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M.L.Institute of
Diploma
Studies,Bhandu
A Project Report On
DESI! O" #$DRA%LI& 'A&( ) A!AL$SIS
Su*mitted +o
ujarat +echnoloical %ni-ersit
Su*mitted B
RA!A #I+E!DRASI!# (. /0123/2404/5
PA+EL SA+IS# #. /0123/240/67
8A!9ARA RA!#OD M. /0123/24044:
RA+#OD #I+ES# M. /0123/240/1/
uided B
"acult !ame ; Mr.M. (. PA+EL
Mechanical Enineerin Department
UNDEFINED PROBLEM
The student information
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Name of student
(In Capital Letters) urname Name
Father!s Name
Enro""ment
Num#er
$ontact Num#ers Mo#% Land"ine%
Emai" ID
$o""ege Name $o""ege $ode%
Branch emester%
tudent Team Name%
&.
'.
(.
).
Enro""ment
Num#ers
tudent
ignature
%'ARA+ +E!OLOI&AL %!I8ERSI+$
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M.L. I!S+I+%+E O" DIPLOMA S+%DIES
B#A!D%
$ERTIFI$*TE
This is to certify that
Mr./Ms
from College having Enrolment No:
has completed UDP/ Semester Pro!ect "eport
having title
#n a gro$p consisting of persons $nder the g$idance of the %ac$lty &$ide
#nstit$te &$ide'UDP (ead of Department
*$+NO,LED-EMENT
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I am deeply indebted to my revered supervisor
M.. P!"#L $or inspiring% en&ouraging and guiding me in
my pro'e&t or it*out *is suggestion timely guidan&e
and &o+operation. I &on$ess% I ould not *ave &ompletedmy Pro'e&t ,or *e *as been &onstantly a sour&e o$
motivation $or &omplete t*is t*esis and model.
I am very mu&* t*an$ul to -. . /0,!MI% *ead
o$ Me&*ani&al department M.L.I... !45 6 .-.
P!"#L I-% $or providing me all t*e ne&essary $a&ility $or
my pro'e&t or.
I oe a orld o$ gratitude to t*e aut*orities o$
M.L.I... !45 t*ey granted me permission *enever
I re7uested not only t*at t*ey also provided me e8&ellent
$a&ility o$ my or.
I ould lie to e8press my t*ans to my pro$. -.M. /0/# 6 pro$. -. M. P!"#L *o *ave assisted me at
various stages o$ my ,or.
I is* to e8press my *eart le$t gratitude to my
$riends. 9or t*eir &easeless *elp and &o+operation all
t*roug*out t*is onerous tas.
Last but not list I oe *ave a ord o$ gratitude
to t*e almig*ty $or providing me *idden strengt* and
inspiration. I also t*an all *o *ave supported me a lot
in my pro'e&t or.
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!"-!C":
Now a day, infrastructure development is very fast growing, for that the use of
R.C.C construction machinery is very widely used, but in any R.C.C construction machinery
proper Mixing of raw material for Concrete is major problem. Proper mixing of raw material is
important tas in any construction, for that we are use latest e!uipments which are mechanically
and hydraulically combined operated mostly. DEI-N OF OPEN /DR*ULI$ 0*$+ 1
*N*L/E is one of them which are operated by two prime movers one prime mover is usefor hydraulic system operation for operating the hoper and other for operating drum for proper
mixing of concret"he wor presented herein is mainly divided into the three chapters. "he first
chapter introduces the concrete benching mixing machine with problem formulation and
provides motivation for the project. "he second chapter presents the current state of mixing
machine research as presented in the form of scientific literature review.
P-0;#C" #9I4!"I04:
# hydraulic jac is a device used to lift
heavy loads. "he device itself is light, compact and portable, but is capable of exerting great
force. "he device pushes li!uid against a piston$ pressure is built in the jac%s container. "he jac
is based on Pascal%s law that the pressure of a li!uid in a container is the same at all point
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TABLE OF CONTENTSNo. Titles Page no.
#cnowledgement 1
#bstract 8
"ables &f Contents 9
'ist &f (igure
Nomenclature
Ch.1 Introduction )*
).) +efinition &f ydraulic -ac )
).* /ntroduction )
). Pascal0s 'aw )
).1 istory )1
).2 (eatures )1
).3 Classification &f -ac )1
).3.) Mechanical -ac )2
).3.* ydraulic -ac )2
).3. Pneumatic -ac )3
).3.1 4trand -ac )5
).5 6oring Principal78 )9
).9 6oring &f ydraulic -ac )9
).: #dvantages *)
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).); #pplications *
Ch.2 Design O !"draulic S"ste# *1
*.) ydraulic R >#+78 ;
*..* Piston Rod78 ;
*..*.) Piston Rod Construction ;
*..*.).) 8Metallic Coatings78 ;
*..*.).* C>R#M/C C"/N?478 )
*..*.). 'ength78 )
*..*. ?land @>nd CapA78 )
Ch.$ C#'CB'#"/&N (&R +>4/?N *
Ch.% '/"R>#C>R R//>6 5
Ch.& R>(>R>NC>4 19
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C*apter 1
Introdu&tion
Cha'ter 1 Introduction
1.1(Deination O !"draulic )ac*+( # hydraulic jac is a device used to lift
heavy loads. "he device itself is light, compact and portable, but is capable of
exerting great force. "he device pushes li!uid against a piston$ pressure is built in
the jac%s container. "he jac is based on Pascal%s law that the pressure of a li!uid
in a container is the same at all points.
