rhythmic structure. Its secondfunction, during a concert, is tomaintain a communication link
between the artist and hisaudience. The audience keeps the
tale, which serves as an energyfeedback to the artist. Thereverse flow (which also includes
murmurs or utterances of
appreciation during the
performance) can inspire the
performer to greater creativity in
his improvisations.A third feature of formalized
transmission is the emphasis on
rote learning and memory, an
emphasis even more remarkablein the context of India's long and
great tradition as a literate
in an observance oj tc lagu man/nd in 1963 on Lanasa Island, Szasi, a 'aughter (lcjt) and ow/her
compete with asecorlpair of singers (not shown). Then, rophone is/hr battery-operated loudspeakers, which
are of/en used throughout Sulu.
civilization. The use of graphicnotation in traditional teaching is
minimal, commandingsignificantly less attention than in
Western music learning, for
example. Thus the Indian case
shows a consistency between the
medium of instruction (sound)and the medium of performance(sound). This contrasts with the
Western art tradition, which
requires a transfer from sight(written notation) to sound.
Finally, there is a consensusof musical style. The shared
elements used in transmission,
including vocal activity and
kinetic reinforcement, are majorfactors for this stylisticagreement. Not only does such
consensus enable a vine playerand a drummer who have not
previously met to play together,but it enables the artist to explorethe more subtle ways of makingthe performance interesting -
and unpredictable. This shared
body of musical skills producedby common training allows for
the great improvisational
complexity that is the hallmark of
the Indian classical tradition.
Southern Philippines
Improvisation in the vocal
music among the Tausug of the
southern Philippines also receives
attention in teaching. The
tradition lugu maulud reflectsan "indigenous" solution to
transmission, while Lowland
(Christian) cultures in the
Philippines seem to have replaced
major traditional systems with
Spanish and American colonial
models.
The lugu maulud (Arabicmaulid) is the performance of a
literary, epic account about the
Prophet Mohammad that maycontinue uninterrupted for
twelve hours- usually overnight-or for a number of days. Aseries of singers, usually in solo
or duet, set the prose and poetryof the printed Arabic text to avast number of melodies whichare (a) existing, (b) subjected to
(Continued on page 6)
East-West Culture Learning Institute Report 5
The FormalizedTransmission..(From page 5)
variation, or (c) completelyimprovised.
Formalized transmission is
limited to females, althoughmales perform as well. This
segregation of population in the
learning process not onlyreinforces and accommodates thesocial patterns of Islamic society,but results in a music tradition
effectively dominated by women,both in terms of artistry andnumbers. Training in lugu mauludis a positive quality for marriage;it is also one means of occupyingthe time of young girls, who are
kept away from the public eye.The features of interest in this
system include techniques for
teaching repertoire and style,establishing acceptableboundaries for variation,
development of the voice, andthe interaction betweenformalized and informal
transmission.The teaching is rote and is
distinctive in manner. The
teacher "leads" the pupil througha melody as the student follows afew notes behind. The musical
style is particularly suited to this
treatment the melody
progresses in an alternation of
melisma (clusters of florid
ornamentation sung on one
syllable) and long-held pitches.To begin, the teacher sings the
first melisma, arrives at the first
long-hold pitch, and prolongs it;
at that instant the student singsthe first melisma and then arrivesat the same long pitch being held
by the teacher, who then
proceeds to the next melisma and
subsequent long-held pitch. Thusthe learning is a process of"musical leapfrog," which resultsin a rather pleasing two-voicecanon at the unison.
This learning technique isalso a public performance
technique; a similar doublefunction was noted in India forthe practice of keeping the tala.Rather than the first singerserving as mentor to guide thesecond singer through an
unfamiliar melody, in the
performance setting the two
singers are competitors. The first
singer attempts to confuse andlose her competitor by spinningout a long, highly ornamented,
and sometimes highly improvisedversion of the melodic line. The
challenge for the second singeris to "listen ahead and singbehind." As she sings, attemptingto replicate exactly every twistand turn of the melody just sung,she is simultaneously listening tothe first singer, who continually
forges ahead into new musical
territory.The nature of melodic
variation receives attention aswell. When a student has
difficulty grasping a musical
phrase, the teacher repeats it,
expecting the student to follow.However, in the repetition the
teacher may change the melody
slightly, i.e., she varies it. In this
way the student learns not onlyits basic outlines, but also
perceives the boundaries of
acceptable variation for that
melody. The concept of makajari
[possible] reflects a tradition inwhich a number of versions of a
melody are acceptable, which
contrasts with one in which only a
single version must he replicatedin exact detail.
Attention to vocal
development is also part of the
system. A wide vocal range and
great breath control are primaryconcerns. For breath control,which intends to increase the
length of melody sung in one
breath, the student is required to
time the singing in a singlebreath against the duration of a
burning cigarette. For the uppervocal range, one exercise requiresthe student to sing in her high
range while suspending herself
by her arms from a doorjamb ora pole. The resulting added
tension on the diaphragm whenthe body weight is thus supportedsuggests a sound physiologicalbasis for this exercise. Vocal carealso includes medicinal aspects.
Kalamansig (a kind of lime) or
sugar cane juice is taken to coatthe throat, which makes the vocal
quality smooth.
The final feature of the
Tausug system to be noted is the
complementarity betweenformalized and informal
transmission. The annual seasonof all-night lugu maulud
performances and the almost
daily sounds of students' lessons
permeating the village during thewarm afternoons have made
every child aurally familiar withthe musical style and perhapseven with some of the more
popular items of repertoire.
