Transcript of Chapter Introduction Section 1 Life in Ancient RomeLife in Ancient Rome Section 2 The Fall of...
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- Chapter Introduction Section 1 Life in Ancient RomeLife in
Ancient Rome Section 2 The Fall of RomeThe Fall of Rome Section 3
The Byzantine EmpireThe Byzantine Empire Reading Review Chapter
Assessment Roman Civilization Click on a hyperlink to view the
corresponding slides.
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- Chapter Objectives Discuss the cultural achievements of the
Romans and describe the daily lives of people in Rome. Explain why
the Roman Empire fell and summarize its legacy in law, government,
language, and the arts. Describe the rise and cultural
accomplishments of the Byzantine Empire. Roman Civilization
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- Get Ready to Read Section Overview This section discusses the
cultural achievements and daily life of the Roman people during the
height of the empire. Life in Ancient Rome
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- Get Ready to Read (cont.) Focusing on the Main Ideas In
addition to their own developments in science and engineering,
Roman artists and writers borrowed many ideas from the Greeks. The
rich and poor had very different lives in the Roman Empire, as did
men and women. Life in Ancient Rome
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- Get Ready to Read (cont.) Meeting People Virgil (VUHRjuhl)
Horace (HAWRuhs) Galen (GAYluhn) Ptolemy (TAHluhmee) Spartacus
(SPAHRtuhkuhs) Life in Ancient Rome
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- Get Ready to Read (cont.) Building Your Vocabulary vault
(VAWLT) satire (SA TYR ) ode (OHD) anatomy (uhNAtuhmee) forum
(FOHRuhm) gladiator (GLAdee AY tuhr) paterfamilias ( PA
tuhrfuhMIHleeuhs) rhetoric (REHtuhrihk) Life in Ancient Rome
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- Get Ready to Read (cont.) Reading Strategy Compare and Contrast
Use a Venn diagram like the one on page 302 of your textbook to
show similarities and differences between the rich and the poor in
Rome. Life in Ancient Rome
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- Roman Culture The Romans admired the Greeks and copied some of
their ideas, though they often changed what they borrowed. Roman
statues and art portrayed people with flaws, whereas Greek art and
statues portrayed ideal people. (pages 303305) Romans incorporated
Greek ideas in their architecture, such as columns and porches.
Life in Ancient Rome
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- They also used their own ideas, such as arches, domes, and
vaults, which are curved ceilings. Two famous buildings still stand
today: the Colosseum, which is a large arena, and the Pantheon,
which is a temple built in honor of Romes gods. (pages 303305) Life
in Ancient Rome Roman Culture (cont.)
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- The Roman writer Virgil wrote the Aeneid, which tells the story
of the Trojan prince Aeneas and his followers. The poet Horace
wrote satires, which are works that poke fun at human weaknesses,
and odes, which express strong emotions about life. The writers
Ovid and Catullus were inspired by Greek writing and myths. (pages
303305) Life in Ancient Rome Roman Culture (cont.)
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- Livy, one of Romes most famous historians, wrote the History of
Rome. Many modern European languages spoken today are based on
Latin, the language of Rome. The Greek doctor Galen brought Greek
medical ideas to Rome. (pages 303305) Life in Ancient Rome Roman
Culture (cont.)
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- Ptolemy was a famous scientist who studied and mapped the
stars. Engineers created an advanced road system and aqueducts that
provided water. (pages 303305) Life in Ancient Rome Roman Culture
(cont.)
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- How did the historians Livy and Tacitus differ? Livy celebrated
Romes greatness. Tacitus did not regard Roman culture positively.
He felt the Romans were losing the values that made them strong and
that the emperors had taken peoples freedom. Life in Ancient
Rome
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- Daily Life in Rome Rome was one of the largest cities in the
ancient world. (pages 306310) The Forum was in the center of Rome
and served as a marketplace and public square. Wealthy Romans lived
in large, fine homes. Poorer people lived in apartment buildings of
stone and wood. Life in Ancient Rome
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- Daily Life in Rome (cont.) Because of high rent, most people
could not afford large homes. The government provided free grain
and sporting shows, such as chariot races and gladiator contests.