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1.2(Introduction+(
# hydraulic jac is a jac that uses a li!uid to push against a
piston. "his is based on Pascal0s Principle. "he principle states that pressure in a
closed container is the same at all points. /f there are two cylinders connected,
applying force to the smaller cylinder will result in the same amount of pressure in
the larger cylinder. owever, since the larger cylinder has more area, the resulting
force will be greater. /n other words, an increase in area leads to an increase in
force. "he greater the difference in siDe between the two cylinders, the greater the
increase in the force will be. # hydraulic jac operates based on this two cylinder
system.
1.$(Pascal,s la- +(
Pressure on a confined fluid is transmitted undiminished and
acts with e!ual force on e!ual areas and at :; degrees to the container wall.
# fluid, such as oil, is displaced when either piston is pushed
inward. "he small piston, for a given distance of movement, displaces a smaller
amount of volume than the large piston, which is proportional to the ratio of areasof the heads of the pistons. "herefore, the small piston must be moved a large
distance to get the large piston to move significantly. "he distance the large piston
will move is the distance that the small piston is moved divided by the ratio of the
areas of the heads of the pistons. "his is how energy, in the form of wor in this
case, is conserved and the 'aw of Conservation of >nergy is satisfied. 6or is
force times distance, and since the force is increased on the larger piston, the
distance the force is applied over must be decreased.
1.%(!istor"+(
"he &rigin &f ydraulic -acs Can
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+rove (rom is #bode "o is Place &f 6or /n # 4team Carriage. /t Produced #
ery 6eird Noise "hat +isturbed "he orses #nd 4o /ts Bsage 6as 'imited "o #
4ingle 4treet. Richard Made # Claim "hat is /nvention ad "he Power "o Carry
Near #bout ); People &n # 4ingle xpanders, (ilter Press -acs, Pulling -acs,
eavy Plate ydraulic ole Punches #nd arious Einds &f 'ifting -acs.
1.&(Features+(
"he jac uses compressible fluid, which is forced into a cylinder by
a plunger. &il is usually used for the li!uid because it is self8lubricating and hasstability compared with other li!uids. 6hen the plunger comes up, it pulls the
li!uid through a chec valve suction pump. 6hen the plunger is lowered again, it
sends li!uid through another valve into a cylinder. # ball used for suction in the
cylinder shuts the cylinder and pressure builds up in the cylinder. "he suction valve
present in the jac opens at each draw of the plunger. "he discharge valve, which is
outside the jac, opens when oil is pushed into the cylinder. "he pressure of the
li!uid enables the device to lift heavy loads.
1.(Classiication O )ac*+(
1..1(/echanical 0ac*+(
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Fig 1.1 /echanical 0ac*
-acscrews are integral to the 4cissor -ac, one of the simplest inds of car jacs
still used.
# mechanical jac is a device which lifts heavy e!uipment. "he
most common form is a car jac, floor jac or garage jac which lifts vehicles so
that maintenance can be performed. Car jacs usually use Mechanical advantage to
allow a human to lift a vehicle by manual force alone. More powerful jacs use
hydraulic power to provide more lift over greater distances. Mechanical jacs are
usually rated for a maximum lifting capacity @for example, ).2 tons or tonsA. "he
jac shown at the right is made for a modern vehicle and the notch fits into a hard
point on a unibody. >arlier versions have a platform to lift on the vehicles% frame or
axle.
1..2(!"draulic 0ac*+(
ydraulic jacs are typically used for shop wor, rather
than as an emergency jac to be carried with the vehicle. Bse of jacs not designed
for a specific vehicle re!uires more than the usual care in selecting ground
conditions, the jacing point on the vehicle, and to ensure stability when the jac is
extended. ydraulic jacs are often used to lift elevators in low and medium rise
buildings.
# hydraulic jac uses a fluid, which is incompressible, that
is forced into a cylinder by a pump plunger. &il is used since it is self lubricating
and stable. 6hen the plunger pulls bac, it draws oil out of the reservoir through a
suction chec valve into the pump chamber. 6hen the plunger moves forward, it
pushes the oil through a discharge chec valve into the cylinder. "he suction valve
ball is within the chamber and opens with each draw of the plunger. "he discharge
valve ball is outside the chamber and opens when the oil is pushed into the
cylinder. #t this point the suction ball within the chamber is forced shut and oil
pressure builds in the cylinder.