During a performance a child
may sleep in the lap of her
singer-mother; large amounts of
musical information are
subliminally absorbed.Thus the informal
transmission has socialized everychild to the tradition. When the
young girl begins to study in a
formal setting, she refines skillsfor the execution of a musical
style and a repertoire that alreadyhave a conceptual referent in thestudent's mind and in her "ear."
This transmission essentially
brings articulation and clearer
focus to material the individual
already "culturally knows" -a
strategy of learning particularly
germane to cross-cultural
learning.
Japan
The final traditionconsidered here is gagaku, the
court music ofJapan. One of the
oldest extant musical traditions in
the world, it traces its origins to
ancient civilizations of the Middle
East, India, and Southeast Asia
through China and Korea. The
initial amalgamation of these
diverse musics took place duringthe Heian Period (ca. sixth
century); the next thirteencenturies saw a fairly continuous
preservation, although some
modifications in instrumentation,
rearrangements of compositions,and reclassifications of repertoirehave taken place. The system of
learning, which was maintainedin family lines, features such
aspects as the vocal basis of
6 East-West Culture Learning Institute Report
UI /!(( We X' by :' traditions datingfrom thi
,r,iIO 11) a; Ii,,, to the lCast-t vt Ge,zz, sJeIlzson Hall injanuasy. Tit, concert, coordinated byCulture Learn ag institute Fellow RicardoD. Trimillos and University of i-Iawaii Professor ofMusic RogerHickman, was presented in conjunction with a con/erence on medieval studies of Assa and Europe. Pictured
aremembers oftheHawaiiGagnka Kenkyakaiand European renaissance/medieval musicologist Brad White.
Photos by James Giles.
learning, achievement of a
musical consensus, kinetic
reinforcement, the role of written
musical notation, and the
integration of the tradition into
the broader context of theculture. Some of these features
have been encountered in
foregoing discussions.
Although the major divisions
of the tradition are instrumental
kangen (instrumental music for
listening) and bugaku(instrumental music for dance- the basis for learning
repertoire and the elements of
style are vocal. Before the
neophyte plays his part on an
instrument, he must learn to singthe entire melody, using a series
of mnemonic (semantically
meaningless) syllables. This
practice, called shoga, can occupythe entire first year of study;instruction on the instrument
itself follows.This learning process,
internalizing the repertoire by
singing it, is highly efficient for
actual performance. An
intellectual routine (scanning thememorized, conceptual gestalt)
precedes any kinetic routine,
including motor memory. Thus
the actualization process for the
performer has at least three
separate phases: (1) the musician
"hears" the melody in his mind,
(2) he produces it with the
instrument, and (3) he checks the
aural product for acceptability.Both the nature of the routine
and the actualization process have
implications for norms of
performance behavior, including
sensitivity of each performer tothe ensemble and the presence or
absence of stage fright.Similar to the observations
made for the Indian tradition,
the common vocal basis of
learning -shoga - results in a
strong consensus of style. The
Indian consensus leads to a
highly refined freedom in
improvisation; the consensus in
gagaku, on the other hand,
reinforces the highly conservative
nature of the tradition. A major
(Continued on page 8)
East-West Culture Learning Institute Report 7
The FormalizedTransmission.(Frompage 7)
cultural value forgagaku is the
unchanging continuity it
embodies, while the esthetic ideal
is the exact replication of the
original performance. The
process of teaching and of
learning reinforces theconservatism explicit in the
political-historical position andthe esthetic ideal of the music.
Kinetic considerations are
found both in the learning and in
the performance settings. One
kinetic element occurs only in the
learning and does not transfer tothe performance marking the
rhythm of'a piece. Gagaku has a
unique rhythmic feature, a"breath rhythm" in which certainbeats are held slightly longer thanothers. The difference in
duration is subtle; it must be feltrather than calculated
mathematically. The student,seated on the floor, marks the
rhythm while performing shoga(sung melody). If the rhythmic
cycle (meter) is in four, the firsttwo beats are marked by hittingthe right hand against the thighand the last two beats by strikingthe floor beside the thigh. The
prolonged beat is the fourth beat,so that there is a "breath pause"between the last beat of the cycleand the first beat of the followingcycle. Moving the hand from thefloor (having struck the fourth
beat) to above the thigh (in
preparation for the subsequentfirst beat) reinforces that
prolongation -in that
movement the hand travels a
slightly greater distance and a bit
more effort is required.Also, a kinetic focus during
performance is taught. Each
performer of one of the eightdifferent types of instruments inthe ensemble three windinstruments, three percussioninstruments, and two stringedinstruments- learns how to lift
and position the instrument for
playing in a series of movements
and positions that approacheschoreography. The timing of themovements is also prescribed.
Similarly there are movementsfor returning the instrument to a
position of rest.
The most complex kinetic
component required for
performance must be learned bythe player of the gakusö [pluckedzither]. The instrument's part is
a series of short, quasi-melodicformulae that comments uponthe principal melody. Besides
having responsibility for the
specific notes and rhythms that
constitute the musical part, the
performer must execute a
sequence of gestures with the
playing hand (the right hand)
prior to, during, and followingthe playing of each melodic
pattern. To describe it in generalterms, the fingers of the hand
extend and position themselvesover the appropriate strings, thehand gradually contracts into a
fist while playing adjacent strings,and then assumes a position of
rest (!) immediately above -butnot touching
-the strings justplayed. The zither player is as
interesting to watch as he is tolisten to.
