Chapter 9

Theories of

Discourse and

Interaction

Chapter 9

Communication

Is a transactional process in which the onesactions have wide-ranging influences on the Actions of others.

Mutual influence = Two way impact

Key TermsSpeech Act Theory

Coordinated Management of Meaning Theory(CMM)

Communication Accommodation Theory

Expectancy Violation Theory

Speech Act TheoryPerforming an Action 5 Types of Speech Acts

1. Assertives

2. Directives

3. Commissive

4. Expressives

5. Declaratives

Assertives

• You are the weakest link!

The advocate that truth value of a proposition.

State Claim Declare

Hypothesize

TO:

Directive

That attempt to get the listener to do something

OrderRequestBegInviteAdviseAsk

TO:

Declaratives

I am going to pass Comm. Theory

By their very assertion, make something so

Quit Nominateappoint Define Name

TO:

Illocutionary v/s Perlocutionary

Illocutionary ActWhat is the message?

When I say: “It’s cold in here”Am I saying that because of experience or am I asking for a jacket or asking to turn up the heat.

Illocutionary v/s Perlocutionary

Perlocutionay

Deals with the effect on the receiver

Deals with the impact on the impact of the receiver

Causing the receiver to put another log on the fire or turn of the thermostat

Coordinated Management of Meaning Theory(CMM)

Providing some understanding of how meanings are created, coordinated, and managed in the social world.

Management – Meaning – Coordination

The hierarchy of meaning will change depending on how well you know someone

Coordinated Management of Meaning Theory(CMM)

Meaning are Managed by Rules

1. Constitutive Rule = Expression of Mild disbelief

“O.M.G.” (oh my gosh)

“Get out of hear”

Knowing what the words count for!

The Interpretation of the receiver gives meaning to the worlds

Coordinated Management of Meaning Theory(CMM)

Meaning are Managed by Rules cont.

2. Regulative Rules = Patterns of regular behavior within certain situations

If you say “O.M.G.” all the time when someone tells you a story, O.M.G switching from a constitutive word or phase to a Regulative word of phase because of the repetition of the use of that word or phase.

Hierarchy of meaning• A kiss in church or “You can count on me” can

take on different meaning as the relationship changes.

At the introduction phase of a relationship words or phases could take different meaning that a relationship of many years.

From Dictionary content to Relationship experience

Meshing

• How intentions and interpretation mesh

Meaning + Action = Coordinate

Two people having an argument and both people thinking that they came out on top

Communication Accommodation Theory

Originated in Communication

Seeks to explain with monitors and adjustment

Change your style of talk or word based on the person you are talking with.

Talk slow to with old people,Speak with a southern drawl in the south, Baby talk

Communication Accommodation Theory

Speaker Attune:

Matching someone else speech characteristics;

AccentLength of utterances, Speech rate, Tone

Communication Accommodation Theory

Convergence:

To make similar to someone else

Individuals adapt to each other’s speech

Changing you word to sound like your: professor, friend from England or your Cajun roommate

Communication Accommodation TheoryDivergence: When interactants try to highlight differences

between themselves and others in the interactions.

Full: individual matches the communication behavior of the other

Partial: individual come close to the other but does not match the behavior of the other

Hyper: the individual goes beyond the behavior of the other (know as mocking) aka … cross-over

Unimodal: converging the vocabulary (Uni = one)

Multimodal: several dimensions of behavior

Symmetrical vs. Asymmetrical

Symmetrical :

Both parties in the Interaction attempt to converge towards each other

Asymmetrical:

Only one party in the interaction attempts to converge

Antecedents (aka) “Cause” to Accommodation

Wanting to be like another

Need for social approval, especially if future interaction is likely

Status & Power

Antecedents to Accommodation

Consequences of Accommodation

Depends of the interpretation we make of others accommodation

Negative consequences for convergence if we perceive that the person is accommodating to curry favor.

