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Chapter 2.2Game Design
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Overview
Game design as… full-time occupation is historically new field of practical study – even newer
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Overview
Folk games [Costikyan] “Traditional” games with cultural
origins Examples:
Tic-Tac-Toe (Naughts and Crosses) Chess Go Backgammon Poker
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Overview
This introduction covers: Terms Concepts Approach
All from a workaday viewpoint
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Overview
There is no one “right” way to design
There are many successful approaches Specific requirements and constraints
of each project and team determine what works and what does not.
This introduction is but a scratch
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The Language of Games
Game development – a young industry
Standards are still being formulated Theory Practice Terminology
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The Language of Games
Debate continues over high-level views
Lack of standard (concrete) definitions Game Play
High-level concepts tricky to articulate
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The Language of Games
Workplace differences usually low-level Working terminology
Example “actors” instead of “agents” “geo” instead of “model”
Workflow – how things get done Individual responsibilities Processes under which work is performed
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The Language of Games
Why do we play? Not a designer’s problem
What is the nature of games? Not a designer’s problem
How is a game formed of parts? A designer’s problem
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The Language of Games
Our simplistic high-level definitions Easy to modify to fit multiple cultures Practical over metaphysically true
play game aesthetics
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Play and Game
Play Interactions to elicit emotions
Game Object of rule-bound play
General enough to cover everything
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Aesthetics and Frame
Aesthetics Emotional responses during play
Naïve practical approach, not classical
Frame The border of a game’s context
Inside the frame is in the game Outside the frame is real life
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Approaching Design Computer games are an art form Game design practices can be taught Technical discipline like music, film,
poetry
The art of making dynamic models
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Approaching Design
Mental/Cognitive Concepts Beliefs Maps
Examples: Locations Relationships
Mathematical Equations Formulas Algorithms
A model represents something
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Approaching Design Abstract model
Conceptual and idealized A tool for investigating specific questions Simplifies thinking to help understand problems May include assumptions thought to be false
Abstract game One rule
The piece is moved to the open square
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A Player-Game Model A model of the player – game
relationship
M e c hanic s Inte r fac e Sys te m
P LAYER G AM E
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A Player-Game Model
Mechanics Things the player does
Interface Communication between player and
game System
Underlying structure and behavior
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Control and State Variables
Defined by Isaacs in Differential Games
Control variables Inputs from players
State variables Quantities indicating game state
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Play Mechanics
Gameplay Feelings of playing a particular game Activities engaged in a particular
game (Play/game) Mechanics
Specific to game activities “What the player does”
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Seven Stages of Action
Execution Intention to act Sequence of action Execution of action
sequence
Evaluation Evaluating
interpretations Interpreting
perceptions Perceiving states
P e rc e ivings tate s
Inte rpre t ingpe rc e ptio ns
E valuat inginte rpre tat io ns
E xe c utio n o fac t io n s e que nc e
Se que nc e o fac t io n
Inte nt io nto ac t
G o als
T H E GA M E
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Seven Stages of Action
A goal is formed Models the desired state The desired result of an action Examples:
Have a glass of water in hand Capture a queen Taste ice cream
P e rc e ivings tate s
Inte rpre t ingpe rc e ptio ns
E valuat inginte rpre tat io ns
E xe c utio n o fac t io n s e que nc e
Se que nc e o fac t io n
Inte nt io nto ac t
G o als
T H E GA M E
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Seven Stages of Action
Goals turned into intentions to act Specific statements of what is to be done
P e rc e ivings tate s
Inte rpre t ingpe rc e ptio ns
E valuat inginte rpre tat io ns
E xe c utio n o fac t io n s e que nc e
Se que nc e o fac t io n
Inte nt io nto ac t
G o als
T H E GA M E
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Seven Stages of Action
Intentions put into an action sequence The order internal commands will be performed
P e rc e ivings tate s
Inte rpre t ingpe rc e ptio ns
E valuat inginte rpre tat io ns
E xe c utio n o fac t io n s e que nc e
Se que nc e o fac t io n
Inte nt io nto ac t
G o als
T H E GA M E
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Seven Stages of Action
The action sequence is executed The player manipulates control variables
P e rc e ivings tate s
Inte rpre t ingpe rc e ptio ns
E valuat inginte rpre tat io ns
E xe c utio n o fac t io n s e que nc e
Se que nc e o fac t io n
Inte nt io nto ac t
G o als
T H E GA M E
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Seven Stages of Action
The state of the game is perceived State variables are revealed via the interface