Gladiators were men who fought animals and each other. Roman
families were large, including young and married children, other
relatives, and enslaved servants. (pages 306310) Life in Ancient
Rome
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- Daily Life in Rome (cont.) The paterfamilias was the man who
headed the family. Wealthy childrenboys and girls received an
education through hired tutors. Some boys went to school. A boy
became a man between ages 14 and 16 years. (pages 306310) Life in
Ancient Rome
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- Daily Life in Rome (cont.) Girls became adults when they
married. Women had few rights but were influential in the family.
(pages 306310) Life in Ancient Rome
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- Daily Life in Rome (cont.) Wealthy women had more freedom than
poor women. Slaves were not uncommon in the Roman Empire. Slaves
suffered many hardships and were treated poorly. Sometimes slaves
revolted against the Romans. (pages 306310) Life in Ancient
Rome
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- Daily Life in Rome (cont.) Spartacus was a gladiator who led a
slave revolt. Romans worshipped many gods and goddesses. As the
Roman Empire grew, the Romans conquered people of other religions.
They were allowed to worship freely as long as they did not
threaten the Roman government. (pages 306310) Life in Ancient
Rome
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- How did the population of slaves grow during the time of the
Roman Empire? As Rome took over more lands, they captured and
enslaved more people. Life in Ancient Rome
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- What were some of Ptolemys scientific achievements? He mapped
more than 1,000 stars and studied the motions of the planets. Life
in Ancient Rome
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- How were the Roman and Greek religions similar? The Romans
adopted Greek gods and gave them Roman names.
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- Analyze Explain the importance of the language of the Romans.
Answers should be based on the text. Life in Ancient Rome
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- Describe Describe the education of Roman children. Boys in rich
families learned reading, writing, and rhetoric. Girls stayed at
home to learn reading, writing, and how to manage households. Life
in Ancient Rome
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- Conclude The Romans borrowed ideas from other people. Do you
think our culture today borrows ideas from other peoples? Explain
your answer. Answers will vary. Life in Ancient Rome
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- Make a list using the following headings. List several facts
under each one to summarize the chapter. The Arts Science and
Engineering Family Life Slavery Religion Life in Ancient Rome
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- Get Ready to Read Section Overview This section chronicles the
decline and fall of the Roman Empire and discusses the empires
important legacy. The Fall of Rome
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- Get Ready to Read (cont.) Focusing on the Main Ideas Rome
finally fell when invaders swept through the empire during the A.D.
400s. Poor leadership, a declining economy, and attacks by Germanic
tribes weakened the Roman Empire. Rome passed on many achievements
in government, law, language, and the arts. The Fall of Rome
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- Get Ready to Read (cont.) Diocletian ( DY uhKLEEshuhn) Meeting
People Constantine (KAHNstuhn TEEN ) Theodosius ( THEE uhDOHshuhs)
Constantinople ( KAHNSTAN tuhnOHpuhl) Locating Places Alaric
(Aluhrihk) Odoacer (OHduh WAY suhr) The Fall of Rome
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- Get Ready to Read (cont.) Building Your Vocabulary plague
(PLAYG) inflation (ihnFLAYshuhn) barter (BAHRtuhr) reform
(rihFAWRM) The Fall of Rome
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- Get Ready to Read (cont.) Reading Strategy Sequencing
Information Create a diagram like the one on page 317 of your
textbook. Show the events that led up to the fall of the Western
Roman Empire. The Fall of Rome
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- The Decline of Rome After the Severans ended, Romes leadership
grew weak, and the government grew corrupt. With a weak government,
the economy worsened. After Aureliuss death, Commodus and the
Severans ruled Rome. (pages 318320) A plague, or a disease that
spreads widely, broke out and killed many people. The Fall of
Rome
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- The Decline of Rome (cont.) Invaders began pushing into the
empires territory, and the Roman government could not pay Roman
soldiers. Emperor Diocletian tried to establish reforms that would
improve the political situation. Inflation, or rapidly increasing
prices, occurred because money became less valuable. The Fall of
Rome (pages 318320)
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- The Decline of Rome (cont.) He moved the capital city to
Byzantium, and the city later became known as Constantinople.
Emperor Constantine tried to stop the empires decline. The Fall of
Rome (pages 318320)
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- How did inflation occur? The government put less gold in its
coins to create more money to pay soldiers. People learned that the
coins did not have as much gold in them, so they did not value the
coins as highly. The Fall of Rome
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- Rome Falls Theodosius became emperor after Constantines death.