Written notation is part ofthe tradition and consists of
partbooks for each of theinstruments. Its principal use,
however, is not in the acquisitionof information -which is by rote- but in the retention ofinformation learned. The
notation serves as a memory aidfor individual practice and forrehearsal; the performance is
traditionally played by memory(although the present
proliferation of amateur gagakugroups has changed thissomewhat). Thus the purely aural
nature of initial learning and of
performance is characteristic of
this tradition.The final feature of gagaku
to be discussed is less an elementof the formalized transmission
per se, but more a tangentialelement occurring within the
teaching/learning session. It is the
appreciation (and sometimesveneration) of the musical
instrument.The instrument is regarded
as more than just a tool for
making music; it is - as an
artifact -a work of art, whose
nature is expressed throughcareful craftsmanship, detail of
decoration, and specific namesfor its component parts.
For example, the s/to (mouth
organ) has a design or motif in
gold lacquer on its base. Becausethe base is covered by the player'shands during performance, the
decoration can only be
appreciated when the instrumentis at rest outside the playingcontext. Great attention also is
given to packaging - cases for
holding the instruments include
lacquered or beautifully grainedwoods and protective cloths are
made of silk brocades and
secured with distinctive knots.
These are never seen by the
audience.
The instrument as artifactcan also represent the continuityof the musicianly line; an
instrument is often passed onfrom teacher to student. The
continuity is both symbolic andactual. For example, as part ofinstrument maintenance, the flute
player (as a student and as a
performer) frequently wipes thebamboo flute against his face, sothat the facial oils darken thebamboo. Oils are also absorbed
from the hands, and there is acharacteristic darkening about the
fingerholes of the instrument aswell. Literally, a part of the
musician is embodied in the fluteas it passes from one generationto the next. Thus the studentcomes to appreciate theinstrument in a number ofdifferent ways
-as artifact, as
the result of craftsmanship, as anextension and conduit for his
own musical energy, and as a
tangible symbol of the continuityfrom the tradition through histeacher to himselfand to hisfuture students.
In a broader sense, themusical instrument is a personalobject attained by undergoing theformalized transmission of
gagaku. As a personal object, it isone means for the musician to
participate in and to express awide range of Japanese cultural
8 East-West Culture Learning Institute Report
values, including such items as
dexterity and design in
packaging, evidence of use
(including damage and wear) as a
positive esthetic value, and the
use of an object to encapsulatesocial identity. Thus it is throughthe instrument as artifact that the
individual as a specializedmusician in an esoteric tradition
is reintegrated into the larger
society.
Summary
The consideration of these
few elements in a limited number
of music cultures indicates that a
wealth of data is contained within
this general topic. There are
obvious implications for
transmission in areas outside the
performing arts. At least six
general observations can be noted
as summary; each addresses the
interests of cultural continuityand cross-cultural dissemination:
1. Each transmission systemis culture- or genre-specific in
terms of the aspects it selects to
handle. The choices suggest (andin some cases, indicate) direct
referencing to an esthetic, values,
or religious belief complex of the
culture.
2. There are different but
well-defined status relationships,modes of behavior, and goal
expectations in each transmission
system.3. The content treated in
transmission may extend past the
boundaries of music learning, in
which case the system has
relevance both for the continuityof the musical tradition and for
the enculturation of the
individual.4. The process of
transmission delimits the areas
and degrees of initiative available
to the student. In some instances
the boundaries parallel those that
apply to the mature musician (asin gagaku), while in others theycontrast with the options available
to the full-fledged artist (as in the
lugu maulud).
5. All four examples show
close interaction and dependence
upon kinetic elements in
learning.6. Learning involves a
second performing medium; for
example, the medium of vocal
performance is used to developskills specific to instrumental
performance.At present the technology
and materialism of the West
become increasingly attractive to
the Pacific and Asian areas, and
simultaneously the cultural
aspects of these areas, particularly
philosophical thought and artistic
expression, become interesting to
the West. In these circumstances
an educated and informed
understanding of traditional
transmission would enhance and
perhaps expedite the inevitable
cross-cultural exchange.
Conclusion
Three concluding statements
are addressed to the area of
education, and they reflect the
conviction that scholarlyreflection has an eventual
responsibility to practical
application.For those who use traditional
(read "ethnic") performing arts in
teaching cross-cultural awareness
and appreciation, the discussion
suggests that the traditional
process of learning is as importantas the performance, i.e., the
product. The performance is a
single manifestation of an entire
cultural complex; the aspectsinvolved in the preparation of the
performance are part of the"window to the culture" as well.
The product without
understanding (or in the case of
cross-cultural performance,
experiencing) the processesinvolved is an incomplete
understanding. In some cases it
may lead to misunderstandingand misrepresentation of the
item, shortchanging both the
presentor and the viewer.
For those designing new
approaches for teachingtraditional arts, a reliance upon
product-oriented transmission
structures (such as conservatories,
leaving examinations, etc.) should
be reevaluated. Using such
strategies to teach traditions with
a significant process orientation
weakens both the conceptualframe and the rationale of the
tradition. Further, it often
adversely affects the product.
Finally, for those addressing
larger problems of contemporaryeducation, the examination of
traditional systems of
transmission could be fruitful.