P e rc e ivings tate s
Inte rpre t ingpe rc e ptio ns
E valuat inginte rpre tat io ns
E xe c utio n o fac t io n s e que nc e
Se que nc e o fac t io n
Inte nt io nto ac t
G o als
T H E GA M E
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Seven Stages of Action
Player interprets their perceptions Interpretations based upon a model of the system
P e rc e ivings tate s
Inte rpre t ingpe rc e ptio ns
E valuat inginte rpre tat io ns
E xe c utio n o fac t io n s e que nc e
Se que nc e o fac t io n
Inte nt io nto ac t
G o als
T H E GA M E
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Seven Stages of Action
Player evaluates the interpretations Current states are compared with intentions and
goals
P e rc e ivings tate s
Inte rpre t ingpe rc e ptio ns
E valuat inginte rpre tat io ns
E xe c utio n o fac t io n s e que nc e
Se que nc e o fac t io n
Inte nt io nto ac t
G o als
T H E GA M E
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Seven Stages of Action
Donald Norman’s approximate model Actions not often in discrete stages Not all actions progress through all
stages
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Seven Stages of Action
Scales to… …an individual mechanic
A “primary element” Examples:
Move Shoot Talk
…an entire game A generalized model of interaction
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Designer and Player Models Systems are built from designer mental
models Design models may only anticipate player
goals
Designer U ser
Us er 'sM o d el
D es ig nM o d el
S y s tem I m ag e
System
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Designer and Player Models Players build mental models from mechanics
Based upon interactions with the system image The reality of the system in operation
Not from direct communication with designers Player and designer models can differ significantly
Designer U ser
Us er 'sM o d el
D es ig nM o d el
S y s tem I m ag e
System
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Core Mechanics
Typical patterns of action Fundamental mechanics cycled
repeatedly Examples:
Action shooters – run, shoot, and explore Strategy game – explore, expand, exploit,
exterminate referred to as the “four X’s”
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Premise
The metaphors of action and setting
Directs the player experience Provides a context in which
mechanics fit Players map game states to the
premise
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Premise
Story is the typical example of premise Time Place Characters Relationships Motivations Etc.
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Premise
Premise may also be abstract Tetris operates under a metaphor
The metaphor: arranging colored shapes
Encompasses all game elements Player discussions use the language
of the premise
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Premise
Games are models Activities being modeled form
premise Actions may appear similar in model Usually are fundamentally quite
different Sports games are good examples
Playing video games isn’t like playing the sport
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Premise
Goes beyond setting and tone Alters the players mental model
Basis of player understanding and strategy
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Premise
Possible Capable of happening in the real world
Plausible Possible within the unique world of
premise “Makes sense” within the game’s premise Consistent with the premise as understood
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Choice and Outcome
Choice A question asked of the player
Outcome The end result of a given choice
Possibility space Represents the set of possible events A “landscape” of choice and outcome
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Choice and Outcome
Consequence or Weight The significance of an outcome
Greater consequences alter the course of the game more significantly
Choices are balanced first by consequence
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Choice and Outcome
Well-designed choice Often desirable and undesirable effects Should relate to player goals Balanced against neighboring choices
Too much weight to every choice is melodrama
Orthogonal choices – distinct from others Not just “shades of grey”
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Qualities of Choice Terms in which to discuss choices
Hollow – lacking consequence Obvious – leaves no choice to be made Uninformed – arbitrary decision Dramatic – strongly connects to feelings Weighted – good and bad in every choice Immediate – effects are immediate Long-term – effects over extended period Orthogonal – choices distinct from each other
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Goals and Objectives
Objectives Designed tasks players must perform
Rigid requirements – formal
Goals An intentional outcome
Notions that direct player action Scales all levels of motivation
From selecting particular strategies… …to basic motor actions (e.g. pressing a button)
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Goals and Objectives
Objectives and goals can differ Players goals reflect their understanding of the game Designers must consider how the game communicates
with players Affordances – the apparent ways something can be used
Designer U serSystem
F in d s w o r dKill d r ag o nR es c u e p r in c es s
F in d s w o r dR es c u e d r ag o nKill p r in c es s
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Resources
Resources Things used by agents to reach goals To be meaningful, they must be…
Useful – provide some value Limited – in total or rate of supply
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Economies Economies
Systems of supply, distribution, consumption
Questions regarding game economies: What resources exist? How and when will resources be used? How and when will resources be supplied? What are their limits?