/n a bottle jac the piston is vertical and directly supports a
bearing pad that contacts the object being lifted. 6ith a single action piston the lift
is somewhat less than twice the collapsed height of the jac, maing it suitable
only for vehicles with a relatively high clearance. (or lifting structures such as
houses the hydraulic interconnection of multiple vertical jacs through valves
enables the even distribution of forces while enabling close control of the lift.
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/n a floor jac @aa %trolley jac%A a horiDontal piston pushes on
the short end of a bellcran with the long arm providing the vertical motion to a
lifting pad, ept horiDontal with a horiDontal linage. (loor jacs usually include
castors and wheels, allowing compensation for the arc taen by the lifting pad.
"his mechanism provide a low profile when collapsed, for easy maneuvering
underneath the vehicle, while allowing considerable extension.
1..$( Pneu#atic 0ac*+(
# pneumatic jac is a hydraulic jac that is actuated by
compressed air 8 for example, air from a compressor instead of human wor. "his
eliminates the need for the user to actuate the hydraulic mechanism, saving effort
and potentially increasing speed. 4ometimes, such jacs are also able to beoperated by the normal hydraulic actuation method, thereby retaining functionality,
even if a source of compressed air is not available.
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1..$( Pneu#atic 0ac*+(
Fig 1.2 Threaded rod ull" e3tended
Fig 1.$ 2.& ton house 0ac* that stands 2% inches ro# to' to 4otto# ull"
threaded out.
# house jac, also called a screw jac is a mechanical
device primarily used to lift houses from their foundation. # series of jacs are
used and then wood cribbing temporarily supports the structure. "his process is
repeated until the desired height is reached. "he house jac can be used for jacing
carrying beams that have settled or for installing new structural beams. &n the top
of the jac is a cast iron circular pad that the 1F G 1F post is resting on. "his pad
moves independently of the house jac so that it does not turn as the acme8
threaded rod is turned up with a metal rod. "his piece tilts very slightly but not
enough to render the post dangerously out of plumb
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1..%8 Strand 0ac*+(
# strand jac is a specialiDed hydraulic jac that grips steel
cables often used in concert, strand jacs can lift hundreds of tons and are used in
engineering and construction.
1.(5or*ing Princi'al+(
"he hydraulic jac is a device used for lifting heavy loads by
the application of much smaller force. /t is based on Pascal0s law, which states that
intensity of pressure is transmitted e!ually in all directions through a mass of fluid
at rest.
"he woring principle of a hydraulic jac may be explained
with the help of (ig. Consider a ram and plunger, operating in two cylinders of
different diameters, which are interconnected at the bottom, through a chamber,
which is filled with some li!uid.
Fig 1.% Consider a ra# and 'lunger6
1.7(5or*ing O !"draulic )ac*+(
ydraulic jacs and many other technological advancements such as
automobile braes and dental chairs wor on the basis of Pascal%s Principle, named
for
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cylinders connected together, a small one and a large one, and apply a small (orce
to the small cylinder, this would result in a given pressure.
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4o we can apply ) lbs. to the small piston and get ); lbs. of force to lift a heavy
object with the large piston. /s this %getting something for nothing%J Bnfortunately,
no. -ust as a lever provides more force near the fulcrum in exchange for more
distance further away, the hydraulic lift merely converts wor @force x distanceA at
the smaller piston for the 4#M> wor at the larger one. /n the example, when the
smaller piston moves a distance of ); inches it displaces ); cubic inch of fluid.
"hat ); cubic inch displaced at the ); s!uare inch piston moves it only ) inch, so a
small force and larger distance has been exchanged for a large force through a
smaller distance.
ydraulic jacs have six main parts. "hese are the reservoir, pump,
chec valve, main cylinder, piston, and release valve. "he reservoir holds hydraulic
fluid. # pump will draw the fluid up and then create pressure on the down stroe as
it pushes the fluid through the chec valve. "his valve allows the fluid to leave the
reservoir and enter the main cylinder. /n the main cylinder, the piston is forced up
as the cylinder is filled with the fluid. 6hen it is time to release the pressure and
allow the piston to return to its starting position, the release valve is opened. "his
allows the fluid to return to the reservoir.
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Sho- In Figure8(
1.9(Ad:antages+(
Saet" First+(
ydraulic jacing 4ystem is one of the most safest mode to erect
storage tan, complete wor is executed on ground level preventing riss of
accidents. (or decades, there has been not a single report that proves its credibility
in being the safest and most liely method for the storage tan construction. "he
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hydraulic jac systems has now gained a lot of popularity.
Easier Ins'ection+(
&ur efficient hydraulic jacing systems needs various
scaffolding and attachments to offer comfortable access for welding heights.
No Scaolding ;e
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1.1=(A''lications+(
• +ismantling of old tans
• Repair to tan foundation
• rection of other circular structures such as reactor shields in nuclear power
stations, etc.