Each system arises from a
"mental set" operating within the
society and often reflects
preferred modes for achieving
goals. Thus an innovative
educational strategy would seem
to have greater potential for
success if it had some resonance
with this "mental set" and with
these preferred modes of
learning. Such resonance
undeniably has significance for
concerns of cultural relevance. In
addition (and perhaps more
importantly for the East-West
Center), it clearly establishes the
spirit of mutual exchange and the
acknowledgement of paritybetween the two parties.
Supplementary Reading
The social context and
repertoires of ancient Hawai'i can be
found in Nathaniel B. Emerson,Unwritten Literature ofHawaii
(Washington, D.C.: SmithsonianInstitution, 1909; subsequent editions
by Tuttle, 1965, 1972 and byScholarly Press, 1977), and in the
booklet by Dorothy Kahananui, Music
ofAncient Hawaii: A BriefSurvey (Hilo,Hawaii: Petroglyph Press, 1962). ForIndia, a highly personal account of
master-disciple relationship is foundin Ravi Shankar, My Music, My Life(New York: Simon and Schuster,
1968); an overview is provided forboth Karnatic and Hindustanitraditions by Bonnie Wade, Music inIndia: The Classical Tradition
(Englewood Cliffs, N.J.:Prentice-Hall, 1979). A detaileddiscussion of Tausug music appearsin the author's doctoral dissertation,"Tradition and Practice in the Music
among the Tausug of Sulu,
Philippines" (University of California,Los Angeles, 1972). The gagakutradition ofJapan is treated in
William Maim,Japanese Music andMusical Instruments (Rutland, Vt.:Tuttle, 1959).
Last-West Culture teaming institute Report 9
International Film Festival Success; Plans Underway for Third
The Hawaii InternationalFilm Festival was inaugurated two
years ago as a cooperativeprogram of the Culture LearningInstitute and the East-West
Center Office of Public Affairs. It
has proved to be a film festivalunlike any other. Not oriented
just toward film buffs, thisfestival is designed to attract andinvolve the community as a
whole. It is also special in that ituses feature films -drawn
particularly from the Asian andPacific region
-as stimuli for
reflection and discussion. Rarelyhas there been such recognitionof the potential of films to raiseissues of social and humanitarian
importance and to communicate
graphically across culturalboundaries.
Films can forcefully place usin contexts that we would not
normally encounter in our
everyday lives. They can lead usto participate vicariously in thelives of people vastly different
from ourselves - not from theoutside, but from the point ofview of the protagonists, lettingus literally see the world throughanother's eyes. Literature also has
this potential, but the primarilyvisual nature of the film mediummakes its meanings immediatelymore communicable across
language barriers. This festival is
designed to explore the
cross-cultural potential of film
and to build upon it in
discussions following the
screenings.The 1982 festival
incorporated a week of events on
four islands in Hawaii. On Oahu,
fifteen major films were shown in
matinee and evening screeningsat commercial theatres owned byConsolidated Amusement. Inaddition, various videotapes and
16mm films were shown at theEast-West Center. Ten majorfilms travelled to Kauai, Maui,and the Big Island for generalexhibition, and throughoutHawaii special screenings of the
films were held for secondaryschool students. In all, audiencestotaled more than 20,000.
"When Strangers Meet"
The aim of the festival wasnot simply to provide a chance to
see films from other cultures.Rather, its main focus was the
consideration of the issues andconcerns raised in the films. In
general, the movies were selected
with reference to the theme,
"When Strangers Meet." Some of
the films addressed the problemsfaced by ethnic or cultural
minorities. In these cases (Chan Is
Missing, 36 Chowringhee Lane,
Gajin, Bread and Chocolate,Chariots of Fire), the strangers
meeting were of two separatecultures. In other cases, peoplefrom the same culture were
alienated from each other. In
Ikiru, for example, the
protagonist is isolated by his
private knowledge that he is
dying; in Sandakan 8, the two
main characters are divided by a
vast gulf between their ages and
experiences; in intimate Friends,the hero and heroine are initiallykept apart by the differentintensities of their personalpolitical commitments; in A Touch
of Zen, the protagonist's lack ofself-awareness makes him a
stranger to the ideas embodied bythe image of the Buddhist
monastery. In all these cases, the
strangers eventually meet: the
themes of human reconciliation
and the transcendence of
boundaries parallel and
complement the other themes in
the films. The concerns of the
filmmakers are expressed in the
films with varying degrees of
explicitness.
The challenge presented to
the organizers of the festival wasto use the issues raised in the
films as points of departure forfurther discussion, at which
members of the public could
exchange their own perspectives
on the films' themes. To this end,discussion venues were arranged
following the evening films, andaudience members were invitedto participate in informalconversations based on the films
they hadjust viewed. On Oahu,an added incentive for theaudience to participate was ethnicfood and drink, kindly providedby various community, university,and East-West Center groups.About 150 people attended each
evening discussion.An important aspect of these
discussions was the participationby scholars, film critics, andfilmmakers. Four film directors-
Aparna Sen (36 ChowringheeLane), Wayne Wang (Chan IsMissing), Lino Brocka (PX), and
King Hu (A Touch of Zen) were
present to discuss their work.The public could direct their
questions to those most closelyinvolved with creating the films,while the academic participantscould lend their more detachedand critical perspectives. One
benefit was the opportunity forthose in the film industry to
exchange ideas with philosophers,historians, and scholars fromother humanities fields and from
other nations. On the other hand,all members of the audience were
encouraged to participate in the
discussions.