(pages 322324) Theodosius split the empire into two separate
empires: the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire. The
Visigoths feared the Huns and asked Rome for protection. In
exchange, Rome required the Visigoths to be loyal to them. The Fall
of Rome
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- Rome Falls (cont.) The Visigoths rebelled against the Romans
and beat the Romans at the Battle of Adrianople. More Germanic
groups invaded Roman territory. The Fall of Rome (pages
322324)
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- Rome Falls (cont.) The Visigoth leader Alaric and his soldiers
captured the city of Rome and burned it. The Fall of Rome (pages
322324)
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- Rome Falls (cont.) The Vandals overpowered Romes territories in
Spain and northern Africa. Then they entered Rome and destroyed
buildings. Odoacer was a Germanic leader who took control of Romes
government from the emperor Romulus Augustulus. This event marked
the end of the Western Roman Empire. The Fall of Rome (pages
322324)
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- Rome Falls (cont.) A band of Visigoths killed Odoacer and set
up a kingdom in Italy. The Eastern Roman Empire continued to
prosper after the fall of the Western Roman Empire. It became known
as the Byzantine Empire. The Fall of Rome (pages 322324)
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- Why did the Visigoths rebel against the Romans? Although the
Romans agreed to protect the Visigoths, they treated them badly.
The Romans charged the Visigoths higher prices for food and
kidnapped and enslaved many of them. The Fall of Rome
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- The Legacy of Rome The law and government of the United States
today is influenced by the laws and government of the ancient
Romans. (pages 325326) The alphabet of the Latin language is used
through the Western world today. Many European languages stemmed
from Latin. Many English words come from Latin. The Fall of
Rome
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- The Legacy of Rome (cont.) Western architecture uses styles of
the Romans, such as domes and arches. Christianity began in the
Roman Empire. The Fall of Rome (pages 325326)
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- What ideas in the U.S. legal system came from the Roman system?
We believe that all people are created equal, that people are
innocent until proven guilty, that judges should be fair, and that
the best form of government is a republic made up of equal
citizens. The Fall of Rome
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- What social problems helped cause the empires decline?
dishonest officials and a decline in respect for Roman values;
widespread slavery; the people stopped serving in government and
paying taxes; fewer people were educated The Fall of Rome
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- Why did the Roman government use Germanic warriors in its army?
The Romans used Germanic warriors to help defend its borders. The
Fall of Rome
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- Cause and Effect How did inflation affect Rome? Prices rose
sharply; weak economy meant fewer taxes paid; government could not
pay its soldiers and officials; debased currency; people stopped
using it. The Fall of Rome
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- Describe Who were the Visigoths, and how did they contribute to
the fall of Rome? The Visigoths were a Germanic people who moved
into Roman territory to escape the Huns; they defeated the Romans
at Adrianople and sacked Rome. The Fall of Rome
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- Identify Give examples of Roman ideas in language and
architecture that exist today. English and other modern languages
were shaped by Latin. Roman architecture is reflected in many
buildings today. The Fall of Rome
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- Persuasive Writing Imagine you are living in Rome around the
time of the fall of the empire. Write an editorial for a newspaper
identifying what you think is the main reason for the decline and
fall of the empire, and what might have been done to prevent it.
Answers will vary. The Fall of Rome
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- Could the Western Roman Empire have solved its problems and
continued to exist? Explain your answer. The Fall of Rome
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- The Byzantine Empire Get Ready to Read Section Overview This
section discusses the rise and accomplishments of the Eastern
Roman, or Byzantine Empire, which carried on the legacies of both
Greece and Rome.