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Chapter *
+esign of ydraulic -ac
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Cha'ter 2 Design o !"draulic )ac*
2.1 !"draulic Basics+-
ydraulics is the science of transmitting force andIor motion
through the medium of a confined li!uid. /n a hydraulic device, power is
transmitted by pushing on a confined li!uid.(igure )8) shows a simple hydraulic
device. "he transfer of energy taes place because !uantity of li!uid is subject to
pressure. "o operate li!uid8powered systems, the operator should have a
nowledge of the basic nature of li!uids. "his chapter covers the properties of
li!uids and how they act under different conditions.
2.1.1+( Pressure and Force.+(
Pressure is force exerted against a specific area @force
per unit areaA expressed in pounds per s!uare inch @psiA. Pressure can cause an
expansion, or resistance to compression, of a fluid that is being s!ueeDed. # fluid is
any li!uid or gas @vaporA. (orce is anything that tends to produce or modify @push
or pullA motion and is expressed in pounds a. Pressure. #n example of pressure is
the air @gasA that fills an automobile tire. #s a tire is inflated, more air is s!ueeDed
into it than it can hold. "he air inside a tire resists the s!ueeDing by pushing
outward on the casing of the tire. "he outward push of the air is pressure.
>!ual pressure throughout a confined area is a characteristic of any pressuriDed
fluid.
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Figure 2.1 Basic h"draulic de:ices
(or example, in an inflated tire, the outward push of the air is uniform throughout.
/f it were not, a tire would be pushed into odd shapes because of its elasticity.
"here is a major difference between a gas and a li!uid. 'i!uids are slightly
compressible @(igure *.)A. 6hen a confined li!uid is pushed on, pressure builds
up. "he pressure is still transmitted e!ually throughout the container. "he fluid%s
behavior maes it possible to transmit a push through pipes,
around corners, and up and down.
+*H()K+)I(*
6here
() H force of the small piston, in pounds
+) H distance the small piston moves, in
inches
+* H distance the larger piston moves, in inches
(* H force of the larger piston, in pounds
2.2(Basic S"ste#s+(
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ConBned li7uid is
sub'e&t to pressure
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"he advantages of hydraulic systems over other methods of power transmission are
L 4impler design. /n most cases, a few pre8engineered components will replace
complicated mechanical linages.
L (lexibility. ydraulic components can be located with considerable flexibility.
Pipes and hoses in place of mechanical elements virtually eliminate location
problems.
L 4moothness. ydraulic systems are smooth and !uiet in operation. ibration is
ept to a minimum.
L Control. Control of a wide range of speed and forces is easily possible.
L Cost. igh efficiency with minimum friction loss eeps the cost of a power
transmission at a minimum.
L &verload protection. #utomatic valves guard the system against a breadown
from overloading.
"he main disadvantage of a hydraulic system is maintaining the precision parts
when they are exposed to bad climates and dirty atmospheres. Protection against
rust, corrosion, dirt, oil deterioration, and other adverse environment is very
important. "he following paragraphs discuss several basic hydraulic systems.
A8 !"draulic )ac*+(
/n this system a reservoir and a system of valves has been
added to Pascal%s hydraulic lever to stroe a small cylinder or pump continuously
and raise a large piston or an actuator a notch with each stroe. +iagram # shows
an intae stroe. #n outlet chec valve closes by pressure under a load, and an inlet
chec valve opens so that li!uid from the reservoir fills the pumping chamber.
+iagram < shows the pump stroing downward. #n inlet chec valve closes by
pressure and an outlet valve opens. More li!uid is pumped under a large piston to
raise it. "o lower a load, a third valve @needle valveA opens, which opens an area
under a large piston to the reservoir. "he load then pushes the piston down and
forces the li!uid into the reservoir.
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Figure 2(2. !"draulic 0ac*
B8 /otor(;e:ersing S"ste#+((igure *8*, shows a power8driven pump
operating a reversible rotary motor. # reversing valve directs fluid to either side of
the motor and bac to the reservoir. # relief valve protects the system against
excess pressure and can bypass pump output to the reservoir, if pressure rises too
high.
C8O'en(Center S"ste#+( /n this system, a control8valve spool must be open in
the center to allow pump flow to pass through the valve and return to the reservoir.
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this system in the neutral position. "o operate several functions simultaneously,
an open8center system must have the correct connections, which are discussed
below. #n open8center system is efficient on single functions but is limited with
multiple functions.
"he return from the first valve is routed to the inlet of the second, and
so on. /n neutral, the oil passes through the valves in series and returns to the
reservoir, as the arrows indicate. 6hen a control valve is operated, the incoming
oil is diverted to the cylinder that the valve serves. Return li!uid from the cylinder
is directed through the return line and on to the next valve. "his system is
satisfactory as long as only one valve is operating at a time. 6hen this happens, the
full output of the pump at full system pressure is available to that function.
owever, if more than one valve is operating, the total of the pressures re!uired for
each function cannot exceed the system0s relief setting.
2.$(Parts O !"draulic )ac*+(
?land @>nd CapA
Piston Road
Cylinder
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2.$.1.$(C"linder !ead+( "he cylinder head is sometimes connected to the barrel
with a sort of a simple loc. /n general, however, the connection is screwed or
flanged. (lange connections are the best, but also the most expensive. # flange has
to be welded to the pipe before machining. "he advantage is that the connection is bolted and always simple to remove. (or larger cylinder siDes, the disconnection of
a screw with a diameter of ;; to 3;; mm is a huge problem as well as the
alignment during mounting.