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Player Strategy
People usually reason with commonsense A view of linear causation – cause and effect
Complex systems do not behave linearly Players need information to support linear
strategy
Situat io n R e s ul tAc tio n
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Game Theory Game Theory
Branch of economics Studies decision making
Utility A measure of desire associated with an
outcome Payoffs
The utility value for a given outcome Preference
The bias of players towards utility
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Game Theory
Rational Players Abstract model players – not real
people Always try to maximize their potential
utility Solve problems using pure logic Always fully aware of the state of the
game
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Game Theory Games of skill
One-player games Outcomes determined solely by choices
Games of Chance One-player games Outcomes determined in whole or part by nature
(chance)
Games of Strategy Competitions between two or more players
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Game Theory
Decision under certainty Players know the outcome of any
decision Risky decisions
Probabilities of nature are known Decision under uncertainty
Probabilities of nature are unknown
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Interface
Interface Input, presentation, and feedback.
Input Player to game
Output Game to player
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Interface Contains both hardware, software, and
performance elements. Hardware such as game pads Software such as engines Performance such as pressing a button
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Interface
Graphical user interface (GUI) A visual paradigm of control
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Interface
Typical perspectives: First-person Over-the-shoulder (OTS) Overhead (top-down) Side Isometric
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Interface
General categories of audio Music Sound effects Dialog
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Interface
Music Powerful tool for establishing mood and
theme
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Interface
Controls Physical input devices
Control inputs User manipulations of the controls
They are not strategies Example: a sequence of buttons to perform a
combo Strategies involve deciding when to
perform
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Interface
Key map or control table A diagram showing control input,
action, and context
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Interface Control diagrams
Show input, action, and context
Action Con tro l Con text
Le ft a ll
R igh t a ll
Fo rwa rd a ll
Backwa rd a ll
Sprin t a ll
Pass O ffense
Lob O ffense
Shoo t O ffense
Stea l De fense
Block De fense
Hit De fense
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Interface
Front-end In application software
The visible portion of the application In games
GUI elements not displayed during play
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Interface HUD (Head-Up Display)
Displays during play Shows and other information difficult to
present directly in the game environment Examples
Scores Resource levels Mini Map Chat Alerts Level
2>need backup!!!>No>...