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- Get Ready to Read (cont.) The Byzantine Empire The Eastern
Roman Empire grew rich and powerful as the Western Roman Empire
fell. The policies and reforms of Emperor Justinian and Empress
Theodora helped make the Byzantine Empire strong. The Byzantine
developed a rich culture based on Roman, Greek, and Christian
ideas. Focusing on the Main Ideas
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- Black Sea Aegean Sea (ihJEEuhn) Justinian (juhSTIHneeuhn)
Meeting People Theodora ( THEE uhDOHRuh) Belisarius ( BEH
luhSAReeuhs) Tribonian (truhBOHneeuhn) The Byzantine Empire Get
Ready to Read (cont.) Locating Places
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- mosaic (mohZAYihk) saint (SAYNT) Reading Strategy Cause and
Effect Complete a chart like the one on page 327 of your textbook
to show the causes and effects of Justinians new law code. regent
(REEjuhnt) The Byzantine Empire Get Ready to Read (cont.) Building
Your Vocabulary
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- The Rise of the Byzantines The Eastern Roman Empire was known
as the Byzantine Empire. It included Greeks, Egyptians, Arabs,
Armenians, Jews, Persians, Slavs, and Turks. Constantinople was the
capital of the Byzantine Empire. (pages 328329) The Byzantine
Empire
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- The Rise of the Byzantines (cont.) Constantinople was located
between the Black Sea and the Aegean Sea, at the crossroads of
trade routes between Europe and Asia. People of early
Constantinople initially followed Roman ways. They spoke Latin and
enforced Roman laws. The Byzantine Empire (pages 328329)
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- The Rise of the Byzantines (cont.) Eventually, the Byzantine
Empire became more influenced by Greece. People spoke Greek and
drew upon Greek culture. Some ideas from the Slavs, Egyptians, and
Persians also mixed in with the Greek influences. The Byzantine
Empire (pages 328329)
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- How did Constantinoples location help protect it from invasion?
It was located on a peninsula, with seas on three sides. A wall was
built on the fourth side to protect the city from a land invasion.
The Byzantine Empire
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- Emperor Justinian Empress Theodora, Justinians wife, helped her
husband rule Byzantine. Justinian was the emperor of the Byzantine
Empire from A.D. 527 until A.D. 565. (pages 329330) She gave him
advice and advocated more rights for Byzantine women. Justinian
tried to restore the Roman Empire by invading Western Europe and
northern Africa. The Byzantine Empire
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- Emperor Justinian (cont.) Tribonian was a legal scholar who
worked with his colleagues to simplify the law code, so it could be
more easily understood. Belisarius was a general who helped lead
the Byzantine army. The Byzantine Empire (pages 329330)
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- Why did Justinian fail to reunite the Roman Empire? After
conquering most of Italy and northern Africa, the Byzantine Empire
did not have money to maintain an army large enough to hold the
territory. The Byzantine Empire
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- Byzantine Civilization Constantinople was its largest and
wealthiest city. The Byzantine Empire lasted for about 1,000 years.
(pages 332334) The Byzantine Empire
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- Byzantine Civilization (cont.) It was the center of trade
between Europe and Asia. The Byzantine Empire depended on trade.
(pages 332334) Silk weaving was a major industry. Byzantine
emperors supported artists and architects. The Byzantine
Empire
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- Byzantine Civilization (cont.) Hagia Sophia was the religious
center of the Byzantine Empire and was a great architectural
accomplishment. Mosaics are pictures made from many bits of colored
glass or stone. The Byzantine Empire (pages 332334) Marriage and
family were very important in the Byzantine way of life. Most
mosaics showed saints, or Christian holy people.
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- Byzantine Civilization (cont.) Byzantine women obtained some
rights. They became educated, and some served as regents, or people
who stand in for rulers who are too young or too ill to govern. The
Byzantine Empire (pages 332334) The Byzantine government supported
education.
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- Byzantine Civilization (cont.) Boys studied academic subjects
in Byzantine schools. Girls did not attend school but were taught
at home. Most written literature was religious. The Byzantine
Empire (pages 332334)
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- What rights did Byzantine women have? Byzantine women could
obtain an education and serve in government. The Byzantine
Empire
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- What is a mosaic, and where were mosaics found in the Byzantine
Empire? A mosaic is a picture made of tiny pieces of colored glass
or stone, usually found in churches and monasteries.
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- The Byzantine Empire How did silk weaving develop in the
Byzantine Empire? Byzantine travelers smuggled silkworm eggs from
China to the empire.
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- Describe What were some of the trade items that were exchanged
between merchants in Constantinople? From Asia: spices, gems,
metals, and cloth From Byzantines: farm goods, furs, honey, and
enslaved people The Byzantine Empire
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- Explain Why were divorces difficult to get in the Byzantine
Empire? Religion and the government stressed the importance of
marriage. The Byzantine Empire
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- Analyze What important service did Byzantine writers provide to
the rest of the world? Explain its significance. Byzantine writers
copied and preserved the writings of the ancient Greeks and Romans;
otherwise these works would have been lost. The Byzantine
Empire
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- Persuasive Writing Which civilization do you think was the most
advancedthat of the Greeks, the Romans, or the Byzantines? Write a
speech explaining your answer. Answers will vary. The Byzantine
Empire
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- List the contributions of the Byzantine Empire. The Byzantine
Empire
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- Section 1: Life in Ancient Rome Focusing on the Main Ideas
Roman Civilization In addition to their own developments in science
and engineering, Roman artists and writers borrowed many ideas from
the Greeks. The rich and poor had very different lives in the Roman
Empire, as did men and women.