Essays giving a wide varietyof personal perspectives on the
films' themes were prepared and
distributed to the audiences, thus
providing them with further
impetus to reflect, both privatelyand communally, on thosethemes. Further, formal seminars
were scheduled with filmmakersin the mornings following the
film screenings.
Film Conference
A significant development inthe 1982 film festival was the
inauguration of a three-dayacademic film conference held atthe conclusion of the festival
tO East-West Culture Learning Institute Report
week. Scholars and filmmakersfrom throughout Asia, thePacific, and the United States metto discuss the relationship of filmto the humanities and to considerthe ways in which feature filmscan serve as a medium ofcross-cultural communication.
Visiting participants includedTadao Sato and Donald Richie
(Japan), Chidananda Dasguptaand Aparna Sen (India), ArifinNoer (Indonesia), Lino Brocka
(Philippines), and Robert
Rosenstone, Gerald Mast, BruceKawin, Jesse Kahn, AlfredGnzzetti, and Peter Duns
(U.S.A.). Also participating were
James Brandon and HardjaSusilo of the University of Hawaiiand Allan Grapard, Paul Brennan,
Frank Tillman, Thomas Jackson,and other members of CLI. The
conference gave rise to a numberof original and challengingquestions, which are discussedelsewhere in this issue.
Judging from manycomments received, the filmfestival has promoted a greaterawareness and understanding offilm in the community. Inaddition to the film screeningsthemselves, workshops andlectures on screenplay writing,animation, film criticism, and
super-8 filmmaking were held
during the festival. There wasalso a screenplay contest to
encourage the production of
scripts set in a Hawaiian context,with prizes awarded by the StateFoundation on Culture and theArts. 1982 recipients were ChuckAnderson and Virginia Staley in
the screenplay division; Jay Day
and Ron Ishoy for teleplays; andMichael Schmicker for histreatment of "Song for myFather."
East-West Center participantCarl Hefner received a specialscholarship provided by DominicOrsatti of Hawaii Film
Productions, Inc. It is anticipatedthat the competition will be held
every second year.The film festival is supported
by many individuals and
organizations. The festival
organizers are particularlygrateful to ConsolidatedAmusement, Eastman Kodak, the
Hawaii Committee for theHumanities, Hyatt RegencyWaikiki Hotel, International
Savings and Loan, the StateFoundation on Culture and the
Arts, and World Airways.
International Film Conference: A Summary
By Victor Kobayashi The conference was not for us to explore further the
Immediatelyfollowing the Secondintended to focus upon the different cultural conventions
Hawaii International Film Festival,formal and artistic properties of that underlie the content and
sponsored by the East-West Center inthe film medium, nor was it structure of films of different
November, 1982, a three-dayintended to disregard these. societies. When are cultural
conference was held on the topic,Rather, it was designed to conventions used artistically?
"International Understandingconsider the relationship between When do they become clichés?
Through Film." Victor Kobayashi,feature films and their cultural When films of one country are
one of the principal humanitiescontexts -both in their countries shown in another, what may be a
scholars on the steering committee ofof origin and abroad. To what cliché may instead appear to be
both theJestival and the conference,extent do films mirror the values a novelty to the foreign viewer.
Professor of Educational Foundationsof their societies, and, conversely, What does the concept of a cliché
at the University of Hawaii atto what extent can they influence then mean from a cross-culturalthese values? What kinds of perspective? What constitutes an
Manoa.cultural and social information artistic use of a cultural
This conference was a are implicit in a film, and how convention as opposed to a
ground-breaking experiment in successfully is such information convention that is a cliché? We
many ways. It was certainly not transmitted across cultural need to explore these questions.the usual kind of film conference boundaries? A second area of
where film scholars debate The idea of examining investigation suggested was the
questions of structure and theory. feature films from different question of what makes certain
Many of the participants were cultural perspectives raises films exportable from one societydrawn from areas outside film possibilities for research into a to another, welcomed by their
scholarship, including history, number of new areas. The new audiences, while other films
philosophy, music, anthropology, conference served to identify are appreciated only by members
and theatre; even the presence of some of these areas and in the of their home country. What
film practitioners constituted a process raised numerous characteristics encourage
departure from the narrow questions, some of which I will acceptance of a film in another
academic bounds of traditional outline here, culture? It was suggested that a
conferences. First, a need was expressed (Continued on page 12)
East-West Culture Learning Institute Report 11
International Film
Conference.,,(From page 11)
trait of internationally fluentfilms includes a degree ofconsciousness of the society's own
cultural conventions. Some of usalso proposed that the aestheticmerit of a film included a degreeof self-consciousness of its owncultural conventions so as to beable to transcend them. AsChidananda Dasgupta so aptlyput it, "films become universal
through the exploration of thedistinctiveness of a cultural
identity."But Lino Brocka pointed out
that there is also a faddish aspectto some international films. For
example, kungfu fads in theUnited States may have permittedthe commercially successful
importation of this film genrefrom Hong Kong. There are also
political factors at work. The
political, economic, and
technological prestige of theUnited States, for example, mayhave facilitated the acceptance of
Hollywood films in manycountries.
Humor
Another aspect involving
exportability of cinema across
cultures, brought out by Mrs.
Noer, concerned humor. How
exportable is humor in film? Is it
true that humor is generally not
as easily exportable across
cultures? It was interesting that
Mrs. Noer, an Indonesian,
expressed enjoyment of Japanesecomic "Tora-san" films. Are someforms of visual humor or some
comic situations or structures
universally funny? Charlie
Chaplin films come to mind here.How exportable is humor in film,
and what makes for exportablehumor? Perhaps at times theentire world needs a good laugh,and a film can help bring thisabout; the pursuit ofinternational understanding neednot always be so serious.