2.$.2(Piston ;od+(
"he piston rod is typically a hard chrome8plated piece of cold8
rolled steel which attaches to the piston and extends from the cylinder through the
rod8end head. /n double rod8end cylinders, the actuator has a rod extending from both sides of the piston and out both ends of the barrel. "he piston rod connects the
hydraulic actuator to the machine component doing the wor. "his connection can
be in the form of a machine thread or a mounting attachment, such as a rod8clevis
or rod8eye. "hese mounting attachments can be threaded or welded to the piston
rod or, in some cases, they are a machined part of the rod8end.
2.$.2.1+(Piston ;od Construction+( "he piston rod of an hydraulic cylinder
operates both inside and outside the barrel, and conse!uently both in and out of thehydraulic fluid and surrounding atmosphere.
2.$.2.1.1+(/etallic Coatings+(
4mooth and hard surfaces are desirable on the outer
diameter of the piston rod and slide rings for proper sealing. Corrosion resistance is
also advantageous. # chromium layer may often be applied on the outer surfaces of
these parts. owever, chromium layers may be porous, thereby attracting moisture
and eventually causing oxidation. /n harsh marine environments, the steel is often
treated with both a nicel layer and a chromium layer. &ften 1; to )2; micrometer
thic layers are applied. 4ometimes solid stainless steel rods are used. igh !uality
stainless steel such as #/4/ )3 may be used for low stress applications. &ther
stainless steels such as #/4/ 1) may also be used where there are higher stresses,
but lower corrosion concerns.
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2.$.2.1.2+(Cera#ic Coatings+( +ue to shortcomings of metallic materials,
ceramic coatings were developed. /nitially ceramic protection schemes seemed
ideal, but porosity was higher than projected. Recently the corrosion resistant semi
ceramic 'unac* coatings were introduced. "hese hard coatings are non porousand do not suffer from high brittleness.
2.$.2.1.$+(Length+( Piston rods are generally available in lengths which are cut
to suit the application. #s the common rods have a soft or mild steel core, their
ends can be welded or machined for a screw thread.
2.$.2.$+(>land ?End Ca'@+(
"he cylinder head is fitted with seals to prevent the
pressuriDed oil from leaing past the interface between the rod and the head. "his
area is called the rod gland. /t often has another seal called a rod wiper which
prevents contaminants from entering the cylinder when the extended rod retracts
bac into the cylinder. "he rod gland also has a rod wear ring. "his wear ring acts
as a liner bearing to support the weight of the piston rod and guides it as it passes
bac and forth through the rod gland. /n some cases, especially in small hydraulic
cylinders, the rod gland and the rod wear ring are made from a single integral
machined part.
C*apter 3Page no:2?
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Cal&ulation 9or
design
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CALCLATIONS+(
+istance the larger piston moves
+*H()K+)I(*
6here
() H force of the small piston, in pounds
+) H distance the small piston moves, in
inches
+* H distance the larger piston moves, in
inches
(* H force of the larger piston, in pounds
"he definition of fluid pressure is a force per unit area, or in
e!uation form,
P H ( I A
where P H pressure @NIm*, psiA,
( H force @N, lbf A, and
# H area @m*, in*A.
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T) %#ND #NNE" D#*METE" )% C+,#NDE" TU-E:'
p here P 0 total press$re
D 0 #nner diameter
p 0 or1ing press$re
2 34555 0 5.678 9 D 9 255
02555/5.6783255
D 0 4.6;
D 0 ;CM 0 ;5MM.
T) %#ND )UTE" D#*METE" )% C+,#NDE" TU-E:'
?e have already a e@$ation 0
?here 0 or1ing stress
P 0 or1ing press$re
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0 o$ter diameter of cylinder t$=e
0 inner diameter of cylinder t$=e
0 ?or1ing stress 0 A55/A0 4585 B&/CM
1050 = 300 ×
1A?AAAA3AAdo D1A?AAAA
>AAAAA
do 2>AAAAAE>
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062';5/
0;.8mm
DES#&N )% P#ST)N
?e 1no that cylinders inner diameter is e@$al to pistons o$ter diameter so piston o$ter
diameter is ;5mm . &enerally pistons are maded from M#,D STEE, SU#T*-,E
M*TE"#*,
DES#&N )% P#ST)N ")D
Material strength ENF 0 4685 1g/cm
255505.6783;53;534685
25550AFA88551g/mm
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Chapter 1
'/">R#"BR> R>/>6
LITE;AT;E ;EIE5
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/f the word hydraulics is understood to mean the use of water for the
benefit of manind, then its practice must be considered to be even older than
recorded history itself. "races of irrigation canals from prehistoric times still exist
in >gypt and Mesopotamia$ the Nile is nown to have been dammed at Memphis
some six thousand years ago to provide the necessary water supply, and the>uphrates River was diverted into the "igris even earlier for the same purpose.