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- Section 2: The Fall of Rome Focusing on the Main Ideas Poor
leadership, a declining economy, and attacks by Germanic tribes
weakened the Roman Empire. Rome finally fell when invaders swept
through the empire during the A.D. 400s. Roman Civilization Rome
passed on many achievements in government, law, language, and the
arts.
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- Focusing on the Main Ideas The Eastern Roman Empire grew rich
and powerful as the Western Roman Empire fell. The policies and
reforms of Emperor Justinian and Empress Theodora helped make the
Byzantine Empire strong. Section 3: The Byzantine Empire The
Byzantines developed a rich culture based on Roman, Greek, and
Christian ideas. Roman Civilization
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- __ 1.pictures made of many bits of colored glass or stone __
2.rapidly increasing prices __ 3.father of a family __ 4. emotional
poem about lifes ups and downs Review Vocabulary A.ode B.inflation
C.anatomy D.mosaic E.plague F.paterfamilias G.gladiator H.regent
Define Match the vocabulary words with the definitions. D B A Roman
Civilization F
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- __ 5.a disease that spreads widely __ 6.a person who stands in
for a ruler who cannot govern __ 7.a warrior who fought animals and
people in public arenas __ 8. study of the bodys structure Review
Vocabulary A.ode B.inflation C.anatomy D.mosaic E.plague
F.paterfamilias G.gladiator H.regent Define Match the vocabulary
words with the definitions. E H G C Roman Civilization
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- Section 1 Life in Ancient Rome What did the Romans borrow from
the Greeks? What did they develop on their own? Romans borrowed
ideas in sculpture, architecture (porches, colonnades) and
literature. They developed architecture (vault, dome, concrete),
roads, aqueducts, and law and government. Roman Civilization Review
Main Ideas
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- What were the lives of the rich and poor like in the Roman
Empire? The rich lived in large, comfortable houses. They educated
their children. The poor lived in crowded conditions in unsafe
apartment buildings, and they did not educate their children. Roman
Civilization Section 1 Life in Ancient Rome Review Main Ideas
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- Section 2 The Fall of Rome What weakened the Roman Empire? Poor
leadership, a declining economy, and attacks by Germanic tribes
weakened the Roman Empire. Roman Civilization Review Main
Ideas
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- What caused the fall of Rome in the A.D. 400s? Germanic
invasions Roman Civilization Section 2 The Fall of Rome Review Main
Ideas
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- Section 3 The Byzantine Empire What policies and reforms helped
make the Byzantine Empire strong? Justinians law code; rights for
women; reconquered Italy and North Africa; added cavalry to the
army Roman Civilization Review Main Ideas
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- What different groups of people contributed to the Byzantine
culture? Greeks, Egyptians, Slavs, Persians, and others Roman
Civilization Section 3 The Byzantine Empire Review Main Ideas
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- Cause and Effect Why did Alarics capture of Rome shock the
Roman people? Rome had not been conquered in 800 years. Roman
Civilization
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- Predict What do you think would have happened if Theodosius had
not divided the Roman Empire? Answers will vary. Roman
Civilization
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- Explore online information about the topics introduced in this
chapter. Click on the Connect button to launch your browser and go
to the Journey Across Time Web site. Click on Chapter 9-Chapter
Overviews to preview information about this chapter. When you
finish exploring, exit the browser program to return to this
presentation. If you experience difficulty connecting to the Web
site, manually launch your Web browser and go to
http://www.jat.glencoe.com
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- Maps Germanic Invasions of Rome c. A.D. 200500 The Byzantine
Empire A.D. 527565 Click on a hyperlink to view the corresponding
slides. Charts Greek and Roman Gods The Decline of Rome
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- Click the map to view an interactive version.