Another area involvingexportability of films
internationally that might be
explored is that of considering
Hollywood films more seriouslyand looking for artistic strengthsin Hollywood rather than onlythe commercial and those aspectsthat pander to the lowest tastes.Some scholars need to overcometheir snobbery about Hollywoodfilms. We need to look at some
Hollywood film conventions more
seriously and to consider their
possible artistic merits. Theformal structure of Astaire'sdance films was proposed, for
example, as having aestheticfeatures, and related to its
analogue, the formal structure of
popular songs (which coexist inthe Hollywood musical); bothseem to have been well-received
throughout the world.We need also to study how
Hollywood conventions areborrowed by developing countriesand then transformed into
something more indigenous.Japan and India, for example,seem to have followed a patternfirst of imitation, then oftransmutation of film forms into
vehicles that fuse indigenoustraditions with contemporaryrealities.
History through Film
There is also a need to
explore popular films dealingwith historical events in terms oftheir historical accuracy
-Shogun
and Reds, for example. Sincemore and more peoplethroughout the world are
building their image of the past
through film, some historians
ought to attend to the problem ofhistorical accuracy in film.
Present-day historians, at least inthe United States, have lost much
of their popular readingaudience. Some historians needto explore films more seriously interms of their potential as
vehicles for communicatinghistory, since films often do
attract mass audiences. The
question of the meaning ofhistorical accuracy in filmbecomes especially important inthis context. Anthropologists,
philosophers, and other scholarsof the humanities might also wantto explore narrative film as avehicle for sharing their insightswith a wider public.
One suggestion made was theneed to expose people to thedifferent versions of the same
historical event presented byfilms from other countries. For
example, wars between nationsare presented differently in films
by different peoples involved in
the same war. We need more
exposure to such films to gainmultiple perspectives; we need tofacilitate the exchange of suchhistorical films.
There is a need, in general,to improve on the variety of filmswe see from other nations. Onlycertain kinds of films are
normally exported from Japan or
India to America, for example.We need to be exposed to abroader range of internationalfilms so that we can improve our
conceptions of how films mirror
society.It was also pointed out that
we need to look at historical filmsnot only in terms of factual
accuracy but also in terms of the
authenticity of the patternsunderlying how events are
portrayed. We need to learn toconsider the "metaphoricaltruths" about societycommunicated through its films.Are some "metaphorical truths"
unique to particular cultures? Are
some of them somehow universalin that they refer to the basic
human condition, or basic human
thought patterns, or humanity's
relationship to the earth's
ecological system of which we all
are a part?There was also a need
expressed for Western humanisticscholars to learn more about the
great literary traditions of the
East. Eastern representatives,partly due to their formal
education, generally seemed to
know more about Western
literary traditions than Americansknew about the Eastern classics.All humanities scholars todayneed to know more about the
great literary works of the entire
12 East-West Culture Learning Institute Report
world that have provided the
guiding metaphors or patternsthat still shape themes in
contemporary cinema. The
"amaYanaand the Tale of Genji
are examples. We need tounderstand better the traditional
symbol systems of different
cultures and see how they relate
to modern society, how well theyfit or do not fit, and how they are
being transformed or transmuted
into new forms in the contexts of
todays' world, including its
politics. Art may play an
important role in the
transformation of symbol systemsto generate a better fit with the
changing conditions of reality; we
need to explore film also in terms
of this function of art.
What's an Art Film?
Another area to be exploredis that of viewing films in terms
of the relationship between
consciousness and
I--
self-consciousness. Film can be
studied as an analogue of
literature as well as a uniquemedium that explores its own
limits. What is it that makes an
art film an art film? Is the answer
to this question related to the
consciousness question, that of
whether a degree ofself-consciousness is a necessarycondition for cross-cultural art?
An anthropologist, Paul
Brennan, briefly commented on
a possible connection between
self-consciousness and literacy.The nonliterate peoples he
worked with in Papua New
Guinea did not seem to
understand the idea of
self-identity, a concept that seems
to be very important in American
films. This important observation
raises questions as to the nature
of the connection between
literacy and the development of
consciousness; it also proposesthe possibility that the effect of
film on nonliterate people might
be different from that on a
literate group.Also related to the subject of
consciousness was the criticism
voiced that our presentationswere overly analytical, overlyintellectual, and that we needed
to pay attention to the intuitive
aspects of film, both as film
makers and as scholars of film.
We need some degree of
reflection and thought, but we
also need to have some degree of
belief that the flickering shadows
on the screen do transform into a
reality. A degree of analyticreflection is necessary, especiallyin this world of large-scale
propaganda, mass advertising,and manipulation of the media.
Conference participants also
were exposed to a purely visual
film that had no spoken word as
an offering that might help us to
determine which images convey
meanings that are understood
cross-culturally and which ones
do not. Guzetti's showing of
(Continued on page 14)
A thr -day confrencejollowing the Esi- lest Center's Second Hasil ItirriatnalFilm Festival, held in November 1982, delved into the relationship betweenJilms
and their cultural contexLs. Thc participants, with an vosual variety of backgrounds and interests, included (front row, from left) Paul Brennan, Ruth Vasey,Jajang
NoeC Victor Kobayashi, Tadao Sato, Kumiko Makihara, ThomasJar/nan, (middle row) Peter Duns, Gerald Most, Sandra Sturdevant, Frank Tillman, Brace Kowin,
Arifin Noer, Merry Lee Comm. Gregory Trlfinovitch, (back row) Robert Rosenstone, Hardja Sasilo, WimolDusanayake, Alfred Gwszetti, Chidananda Dasgn/ita,
Donald Richie, and Jesse Kahn.