#ncient wells still in existence reach to surprisingly great depths$ and underground
a!ueducts were bored considerable distances, even through bedroc. /n what is
now Paistan, houses were provided with ceramic conduits for water supply and
drainage some five thousand years ago$ and legend tells of vast flood8control
projects in China barely a millenium later. #ll of this clearly demonstrates that men
must have begun to deal with the flow of water countless millenia before these
times.
"hough both the art and the science of hydraulics treat of such flows,
they obviously differ significantly in time and substance. ydraulic practice
necessarily originated as an art, for the principles involved could be formulated
only after long experience with science in general and water in particular. owever
necessary the conduct of the art thus was to the eventual development of the
science, it is almost exclusively with the science of hydraulics that the present
article will deal. #s a matter of fact, the subiect matter of the traditional college
course in hydraulics 88 particularly as it was taught in the not8too8recent past 88
provides a framewor on which the history of the science can conveniently be
based.
4uch a course usually began with the topic of hydrostatics 88 the
characteristics of li!uids at rest. /nstructors then proceeded to the principle of
continuity @the conservation of fluid massA and a form of the wor8energy principle
nown as the
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fact that many such principles were first clarified by men lie /saac Newton whose
interests extended far beyond hydraulics itself.
"his scienceactually had its origins some two millenia ago in the
course of ?ree civiliDation. /t must be granted, however, that ?ree physics wasof such a hypothetical nature that with one exception it had little positive influence
in the millenia to follow. "he part that concerns us here is the then8prevailing belief
that the universe consists of four elements @fire, air, water, and earthA, that each is
displaced by the next in order of increasing weight, and that the space around us
must be occupied by one element or another. FNature,F in other words, Fabhors a
vacuum.F /n due time the concept of a fifth element, ether, came into being, for
want of something to fill outer space. "o the ?rees, the abhorrence of a vacuum
served to explain free flight, a body in motion presumedly being driven by the fluid
closing in behind. Enown as the medium theory of motion, this was one of the
teachings of #ristotle @918**
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must progress, his teachings eventually came to be crystalliDed, so to spea, and in
the time of 4aint "homas #!uinas @)**2851A, they were even adopted as gospel
truth by the church. /n the same period, on the other hand, researchers in the early
universities particularly Paris, &xford, and Cambridge gradually began to establish
simple mechanical relationships such as that between velocity and acceleration.
6hereas the ?rees tended to reason without recourse to observation,
it was the /talian genius 'eonardo da inci @)12*8)2):A who first emphasiDed the
direct study of nature in its many aspects. 'eonardo%s hydraulic observations
extended to the detailed characteristics of jets, waves, aud eddies, not to mention
the flight of birds and comparable facets of essential/y every other field of
nowledge. /n particular, it was 'eonardo who first correctly formulated the basic
principle of hvdraulics nown as continuity7 the velocity of flow varies inversely
with the cross8sectional area of a stream. Bnfortunately, not only were his copious
notes writteu in mirror image @probably for reasons of secrecyA, but, in addition,
most of them were lost for several centuries after his death. "hus his discoveries
had little effect on the growth of the science.
"he second essential coutribution to hydrostatics was made by the
+utch hydraulic engineer 4imon 4tevin @)2198)3*;A in )293, nearly two millenia
after the time of #rchimedes. 4tevin showed that the force exerted by a li!uid on
the base of a vessel is e!ual to the weight of a li!uid column extending from the base to the free surface. "hat this force does not depend on the shape of the vessel
became nown as the hydrostatic paradox.
/f 'eonardo was the first scientific observer of note, it was ?alileo
@)2318)31*A who added experimentation to observation, thereby throwing initial
light on the problem of gravitational acceleration. /n his study of the phenomenon,
he noted that a body sliding freely down an inclined plane attained a certain speed
after a certain vertical descent regardless of the slope$ it is said that he hence
advised an engineer that there was no point in eliminating river bends, as the
resulting increase in slope would have no effect 6hereas 'eonardo was a loner,
?allleo gathered a small school around him. &ne of his students, the #bbe
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younger colleague >vangelista "orricelli @)3;9815A applied his mentor%s analysis of
parabolic free8fall trajectories to the geometry of li!uid jets. "orricelli also
experimented with the li!uid barometer, the vacuum above the li!uid column being
comparable to the void that ?alileo found to develop in a pump whose suction pipe
exceeded a certain length$ in other words, nature abhorred a vacuum only up to acertain point
"he (rench scientist >dme Mariotte @)3*;891A is often called the
father of (rench hydraulics because of the breadth of his experimentation$ this
included such matters as wind and water pressure and the elasticity of the air, a
!uality which we usually associate with the name of the >nglishman Robert
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even conducted a variety of experiments on the resistance @due to fluid tenacity,
elasticity, want of lubricity, and inertiaA encountered by bodies in motion to prove
that nothing of the sort occurred in space. /n the course of these studies, he
formulated the speed of sound in air @except for the adiabatic constantA, the basis of
viscous shear, and the e!uation of what we now call form drag @except that hemistaenly considered shape itself to be of no importanceA. e also invented what
he termed the theory of fluxions, now nown as the calculus.