Doctor – patient interaction

Expectancy Violation Theory

Began as a theory of nonverbal communication

Arousal – causes us to pay more attention to the violation than other elements

of the interaction

Expectancy Violation Theory

Violation of Expectation

Depends on 2 Factors;

1. Your evaluation of the violation itself2. Your evaluation of the person

committing the violation

Expectancy Violation Theory

• Negative Valance ~ Does less than expected• Positive Valance ~ Does more than expected

Threshold level is the behavior recognized as violating the expectation

Arousal = causes an alertness that diverts attention

Expectancy Violation Theory

Communicator reward valence

Reward valence is based on a host of factors that influence assessment of the violation;

1. Personality, 2. Physical attractiveness3. Likelihood of future interaction4. Status or power

Theories of Relational Development

Relationships is how we explain the world

Key Terms

OrientationOutcomesSocial penetration theoryExploratory affective exchange Uncertainty reduction theory

AxiomsReciprocityAffective exchangeStable exchangeSelf-disclosure

Chapter 10

Social Penetration Theory

The development of relationships and self-disclosure

4 sequential stages of relationship

1. Orientation2. Exploratory affective

3. Affective exchange4. Stable exchange

Social Penetration Theory

Orientation:

The earliest stage were cautions and tentative in their interaction of sharing information.

Surface and Small Talk

Social Penetration Theory

Exploratory affective exchange:

The individuals begin to relax and share some information beyond small.

Family and Back ground

Social Penetration Theory

Affective exchange:

Many barriers have been crossed with a great deal of open exchange occurs.

Close friends and Romantic

Social Penetration Theory

Stable exchange:

Continued openness and interactions. Communication occurs often and can be nonverbal level

Solid and stable Friendship. Rate of self-disclosure is slowing down.

Social Penetration Theory

• Breadth and Depth ~ As people move through these stages, both the breadth and depth of information exchange increase

Easy to Re-enter

Social Penetration Theory

Self Disclosure: involves communication about self and can be both intimate and non-intimate.

I am from Michigan I want to be the Mayor I have very few close friendsI have low back pain

Self-DisclosureIn

Relationships

Social Penetration Theory

Reciprocity ~ When one person reveals something about themselves, the other person will tend to feel an obligation to reply with similar information.

Is not automaticNot tit-for-tatReply can accrue later in the relationship

Self Disclosure and Reciprocity

The rate of exchange changes as individuals move through relational stages.

Social Penetration

Theory

Social Exchange Theory

We compare our outcomes in a currentrelationship to past relationships and to possibleFuture relationships

Evaluating relationships in an economic fashion

Cost – Rewards = Outcome

Social Exchange Situation

Outcomes ~ involves a consideration of both the rewards derived from the relationship and the cost.

Comparison level (CL) ~ Our assessment of part relationships

Comparison level of alternatives (CLalt) ~ Assessment of possible future relationships

Past, Present and what else is available

The outcome will lead to a

decision

Uncertainly Reduction Theory

Uncertainly Reduction: A process of increasing predictability outcomes of complete strangers

Going through certain steps and checkpoints in order toreduce uncertainty about each other and form an idea of

whether one likes or dislikes the other

Uncertainly Reduction Theory

According to this theory uncertainty is NOT GOOD

Reduce uncertainties by information seeking The stages of the relationship is determined by the value,

one person places on the relationship and the cost verses the rewards.

According to Social Penetration Theory: Things that cause unusual depth discovery lake emotion and social exchange theory lacks emotion.

Information-Seeking Strategies

Passive Stategies~ (aka) Observation : Watching someone in a variety of socialsituations.

Information gathering without interaction

Example:You could watch how Glenda acts during partiesespecially those at which she is particularly comfortable.

Information-Seeking Strategies

Active Strategies ~ Asking questions of 3rd parties to test the rules

Individuals might ask other people questions about the target individual or might structure the environment in ways that information can be gathered.

ExampleYou could talk with Glenda’s friends about her behavior or invite her to a gathering

Information-Seeking Strategies

Interactive Strategies ~ The target person is asked direct questions or in

which self-disclosure is used

with hope that reciprocation

will lead to more information Example:You could ask Glenda yourself (interrogation) or Share your own views and hope for reciprocation

Motivations for Reducing Uncertainty

Future interaction: If we think we are going to have future interaction with someone

Incentive: values or possible potential rewards

Deviation: Better understanding with someone is outside the norm.

Axioms of Uncertainty Reduction Theory(Axioms = Taking at face value)

Axiom 1: Given the high level of uncertainty at the onset, Increasing verbal communication betweenStrangers will decrease the level of uncertainty

Uncertainties verbal communication

Theories of Communication Process

Positive Feedback ContradictionNegative Feedback PraxisEquifinality External DialecticsContent Function Internal DialecticsContent Function Praxis PatternsRelational Function Symmetrical Complementary Dialectics

Chapter 11

One Cannot “NOT Communicate

Communication is not always’ intentional

People receive messages, regardless of whether they were sent intentional or not.