East-West Culture Learning Institute Report 13
Center's Outreach Program Includes Performances
The January 1975 issue of intention has been to introduce us to capitalize on the unusual
this newsletter carried a photo East-West Center participants to a number of artists who need or
essay and an article announcing variety of cultural "artifacts" - desire a stopover enroute to or
the inauguration of the Cultural plays, instrumental and vocal from Asia.Manifestations Series. Now styles, dances, poetry
-and to During the 1970s, East-Westknown in the Hawaii community assist viewers to understand what Center programs becameas the East-West Center's they were witnessing through increasingly problem-oriented,Performing Arts Series, these explanation, demonstration, and that is, they sought to identifyconcerts and lecture- program notes. We have been and to help "solve" problems ofdemonstrations in the arts successful in this partly because the region through research,have grown from modest of the wealth of talent education, and training. In line
beginnings into a real success representing many countries with this emphasis, the Culture
story. right here in Hawaii. Hawaii's Learning Institute began to lookFrom the beginning, one strategic location also has allowed at problems associated with
International Film
Festival...(From page 13)
Asparagus, by Susan Pitts, could
bring forth questions about whatideas of such thinkers as Freudand Jung, who claimed a degreeof universality of their ideas, areindeed universal, which are
idiosyncratic, and which reflectWestern viewpoints. Which
patterns and metaphor systems
suggested visually in film seem tobe universal? Which ones onlylocal? Which represent specificcultures?
There was also a brief
discussion of the role of art in
modernization, apart from itsrole in the transmutation of
traditional metaphors to fit
contemporary realities. The
separation of art from the rest oflife is part of being "modern"and such a separation hasoccurred in the world of film.
For example, art in traditionalcultures is also an integral part of
religion; but in modern societies,
particularly in the West, art has
been separated from religion andhas been secularized. There isneed to look at this kind of
process in international film.
Film Distribution and
Censorship
Another area explored wasthe need to understand thehistorical, sociological, political,
and economic aspects of a societyand their relationship to thedistribution structure of
commercial and noncommercialcinema in different nations. Whatis the significance of cinema inthe social and political life ofdifferent nations? In India, it was
pointed out that the cinema wasof great influence in the sociallife of the people; we need tounderstand how cinema is
changing folk culture. Dasgupta'sdiscussion of the government'srole in the support of the Indianfilm industry raised several
questions: What is the role, and
what ought to be the role, of
government in the film industry,and what are the different
approaches used to support the
film industry in differentcountries? What are the
approaches to censorship in
different countries? We need to
understand how censorship
systems operate in differentcountries so that we may obtain a
better understanding of what we
are able to see and not see about
different societies from films thatcome from abroad.
A need for continuinginterdisciplinary perspectives with
regard to the study of film wasindicated throughout the
conference. A need also was
expressed for films that reveal
the deep concerns and problemsof people of the Third Worldand other parts of the world to
be distributed more widely
throughout the world. These
films should be selected on the
basis of artistic merit as well as of
having the ability to reach
popular audiences.There are films that blend
the characteristics of the art filmwith those aspects that appeal toa mass audience; they not onlyentertain, but also raise questionsand invite the audience to a
higher level of reflection and
awareness of the world around
them. (Dasgupta called such films
"Shakespearean cinema.") Some
of Kurosawa's, Ozu's, and Ray'sfilms are examples. Many films
involving women as central
characters reveal some of theconflicts and problems of
contemporary society because in
many societies women are
bearing much of the burden of
the drastic changes that are
occurring. The personal life of
women, as portrayed in film, can
give us more profound insightsinto these conflicts than the usual
large-scale sociological studies
that offer only a kind ofreductionism.
As you can see, thisconference raised numerous
questions, only a few of which I
have included in this summary. I
sincerely hope that these items
will be useful in building an
agenda for future meetings of
international scholars and artistsin the area of film.
14 East-West Culture Learning Institute Report
presenting performances of one
culture to audiences of othercultures. This is a long-range
experiment with the hope that
ventua1ly guidelines and
methods will be developed that
will help the artists themselvesand others involved in presentingsuch performances.
Experiencing an exotic
performance can be extremely
rewarding for members of the
audience, but there are
frequently problems that differ in
nature and severity when art is
presented across cultures. Wehave discovered (and in mostcases, overcome) problems in
negotiating the details of the
performance, length of
presentation, advertising, and
logistics.Perhaps the two most
significant problems involve
language (even when allconcerned are using English) and
differing assumptions.Frequently, the vocabulary is
understood, but the main
thought is missed. One visiting
troupe interpreted the East-West
Center's offer of "housing" to
include meals, whereas Center
officials meant only lodging in
the residence facilities!Since the series began eight
years ago, 110 artists and groupshave been featured in a total of
150 events. During our first few
years, audiences ranged from
twenty to one hundred people -
a very modest beginning. Word
has gotten out into the Hawaii
community concerning the
quality of performances at the
Center, and recent concert
audiences have been in the300-1000 range. Most recently,
audiences filled the 650-seat
Kennedy Theatre for three
nights to enjoy the impressivebunraku theatre from Japan.