Newton%s ?erman contemporary ?ottfried 6ilhelm von 'eibniD
@)3138)5)3A conceived the principle of energy, though without the fraction one8
half in the inetic8energy term, and as a result his principle gave different results
from Newton%s momentum principle when used to describe the same phenomenon.
'eibniD also developed a form of the calculus, and his colleagues and Newton%s
soon began to accuse the other of plagiarism, a dispute which, though largely
unjustified, produced a considerable rift between the >nglish and the ?erman
scientists.
&ne of the earliest mathematicians to apply 'eibniD%s calculus @and
even to contribute some of the nomenclature still used todayA was the 4wiss -ohann
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and inetic terms, so too did the uler also deserved credit for a
number of e!uations of hydraulics and for inventing at least on paper a worable
hydraulic turbine. 6orthy of mention in the same breath as >uler and the
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through air for its drag determination was developed bv the >nglishman uler e!uations of
acceleration to include the flow of a viscous fluid. "hough he did not comprehend
the essential mechanism of viscous action, his results were mathematically correct.
"he same e!uations were developed with groater comprehension somewhat later
by the mathematician
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not only to the laminar phase of viscous flow bnt also to that nown as fluid
turbulence
/n the first half of the nineteenth century, the ?erman ?otthilf 'udwig
agen @)5:58)991A condncted in )9: some very meticu lous measurements of theflow of water in small8diameter tubes, utiliDing the water temperature instead of
the viscosity as one of the parameters. # few years later the (rench physician -ean
'ouis Poiseuille @)5::8)93:A repeated the experiments independently using even
liner tubes to simulate blood vessels, and oil and mercury in addition to water.
>xcept in ?ermany, the phenomenon is nown as Poiseuille flow, even though
neither Poiseuille nor agen really understood the mathematics of the
phenomenon. agen, however, had remared in an )921 paper that the flow was
not always laminar, the efflux jet sometimes being clear and sometimes frosty$
similarly, sawdust suspended in the water sometimes moved in straight lines and
sometimes very irregularly$ in the latter instances he noted that his resistance
e!uation no longer applied.
"hough countless contributors to hydraulic science of this period are
to be found in the ever8growing literature, only a few can be mentioned at this
point. "hese include the /talian ?iovanni ytelwein @)5318)919A and -ulius 6eisbach @)9;385)A./n
addition to nglishmen who lived in the latter part of the last century. &ne was the
Manchester professor &sborne Reynolds @)91*8):)*A, who in )95 also
experimented with flow through tubes, introducing the viscosity to form a
parameter maring the borderline between laminar and turbulent flow. now nown
as the Reynolds number. Reynolds also showed bv the injection of dye the
difference be tween the two states of motion, for which he is given the credit really
due agen for his wor *; years earlier.
6illiam (roude @)9);85:A was a somewhat older contemporary of Reynolds whose
interests lay in the field of naval architecture. (roude built himself a towing tan
on his own property and in part with his own funds, for the operation of which he
had formulated a similarity law for flows under the influence of gravity. "his law
has come to be nown under (roude%s name, although it had actually been
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announced at least *; years earlier by (erdinand Reech @)9;2 9;A, an #lsatian
teaching in a naval college at Paris. uler and d%#lembert, the practice was continued
by such e!ually famous men as 'agrange @)538)9)A, 'aplace @)51:8)9*5A,
elmholtD @)9*)8:1A, Eelvin @)9*18):;5A, and Rayleigh @)91*8):):A, as recorded
in the many editions of the treatise ydrodymimic by the Manchester professor
orace 'amb @)91:8):1A. owever, although presumably dealing with the same
fluids, the two subjects were far apart, for hydraulics still laced mathematical
rigor, and hydrodynamics, sufficient contact with reality. "hus, when human flight
became a lielihood, neither hydraulics nor hydrodynamics could provide a useful
scientific basis for the understanding of aerodynamic lift if not of drag.
(ortunately, a new science, the mechanics of fluids, came into being at
the hands of 'udwig Prandtl @)9528):2A, a ?erman mechanical engineer teachingat the Bniversity of ?ottingen. e reasoned as early as ):;1 that relative motion
between a fluid and a streamlined boundary could be analyDed in two parts7 a thin
layer at the boundary providing the viscous resistance to motion, and the fluid
outside the boundary layer providing, in accordance with the principles of
irrotational flow, the normal forces producing lift. Prandtl, and the many students
who passed through his hands, proceeded to formulate the essential principles of
airfoil and propeller operation. #t the same time, the general principles of fluid
mechanics became the basis of related fields, including hydraulics. /n fact, PaulRichard einrich
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Niuradse @)9:18):5:A experimented extensively on the resistance of rough pipes
as well as smooth.