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Interface
Mapping An understood relationship between two
things Especially the relationship of a model to its
subject Examples
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HCI and Cognitive Ergonomics
HCI – Human-Computer Interaction Study of…
Communication between users and computers How people design, build, and use interfaces Better support for cooperative work
Cognitive Ergonomics Analyzes the cognitive representations and
processes involved with performing tasks
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Design of Everyday Things Norman’s five principles of design
Visibility Making the parts visible
Mappings Understandable relationships between controls
and actions Affordances
The perceived uses of an object Constraints
Prevent the user from doing things they shouldn’t Feedback
Reporting what has been done and accomplished
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Systems System
A set of interrelated components Their function and relationships form a whole
Architecture The particular arrangement of system elements
Game systems exist to enable play mechanics
Relationships between components determine how the system works to produce results
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Systems Objects
Pieces of a system Attributes
Properties determining what objects are Behaviors
Actions the objects can perform Relationships
How the behavior and attributes of objects affect each other while the system operates
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Systems Two general approaches to design
Special case Experiences built one scene/level at a time Anticipate states while pre-scripting events Solved by discovering the intentions of the
designer Systemic
General behaviors are designed Scenes/Levels are specific configuations Some events may still be pre-scripted Solved by understanding the system
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Systems
Emergent complexity Behaviors that cannot be predicted
simply from the rules of a system Emergence
Coined by George Henry Lewes in 1873
See: John Conway’s Game of Life
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Systems
Dynamics The behavior of systems over time
Generalizing dynamic behavior is hard Dynamics determined by a given
architecture
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Systems Cybernetics
Study of communication, control, and regulation
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Systems A basic cybernetic system has:
Sensor – detects a condition Thermometer
Comparator – evaluates the information Switch
Activator – alters the environment when triggered by the comparator
Senso r
C om parato r
Ac t i vato r
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Systems Feedback
The portion of a system’s output that is returned into the system
Feedback Loop The path taken by the feedback
L e v e l
G o a l
Info rm a tio nA c tio n
R a te
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Systems Positive feedback
Leads to runaway behavior Difficult to make use of
Negative feedback Leads to goal seeking behaviors Most common form in systems
P o s it ive Fe e dbac k N e gative Fe e dbac k
go al
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Systems Negative feedback
Stabilizes the game Forgives the loser Prolongs the game Magnifies late
successes
Positive feedback Destabilizes the game Rewards the winner Can end the game Magnifies early
successes
Marc Leblanc
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Systems
System Dynamics Created by Jay Forrester 1956, MIT A discipline for modeling and
simulation Originally a tool for policy analysis
Applicable to any system
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Constraints
Platform General description of hardware and
software Personal computer – PC, Mac, etc. Console – Game Cube, PlayStation, Xbox, etc. Handheld – DS, Game Boy Advance, PSP, etc. Mobile device – Cel Phones, NGage, PDA, etc. Arcade – custom vending games (e.g. Time Crisis)
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Constraints
Game Saves Save triggers Save-anywhere Save points Coded text saves
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Genres
Genre – a category describing generalities of conventions, style, and content
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Genres Action Adventure Arcade Casual Education Fighting First-person
shooter Platform
Racing Rhythm Role-Playing (RPG) Simulation Sports Strategy Puzzle Traditional
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Audiences
Target audience Group of expected consumers
Demographics Study of relevant economic and social
statistics about a given population Demographic variables
The relevant factors
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Audiences
Market Demographic segmentation of
consumers Market segments
Smaller sub-segment of the market; more tightly defined
Demographic profile Typical consumer attributes in a
market
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Audiences Heavy Users
Those of the numeric minority of potential users responsible for majority of sales of any product
“80/20 rule”
Hardcore gamer Game industry term for heavy video game
users Casual gamer
Game industry term for all other gamers
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Audiences
Typically assumptions of the hardcore:
Play games over long sessions Discuss games frequently and at length Knowledgeable about the industry Higher threshold for frustration Desire to modify or extend games creatively Have the latest game systems Engage in competition with themselves, the game,
and others
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Audiences Why We Play Games – Nicole Lazzaro
Internal experience Enjoyment from visceral activities
Hard fun Challenge of strategy and problem solving
Easy fun Intrigue and curiosity – exploration and adventure
Social experience Stimulating social faculties – competition,
teamwork, bonding, and recognition
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Iterating
Waterfall method Development methodology Design and production are broken into
phases
Iterative development Practice of producing things incrementally
Refining and re-refining the product
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Iterating
Prototypes Early working models of the product Used to test ideas and techniques
Physical prototypes Non-electronic models; physical materials
Software prototypes Used regularly during iterative development
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Iterating Software testing
Process of verifying performance and reliability of a software product
Tester Person trained in methods of evaluation
Bug Discrepancy between expected and actual behavior
Problem/Bug report Description of the behavior of the discrepancy
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Iterating
Focus test Testing session using play-testers Testers represent the target audience Lots of feedback at one time Data can be compromised by group
think
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Iterating
Tuning Developing solutions by adjusting
systems Iterations are faster Changes are less dramatic
Balance Equilibrium in a relationship
Player relationships, mechanics, systems, etc.