Major importance in Interpersonal Communication

Content and Relationship Function

Each message attempts to express content, but it also says something about the relationship

Relationship Function classifies the content of the function

Context = wordsRelationship = Tone

Content and Relationship Function cont.

“Did you give Ben his meds yet”

Content dimension: words within the statement Relationship dimension: Tone of voice can give

different meaning negative positive

Provides meaning

Symmetrical vs. Complementary

Symmetrical ~ based on equality, mirroring, equal(Talking to your husband, wife or associate)

Complementary ~ based on maximizing difference, power imbalance, (“I am

more important than you”)(Talking to a student, teacher or boss)

Axioms of Uncertainty Reduction Theory

Axioms 2:

uncertainty nonverbal

Axioms of Uncertainty Reduction Theory

Axioms 4:

High levels of uncertainty Cause

Low levels in intimacy

Axioms of Uncertainty Reduction Theory

Axioms 5:

High levels of uncertainty Produce

high rates of reciprocity

Application of Uncertainty Reduction Theory

Intercultural: People from different Countries

Continuing Relationship

Organizational How fire fighters remove the Socialization uncertainties from work

Relational System Theory

Relationship are systems and need maintenance

Chapter 11

Maintaining the Relationship System

Regular communication Spending quality timeActs of service Words of affirmation Gifts

Positive Feedback: Leads to change or improvement within the relationship

Negative Feedback: Preserves the status quo

Maintaining the Relationship System

Permeability ~ Relationships are open to environmental influence

Environment ~ Can and will effect relationships

Equifinality ~ Multiple ways to reach the desired level of satisfaction

Environment

Relationship

Theories of Relational Dialectics

Contradiction~ Perhaps the most central and dining feature of a dialectical approach.

One in which both forces can – and do – exist simultaneously.

(In a relationship you can simultaneously desire intimacy and distance )

Dialectics within a Relationship

1: Connectedness Separateness

Individual autonomy must be sacrificed

To much connection results in Identity lose

Dialectics within a Relationship

2. Certainly Uncertainly

Without predictability and uncertainly a Healthy Relationship would become bring

and could not be sustained.

Managing the tension between certainty and uncertainly is a central part of

relational communication

Dialectics within a Relationship

3. Openness Closedness

Not a linear path to intimacy Sometimes we need for the other person to

know everything

All feeling and facts need not be shared

4. Inclusion Seclusion

Need seclusion to bond and must negotiate the tension between doing things as a couple and doing things within a larger group

Need out side exposure for stimulation support

Dialectics within a Relationship

5. Conventionality Uniqueness

Excessive uniqueness makes others uncomfortable (following social norms)

Intimacy requires that relational partners fell different from the rest of the world

Things that are only known inside the relationship(Pet names, eating cereal from a cool whip bowl)

Dialectics within a Relationship

6. Revelation Concealment

“Going Public” about one issue or another provides opportunities for support.

There are times within the relationship you will want To keep things private (mis-carriage) and other times

you will want to be public (wedding)

Dialectics within a Relationship

Paxis Pattern DefinitionDenial Connectedness but ignoring needs for separateness. Don’t

work out in the long run Disorientation Overwhelmed. Contradictions are regarded as inevitable,

negative, and unchangeable. Spiraling inversion Bouncing back & forth between poles, meets most of the needs

of the RelationshipSegmentation Compartmentalization, some issues are dealt by favoring one

pole other anotherBalance Reconcile both poles / in compromiseRecalibration Temporarily reframing situation so that poles don’t seem

oppositional

Patterns of Relational Praxis identified

Theories of Communication Context

Weick’s theory of organizing: equivocality, enactment, selection, retention, recipes, causal maps

Unobtrusive and concertive control theory: simple, technological, bureaucratic, and concertive control; identification, discipline

Chapter 12

Dialogue(Littlejohn)

Dialectics, Chronotopic similaritySelf-becomingAmplitudesalience

Dialogue

Used to maintain relationships !

A coming together of diverse voices in conversation

Conversation that defines & redefines Relationshipas they emerge in actual situations over time

What we use to manage dialectical tensions

Dialogue

Can be used as a turning point in a relationship

Need not be verbal comm., could be an action

Self, other and relationship are constructed and maintained through talk.

