Chapter 5Ethics ♣

Research Ethics: What Are They? Ethical Dilemmas Ethical Guidelines APA Ethical Standards for Research Issues Raised by the APA Code of Ethics Ethics of Animal Research

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5.1 Research Ethics: What Are They?

Definition of “Research Ethics”

A set of guidelines to assist the experimenter in

conducting ethical research

Ethical concerns (Diener & Crandall, 1978)

Relationship Between Society and Science

Professional Issues

Treatment of Research Participants

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5.1.1 Relationship Between Society and Science

Society Government funding of scientific research

Congressional influence on which studies are funded

Corporate ( 財團法人 ) funding of scientific research

Culture

Scientist’s own culturally based interests

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5.1.2 Professional Issues -1

Scientific Misconduct Definition (by OSTP, 2000)

Fabricating, falsifying, or plagiarizing (FFP) the proposing, performing, reviewing, or reporting of research results

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5.1.2 Professional Issues -2 (end)

Scientific Misconduct Other less serious issues

(ex) failing to present data contradicting one’s own work

(ex) changing the design to meet pressure from a funding source

Developing an institutional culture of ethical behavior --best way of combating this. Tab 5.1

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5.1.3 Treatment of Research Participants

Welfare of the research participant was disregarded in favor of science (ex) radiation experiment

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5.2 Ethical Dilemmas

Ethical Dilemma Definition—deciding if the benefit of the research

is greater than the cost to the participants Primary consideration—welfare of the participant

Role of the Institutional Review Board (IRB) Review research protocols to assess ethical

acceptability of a study Tab 5.2

Use of the decision-plane model for making decisions Fig 5.1

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5.3 Ethical Guidelines

Respect for Persons and Their Autonomy Beneficence and Nonmaleficence Justice Trust Fidelity and Scientific Integrity

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5.3.1 Respect for Persons and Their Autonomy

An Autonomous Person

Capable of making decisions and following them

Participant’s Informed Consent

Difficulties Limited or diminished capacity to understand Solution: Proxy ( 代理人 )

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5.3.2 Beneficence and Nonmaleficence

Beneficence ( 善行 ) : doing good

Maximize the probability that participants receive some benefit

Nonmaleficence ( 不害 ) : doing no harm

Minimize the probability of harm to the participant

IRB: review

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5.3.3 Justice

All participants receive equal benefits

The research participants benefit as much as nonparticipants

Difficulties:

Can not be known prior to its completion

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5.3.4 Trust

Researchers should establish and maintain a relationship of trust with the research participants.

Compromised Deception Confidentiality ( 匿名，保密 ) not maintained

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5.3.5 Fidelity and Scientific Integrity

Conduct quality research

Truthfully report the research

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5.5 Issues Raised by the APA Code of Ethics

Institutional Approval

Informed Consent

Deception

Debriefing

Coercion and Freedom to Decline Participation

Confidentiality, Anonymity, and the Concept of Privacy

Ethical Issues in electronic research

Ethical Issues in Preparing the Research Report

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5.5.2 Informed Consent -1

Informed Consent: informing of all aspects of the study that may influence the willingness to volunteer to participate

Dispensing with Informed Consent Fig 5.2 Not necessary (e.g., 人口普查 ) Impossible (e.g., field study) Not reasonably be assumed to create distress or harm

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5.5.2 Informed Consent -2(end)

Informed Consent and Minors

Assent: agreement from a minor to participate

( 同意 ) after appropriate explanation

Passive versus Active Consent

Active: verbally agreeing and signing a form

Passive: (from a parent or guardian)

by not returning the consent form

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5.5.3 Deception -1

Types Active deception – deception by commission

Deliberately misleading by giving false information

Passive deception – deception by omission

Withholding information by not giving all the details

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5.5.3 Deception -2(end)

Objections May cause participants to distrust psychologists Potential for wronging and harming participants Neither objection has occurred Fig 5.3

Alternatives such as role playing are inadequate

Type of studies in which it raises ethical concerns Studies that involve invasion of privacy and/or may

harm the participants

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5.5.4 Debriefing

Debriefing: A postexperimental discussion or interview about the details of the study, including an explanation for the use of any deception

Goal: Dehoaxing & Desensitizing

DehoaxingDebriefing the P about any deception used

DesensitizingElimination any undesirable influence

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5.5.5 Coercion and Freedom to Decline Participation

Fig 5.4Back to Chapter Contents

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5.5.6 Confidentiality, Anonymity, and the Concept of Privacy -1

Privacy

Having control of others access to information about you

Two aspects to privacy (Folkman, 2000)

When and under what circumstances others get your information

You must be able to decline receiving information that you do not want

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5.5.6 Confidentiality, Anonymity, and the Concept of Privacy -2(end)

Confidentiality

Not revealing information obtained from a research P to anyone outside the research group

Anonymity

Keeping the identity of the research P unknown

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5.5.7 Ethical Issues in electronic research -1

Informed consent Complicated because there is no clear distinction

between what is public and what is private over the internet

How to obtain informed consent Can put a consent to participate form on line

— Does the participant understand it— How do you answer questions about the study

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5.5.7 Ethical Issues in electronic research -2

Privacy and confidentiality Hackers can obtain the data But data can be encrypted ( 譯成密碼 ) and the

only connection to the participant is the IP address

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5.5.7 Ethical Issues in electronic research -3 (end)

Debriefing Difficult to do

If person terminates the study early If connection with the study is broken by computer

crash or power outage Ways to maximize probability of debriefing

Have participant provide an e-mail address Provide a ‘leave the study’ radio button Incorporate a debriefing page into the program so it is

delivered directly to the participant

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5.5.7 Ethical Issues in Preparing the Research Report -1

Principles to follow Justice—who will be the author(s) Scientific integrity—accurate and honest reporting

Authorship Substantial contribution: conceptualization,

design, execution, analysis, or interpretation of the study

Contribution of a technical nature: acknowledged in a footnote (附註 )

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5.5.7 Ethical Issues in Preparing the Research Report -2 (end)

Writing the Research Report Presentation should be honest and written with

integrity Avoid plagiarism—not giving another person

credit for their work How to indicate another’s work

— Quotation marks— Indented material (citation)

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5.6 Ethics of Animal Research

Animal Rights

Alternatives to the Use of Animals

Safeguards in the Use of Animals

Animal Research Guidelines

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5.6.4 Animal Research Guideline -1

Focus on animal welfare and not animal right

Animal welfareImproving the lab conditions &

reducing the number of animals used

Animal rightThe belief that

a animals have the rights similar to humans and

should not be used in research

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5.6.4 Animal Research Guideline -2(end)

1. Justification of the Research

2. Personnel

3. Care and Housing of Animals

4. Acquisition of Animals

5. Experimental Procedures (p.173)

6. Field Research

7. Educational Use of Animals

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