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Iterating Intransitive relationships
Multiple elements offer weaknesses and strengths relative to each other as a whole
Balanced as a group Example: Rock-Paper-Scissors (RPS)
H e a v yI n f a n t r y
C a v a lr yA r c h e r s
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Creativity
Ability to create Ability to produce an idea, action,
or object considered new and valuable
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Creativity Classic approach - Graham Wallace
Preparation Background research and comprehension
Incubation Mulling things over
Insight Sudden illumination – Eureka!
Evaluation Validating revealed insights
Elaboration Transforming the idea into substance
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Creativity
Brainstorming Generating ideas without
discrimination Evaluation after elaboration Can be unfocused
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Creativity Six Thinking Hats
White Hat – neutral and objective Red Hat – intuition, gut reaction Black Hat – gloomy, naysayer Yellow Hat – Pollyannaish, optimistic Green Hat – growth and creativity Blue Hat – process and control
Symbolize perspective worn by people involved in the creative endeavor
Edward de Bono
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Inspiration Board games
Spatial relationships Card games
Resource management Paper RPGs
Dynamic narratives Books
Fantasy and agency Sports
Team competition
Film Continuity techniques
Television Serialized stories
Music Temporal systems
Martial arts Discipline in action
Children Invention
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Communication
Documentation Methods vary widely Written, descriptive model of the
game Depth varies according to the needs of the game
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Communication Treatment
A brief, general description of the game and the fundamental concepts
May include: Concept statement Goals and objectives Core mechanics and systems Competitive analysis Licensing and IP information Target platform and audience Scope Key features
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Communication Other document types may
include: Preliminary design document Initial Design Document Revised Design Document General Design Document Expanded Design Document Technical Design Document Final Design Document
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Communication Flowcharts
A typical technique for diagramming steps in a process
Most developers are familiar
Star t /E ndP ro c e s s /
Ac tio nD e c is io n
Y/N D e lay
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Communication
S t artW an d eri n g
C i t yS e a r c h f o r
Q u e s tQ u e s t
Q u e s t D e ta il sA c c e p t
G a th e r P C A ll ie s E m b a r k/Sp l it G o to
W ild e r n e s s
C i ty
N o
Y e s
Y e s
N o
Re c r u i ts
R e c r u it
E q u ip
G e a r
G a th e r
S e e k A id
A r t if a c ts A ss is ta n c e
Reg ro u p
En co u n ter
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Communication Associative diagram
Drawing that helps manage and organize information visually
Mind Map A style of associative diagram Key words and figures are placed on branches
we ap o n
fi ghti ng
r a n g e
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Psychology
Working Memory Holds roughly 7 ± 2 items at one time
while other cognitive operations on them
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Psychology
Attention Method of enhancing perceptions
relative to other stimuli in the same environment
How we focus on important things Limited capacity
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Psychology Classical conditioning
Reaction to stimulus is conditioned by pairing with another stimulus that elicits the desired response naturally
C o ndit io ning Af te r c o ndit io ning
B e fo re c o ndit io ning
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Psychology Unconditioned stimulus – Meat Unconditioned response – Salivation over meat Conditioned stimulus – Tone Conditioned response – Salivation over tone
C o ndit io ning Af te r c o ndit io ning
B e fo re c o ndit io ning
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Psychology Operant conditioning
Learning by encouraging or discouraging
Operant A response; the action in question
Example: pressing a button Reinforcement contingency
Consistent relationship between the operant and a result in the environment
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Psychology Reinforcers
Increase the probability an action will be repeated Positive reinforcement
Positive stimulus that reinforces the behavior Ex. Use umbrella and be dry
Negative reinforcement The removal or prevention of a negative stimulus
Ex. Use umbrella and keep from getting wet Punishment
Reduces the likelihood of a behavior with a stimulus Ex. Being burned by a hot stove