Dialogue

Create moments (photos) or turning points to remember as important

Retelling old stories that highlights similarity and shared experience (chronotopic similarity)

Identify and reinforce difference between and others (self-becoming)

(men are from mars women are from venus)

Dialogue

Unity with in difference:

Dialogue gives us a chance to achieve unity within diversity

We use conversations to manage competing needs for connection and autonomy

Express needs and perceptions and empathize with needs and perceptions of others

DialogueWhat changes our relationships:

Amplitude: Strength of feeling and behaviors

Salience: focus on past situations, present or future (babies, marriage, etc…)

Dialogue

Sequence – order of events in the relationship How you organize your timeWhat you do around and with one

another

Pace/Rhythms: Rapidity of events, length of intervals between events

Dialogue is Aesthetic

Aesthetic perceived pattern in the relationship that makes it seem identifiable, unique and whole

Dialogue produces an overall sense of what the relationship is like

When we talk about our relationship and tell stories about them out talk reflects that aesthetics

Momentary and evolving

Narrative Paradigm

Narrative: Express and understand thru story telling which is a natural part of being human

Our beliefs and behaviors are reflected in and shaped by narratives

More board than theory

Narrative = perspective or approach

Narrative ParadigmIn contrast to narrative , many theories of

communication are grounded in rational paradigm

Narration “symbolic actions” – words and or deeds that have sequence and meaning for who create or interpret them”

Narrative Paradigm vs. Rational Word Paradigm

Narrative RationalWe are story tellers we are rational beingDecision are based on good reasons Decision are based on argumentsGood reason are based on history Arguments should be logical and

SoundBiography, Culture and chamber Rationality is based on quality of Rationality is based on how internally knowledge and formal reasoning

consistent and truthful stories seems The world can fully understand though

We experience the world thought reasoning stories

Narrative Rationality

Traditional, test of rationality include do claims correspond to actual facts?

Have all the facts been considered?

Are arguments internally consistent?

Does the reasoning that connects bacts and claims seem logical?

Narrative Rationality

Coherence: Structural Coherence: Do the elements of the story

flow smoothlyMaterial Coherence: Is t he character in the storyCharacterological:Fidelity: Does the story seem believable?

Does it ring true?

Fidelity: A measure of simplistic

Evaluation the Narrative Paradigm

An interpretive theory

Criticized as overboard

Narrative rationality may be overrated

But does help to explain why we tell stories and why some are more believable

Narrative is in more of Political films

Real world emphasis on groups and teams design of typical organizations has changed (Growing decision task complexity)

Simple vs. complex problems

Half of all decisions fail (nutt)(if a decision sticks for a year, it is considered a good decision.

Functional theory of Group Decision Making

Key functions Include:

1. Understanding of the issues2. Criteria for evaluation3. Identification of alternatives

Process4. Evaluation of alternatives To Make5. Selection of alternative that

Decisionsmatches established criteria

Chapter 13

Functional Theory of Group Decision Making

1. Analysis of problem situation2. Establish criteria for evaluation solutions3. Consider positive & negative attributes of

specific solutions4. Must establish operating norms and procedures

that guide groups communication

Functional Theory argues that these functions associated with higher quality decisions

Functional Theory of Group Decision Making

Research generally supports the theory, but individual studies often differ with regards to which functions are most related to decision quality.

Overall, research shows that the most important factors are

1. Assessing negative consequences of potential solutions.

2. Problem analysis

Functional Theory of Group Decision Making

• Criticisms:

Applies only to groups with no history, (not real groups) aka ad hoc groups

Applies only to task related groups

Multiple Sequence modelUnitary sequence path ~ Follows the traditional

sequence of orientation, “Rational, logical and standard”

Complex cyclic path ~ Multiple problem-solution cycles

Solution-oriented path ~ Centers of solutions and involves no activity to problem definition or analysis.

Symbolic convergence theoryFantasy Theme ~ Ignites group interaction.

Refers to something outside

Fantasy Chain ~ “chaining out” Sharing of group fantasies that groups develop a sense of community and shared identity

Fantasy Type / Vision ~ emerges when same set of themes cross several groups

Once ideas goes across groups it becomes a vision

Impact of Symbolic Convergence Theory

Believes that the sharing of group fantasies

Indentifying who is “in” and “out” of the group

Clearly divides the sympathetic or good people (we) from the unsympathetic or the evil people (they)

Bona fide group (BFG) perspective

Groups are complex and contextual

Treats groups as a social system linked to its context

BFG are marked by shifting membership

BFG are clearly not zero-history or ad hoc groups