To date, total audience
numbers for the series have
climbed to more than 46,000.
This is all the more impressivewhen we realize that audiences
and performers have representedmore than forty nations of Asia,
the Pacific, and the United States.
It would be cumbersome to
list all the performances in the
series so far, but some of the
most outstanding have included
American folk singer Elizabeth
Cotten; the Puk Puppet Theatre
ofJapan; the University of the
Philippines Concert Choir; the
1981 Maori Festival; the FujianHand Puppets of the People's
Republic of China; Silk and
Bamboo: Classic Music of Japan;a dance troupe from the Cook
Islands; gospel music from the
Trinity Missionary BaptistChurch; and our very own
American bluegrass group, the
Old Pali Highway Ramblers.
The arts are powerfulcommunicators and if chosen and
presented well can be a most
appropriate introduction to an
unfamiliar culture. Increased
exposure to and appreciation of
the arts of other cultures is
certain to contribute to carryingout the East-West Centermandate to promote better
relations and understandingbetween the United States and
the nations of Asia and the
Pacific.The former director of the
U.S. InternationalCommunications Agency,JohnReinhardt, might well have had
our East-West Center type of
activity in mind when he wrote in
the August-September 1979 issue
of USICA World:The arts address directly thelimited perceptions and
misperceptions we and other
societies have of each other.
With the simplicity and
integrity born of the fact that
they constitute a society's vision
of itselffor itself, they are a
(Continued on page 16)
Members of thefamous Bunraku Puppet Troupe ofJapan perform at Kennedy Theatre in the Culture
Learning Institute PerformingArts Series. Ten members of the group played to capacity audiences on three
days in April. Bunraku scholar Barbara Adachi provided audiences with helpful background prior to each
puppet play. Theprogramswere cosponsored by the University ofHawaiiandtheJapanSociety. Photo byK.P.
Chin.
Center's Outreach
Program...(From page 15)
form of communication that
arises from the experience of acommon humanity and identityof interests, which occurs in the
sharing of an artistic
experience. They are the
"human face" of a nation.Whatever the specific bilateral
political, military, or economictensions and concerns betweenthe United States and anyother country, culturalcommunications among peoplesis essential in achieving the
goals of this nation.
MonographPublished
The latest addition to theEast-West Culture LearningInstitute monograph series is anexamination of language issues inIndia, published in March by the
University of Hawaii Press.
THE EAST-WEST CENTER is an
educational institution established inHawaii in 1960 by the United States
Congress. The Center's mandate is "to
promote better relations and
understanding among the nations of Asia,the Pacific, and the United States throughcooperative study, training, and research."Each year nearly 2,000 graduate students,scholars, professionals in business and
government, and visiting specialistsengage in research with the Center'sinternational staff on major issues and
problems facing the Asian and Pacific
region. Since 1960, more than 30,000men and women from the region have
participated in the Center's cooperativeprograms.The Center's research and educationalactivities are conducted in five institutes
Communication, Culture Learning,Environment and Policy, Population, andResource Systems
- and in its PacificIslands Development Program, OpenGrants, and Centerwide Programs.Although principal funding continues tocome from the U.S. Congress, more than20 Asian and Pacific governments, as wellas private agencies and corporations, haveprovided contributions for programsupport. The East-West Center is a public,nonprofit corporation with auinternational hoard of governors.
The book, Plural Languages,Plural Cultures by Lachman M.
Khubchandani, explores thetribulations experienced by theIndian polity in dealing withvarious issues pertaining to
language in the context ofcultural pluralism .during the lastthree decades.
The first part of the bookstresses the organic features of
communication and identity in
plurilingual societies, and thesecond probes certain specificissues that speech communitiesface in meeting the demands of
contemporary ideologies,institutions, and technology.
Khubchandani is director ofthe Centre for CommunicationStudies in Poona and holds a
doctorate in linguistics from the
University of Pennsylvania.Plural Languages, Plural
Cultures is available from
booksellers or from the
University of Hawaii Press, 2840Kolowalu Street, Honolulu,
Hawaii 96822, for $15.
Cuita ' La; a
1'MichaelEwing holds amaskused in Seni TopengCirebon, an exciting masked dance form fromWin/Java, Indonesia. This ar/form was the sub-
ject of a CLI seminar presented by Ewing itsMarch. The presentation Jeatured live perfor-mance, as well as numerous slides taken in Java.Ewing n active in both the CLI arts team andthelanguage program area. Photo by Laurence Fal-luwem.
Mailing List
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Report, we included a mailing list
reply card. This card is beingused to update our mailing listand confirm your current address
and continuing interest. If youhave not returned the card,
please do so soon to insure that
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Report.
CULTURE AND THE ARTS
Staff and Participants
Spring, 1983
William Fcltz,
Educational SpecialistRichard Via,
Educational SpecialistThomas Jackson, Fellow
Ricardo D, Ttimillos, FellowRichard Brislin,
Research Associate*
Gregory Trifonovitch,
Acting Director, CL!*
Roger Long,Adjttncl Research Associate
Grace Yst-Jo Chou,
Degree Participant, Taiwan
Michael Ewing,Degree Participant, USA
Kurniko Makihara,
Degree Participant, JapanJanet Pillai,
Degree Participant, MalaysiaChristine Yano,
Degree Participant, USA
Sherry Cox,Research Intern, USA
Ruth Vasey,Research Intern, Australia
Byrun Moon,
Professional Associate, USA
*ex officio,16 East-West Culture Learning Institute Report