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- Ptolemy studied astronomy. He was also a geographer who plotted
every geographic feature he knew on a grid and taught others how to
create maps. Life in Ancient Rome
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- The Hippodrome was a racing track in Constantinople. It is
estimated that the Hippodrome held about 100,000 people. Much of
the Hippodrome is gone, but what remains forms a square in
Istanbul. The Fall of Rome
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- Empress Theodora came from a theatrical family. Her father was
a bear keeper for the circus, and the empress was a very popular
comedic actress. The Byzantine Empire
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- Your Point of View Learn It! Reading Social Studies An
important part of reading involves thinking about and responding to
the text from your own point of view. Read the paragraph on the
following slide about daily life in Rome and look at how one
student reflects as she reads.
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- from page 306 The city of Rome was crowded, noisy, and dirty.
People tossed garbage into the streets from their apartments, and
thieves prowled the streets at night. Most people in Rome were
poor. They lived in apartment buildings made of stone and wood.
High rent forced families to live in one room. Reminds me of a city
I visited once What would that look like? What would it smell like?
Were they like apartment buildings today? Sounds like it would be
very uncomfortable and crowded! Reading Social Studies
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- Reflect and Respond Practice It! Do boys do anything today to
show that they have become men? What does a toga look like? What
does a palla look like? Read the paragraph from Chapter 9 on page
301 in your textbook. Take a few minutes to reflect on what you
have read and then respond by exchanging thoughts with a partner
about the following topic questions. Reading Social Studies
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- Reflect and Respond Practice It! Read the paragraph from
Chapter 9 on page 301 in your textbook. Take a few minutes to
reflect on what you have read and then respond by exchanging
thoughts with a partner about the following topic questions. Why
did a woman have to wait until she married to become an adult? Why
were boys and girls treated so differently? Reading Social
Studies
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- Roman Civilization Introduction
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- Life in Ancient Rome
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- The Fall of Rome
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- The Byzantine Empire
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- The Book of Epodes
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- Primary Source Distrust of Money Rome is Attacked Click on a
hyperlink to view the corresponding slides.
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- Distrust of Money
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- Rome is Attacked
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- Theodora Refuses to Flee
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- Sports & Contests Sports were important to the Romans.
Paintings on vases, frescoes (moist plaster), and stone show Romans
playing ball, including a version of soccer. Roman girls are shown
exercising with handheld weights and throwing an egg-shaped ball.
Balls were made of different materials such as wool, hair, linen,
sponges, and pig bladders wrapped in string. Some Roman sporting
events took place in the Colosseum, amphitheaters, and the Circus
Maximus. Wild beast fights, battles between ships, and gladiator
contests attracted Roman spectators by the thousands. Chariot
racing was held in the Circus Maximus, and the drivers wore team
colors of red, white, green, and blue. Ancient Roman Sports
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- Connecting to the Past Paintings on vases, frescoes, and stone
show Romans participating in sports. 1.How do we know sports were
important to the Romans? 2.How are todays sports different from
Roman sports? How are they similar? Today sports do not feature
fights between animals, battles between ships, or contests to the
death between gladiators. Similarities may include comparisons
between chariot racing and horse racing.
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- Focus on Everyday Life Public and private slavery were common
in Roman society. Public slaves were owned by the state. They took
care of important buildings and served government officials.
Educated public slaves were used to help organize the governments
of conquered areas. Private slaves were owned by individuals. They
were often forced to work long hours and could be sold at any time.
Wealthy Romans had hundreds or even thousands of enslaved people.
Most enslaved people worked on farms. Most enslaved people were
men. This was probably because their work required great strength.
Some enslaved men also became gladiators. Enslaved women made
clothing and cooked for their owners family. Slavery in the Roman
Empire
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- Connecting to the Past Public slaves were owned by the state.
Private slaves were owned by an individual. 1.What was the main
difference between public and private enslavement? 2.Which jobs
were probably considered the most desirable by enslaved people?
Answers will vary but may include jobs as groundskeepers or
personal assistants at country villas.
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- c. A.D. 280337Constantine The Great
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- Empress Theodora C. A.D. 500548
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- Ptolemy was limited to what he could see with his own eyes.
When observed from the earth, the other planets and stars seem to
rotate around. Daily Focus Skills Transparency 91 Chapter 9
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- Daily Focus Skills Transparency 92 Chapter 9
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- Answers will vary, but should reflect that the Muslim Turks
wanted to hide Christian symbols. Daily Focus Skills Transparency
93 Chapter 9
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