>xcept for uropeans. #srecounted elsewhere , #merican hydraulicians gradually became aware of >nglish,
(rench, and eventually ?erman discoveries, utiliDing their coefficients and later
repeating and extending their experiments. urope under (reeman%s auspices were in positions
of responsibility. "heir experiments ranged from torpedo cavitation to ship drag,
from the diffusion of smoe and gas by wind to fog dispersal over airplane landing
fields, from the throw of fire streams to atmospheric turbulence.
(reeman%s indirectrole in advancing the science in #merica was
directly abetted by the influence of two naturaliDed immigrants,
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an extended translation of his 4t. Petersburg dissertation on open8channel flow. #
native ungarian, von Earmfin was one of Prandtl%s earliest doctoral students and
later a very productive professor at #achen, ?ermany$ with the rise of itler, he
migrated to Cal "eeh at Pasadena, and then to 6ashington as air force consultant
during the war$ he was the first to receive from President Eennedy the new National Medal of 4cience, and his autobiography "he 6ind and
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Chapter 2
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;E
FE;ENCES
05-C# 5#
"*ese are t*e sour&es 7uoted or parap*rased in t*is
publi&ation. 4onmilitary Publi&ations ydrauli&s. eere and Company ervi&e Publi&ations% Moline%
Illinois. 1@@>. Industrial ydrauli&s Manual. Fi&ers "raining Center%
-o&*ester ills% Mi&*igan. 1@@3.
0C5M#4" 4### "*ese do&uments must be available to t*e users o$ t*is
publi&ationG epartment o$ t*e !rmy 9orms ! 9orm 2A2?. -e&ommended C*anges to Publi&ations and
lan 9orms. 9ebruary 1@>
*ttp:HH.mar&ur.&omHydrauli&s2APd$H?A+??2Aydrauli&2A;a&s
2AMar&ur2Aydrauli&s.pd$
*ttp:HH.deri'&e.&omHdlHmanual.pd$
*ttp:HH.google.&o.inHJ7*ydrauli&D'a&Dpd$DBle6*len6sa$ea&tive6pr
mdimvns6eigK#">7sM$,rKeIa3K6start2A6sa46bavon.2%or.r
g&.rp.%&$.osb6$pA$A$A&@>136sa$ea&tive
*ttp:HH.redbo8tools.&om
Page no:>
http://www.marcur.com/Hydraulics%20Pdf/80-88%20Hydraulic%20Jacks%20Marcur%20Hydraulics.pdfhttp://www.marcur.com/Hydraulics%20Pdf/80-88%20Hydraulic%20Jacks%20Marcur%20Hydraulics.pdfhttp://www.derijcke.com/dl/manual.pdfhttp://www.google.co.in/#q=hydraulic+jack+pdf+file&hl=en&safe=active&prmd=imvns&ei=gQ4ET7qsM4fWrQeI_a3QDw&start=20&sa=N&bav=on.2,or.r_gc.r_pw.,cf.osb&fp=40f04f0c97159462&biw=1152&bih=773&safe=activehttp://www.google.co.in/#q=hydraulic+jack+pdf+file&hl=en&safe=active&prmd=imvns&ei=gQ4ET7qsM4fWrQeI_a3QDw&start=20&sa=N&bav=on.2,or.r_gc.r_pw.,cf.osb&fp=40f04f0c97159462&biw=1152&bih=773&safe=activehttp://www.google.co.in/#q=hydraulic+jack+pdf+file&hl=en&safe=active&prmd=imvns&ei=gQ4ET7qsM4fWrQeI_a3QDw&start=20&sa=N&bav=on.2,or.r_gc.r_pw.,cf.osb&fp=40f04f0c97159462&biw=1152&bih=773&safe=activehttp://www.derijcke.com/dl/manual.pdfhttp://www.google.co.in/#q=hydraulic+jack+pdf+file&hl=en&safe=active&prmd=imvns&ei=gQ4ET7qsM4fWrQeI_a3QDw&start=20&sa=N&bav=on.2,or.r_gc.r_pw.,cf.osb&fp=40f04f0c97159462&biw=1152&bih=773&safe=activehttp://www.google.co.in/#q=hydraulic+jack+pdf+file&hl=en&safe=active&prmd=imvns&ei=gQ4ET7qsM4fWrQeI_a3QDw&start=20&sa=N&bav=on.2,or.r_gc.r_pw.,cf.osb&fp=40f04f0c97159462&biw=1152&bih=773&safe=activehttp://www.google.co.in/#q=hydraulic+jack+pdf+file&hl=en&safe=active&prmd=imvns&ei=gQ4ET7qsM4fWrQeI_a3QDw&start=20&sa=N&bav=on.2,or.r_gc.r_pw.,cf.osb&fp=40f04f0c97159462&biw=1152&bih=773&safe=activehttp://www.marcur.com/Hydraulics%20Pdf/80-88%20Hydraulic%20Jacks%20Marcur%20Hydraulics.pdfhttp://www.marcur.com/Hydraulics%20Pdf/80-88%20Hydraulic%20Jacks%20Marcur%20Hydraulics.pdf
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