Chapter 11Industries, Ideas, and the Struggle for Reform

c. 1750-1848

17th Century Agriculture

80% of W. Europeans

Open-Field System with fallow and

common lands

Agricultural Revolution (Mid 1600s)

Crop Rotation (eliminated fallow)

Nitrogen replacing crops

Improved animal feed

Enclosure MovementConsolidate land to farm

more effectively

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Pros and Cons?

Proletarianizationpeasant farmers became landless wage earners

The Dutch led the way in agriculture and drainage advancements

(then England. France lagged)

Jethro Tull’s seed drill

Food Production Way UpFood Production Way Up(England +300% 1700-1870)

• Growth stoppers = famine, poverty, epidemics, war

• Population Increase-Employment-Less infant mortality-Preventative meds-Water and sewage-Food surplus

Population Explosion 1700-1800s

Great Britain Late 1780s

toEarly 1800s

Industrial Revolution

Two “Revolutions”c. 1750-1850 c. 1870-1914

TextilesSteam engineIronRailroadsGlassmakingChemicals

ElectricityCombustion Steel (Bessemer)

TelephoneFilmChemicals

“There are few greater revolutions in human experience than the movement from the seasonal or ‘temporary’ hour to the equal hour. Here was man’s declaration of independence from the sun, new proof of his mastery over himself and his surroundings. Only later would it be revealed that he had accomplished this mastery by putting himself under the dominion of a machine with imperious demands all its own.”

-Historian Daniel Boorstin

Why Britain?

British Empire possessed key

factors of production

1. Transportationtransatlantic and domestic canals

2. Resources domestic and

colonies

3. Marketsdomestic and colonies

4. Agricultural Revolution

6. Stable Government

5. Labor ForceLabor Forceabundant and mobile

7. Strong Tariffs8. Economic

Rewardpatents, stable banks

and investors

Capitalisman economic and political system in which a country's trade and industry are controlled by private owners for

profit, rather than by the state

Video\Indust Intro Vid.asf

The First Factories

The Textile Industry

Wool or Cotton

CardingSpinning

Weaving

***Cottage Industry couldn’t keep up with demand

James Hargreaves Richard Arkwright (?)

~1765 the Spinning Jenny and the Water Frame

Spinning and Weaving

gradually moved to factories

-----------------------------------Products became cheaper and more

available (ex. body linen)

output and location dependent on power source

1787 - Edmund Cartwright’sPower Loom

Looms in the UK1803 = 2,400 1857 = 250,000

English cotton imports to be spun (pounds)1760=2,500,0001787=22,000,000

1840=366,000,000

Energy Sources: Plants, Animals, and Humans

a new source of power?

CoalCoal

James Watt1769: 1st Efficient

Steam Engine

Steam Engines =

more production,

new industries, and city growth

Early industry lit and lubricated by whale oil

The Iron Industry

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1780s Henry Cort’s

Puddling Furnace

Coke (high carbon coal) used to burn away impurities of pig iron

English Iron Production

1740 = 17,000 tons1740 = 17,000 tons

1788 = 68,000 tons1788 = 68,000 tons

1844 = 3,000,000 tons1844 = 3,000,000 tons

James Nasmyth’s Steam Hammer

Iron Bridges Shropshire, England, 1781

1830 George Stephenson’s Locomotive

RailroadsLower costsCheaper goodsLarger markets

Workers from the Country to Cities

Railroad changed outlook Railroad changed outlook and values of societyand values of society

“Workshop of the World”1860 England produced 20% of the world’s industrial goods

1851 London Great ExhibitionCrystal PalaceCrystal Palace

Burned down in 1936

Transformation of Society

BritishBritishQueen Queen VictoriaVictoria

(1819-1901)(1819-1901)r. 1837-1901r. 1837-1901

Victorian EraVictorian Era

Total British

Population1780

9,000,0001851

20,000,000+

Manchester, England (Cotton Industry)20,000 residents in 1750

400,000 residents in 1850

1852 Manchester’s Royal Charter gave House of Commons representation

Effects on Population

Thomas Malthus (1766-1834)

David Ricardo (1772-1832)

Population would always exceed food

supply

“Iron Law of Wages”Wages would always be low

due to population growth

Both do not see their theories become reality, butMany short-term problems for the masses

Changing Working and Living Conditions

New Class of Factory Workers“class-consciousness” - capital vs labor

Is Industrialism good for the workers? Society?

1799 Combination Acts1799 Combination Actsoutlawed unions and strikesoutlawed unions and strikes

Unskilled laborers drove Unskilled laborers drove down wagesdown wages

Sexual Division of Labor

“Separate Spheres”

Women Paid LessDead-End Jobs

-------------------------------Men Primary Wage

Earnerspatriarchal traditions

Working Conditions Shift Work, More Discipline, Less Freedom, Hot, Dirty, Dangerous, Long Hours, Low Pay

Friedrich Friedrich EngelsEngels(1820-1895)

Accused middle class (owners) of “Mass Murder” and “Robbery”

The Condition of the Working Class in England

1844 Factory Rules - The Foundry and Engineering Works of the Royal Overseas Trading Company, Berlin

(1)…working day begins at 6 A.M. precisely and ends, after the usual break …, at 7 P.M. … Workers arriving 2 minutes late shall lose half an hour’s wages…(6) No worker may leave his place of work otherwise than for reasons connected with his work.(7) All conversation with fellow-workers in prohibited…(9) Every worker is responsible for cleaning up his space in the workshop…(10) Natural functions must be performed at the appropriate places …(12) …all overseers and officials of the firm shall be obeyed without question… Disobedience will be punished by dismissal.

Luddites Smashed Machines they felt were putting them out of work

• Abandoned and pauper kids

• “Apprentices” worked 13-14 hour days

• Humanitarian Attitudes– Use of Pauper Children

Forbidden in 1802

Resistance by cottage workers led to child labor

Michael Thomas Sadler

(1780-1835)

1832 Sadler 1832 Sadler Commission Commission and Reportand Report to

Parliament

Parliament and Child Labor1833 Factory ActLimited child labor(ages 9-13 = 8 hour days)

***2 hours education for children under 9

Fear of collapsing family structureFear of increased sexuality of working-class youth

British 1842 Mines Actprohibited underground work for all

women and boys under 10

1847 Ten Hours Act: women and 13-18 year-olds limited to 10 hours/day

1834 Poor Law made relief more unpleasant than any job

Worker Unions and collective bargaining

1824 Combination Acts Repealed

ChartistsChartists wanted Universal Male Suffrage,

shorter hours, lower food prices

English Chartists 1838 National Petition…with all these elements of national prosperity, …. we find ourselves overwhelmed with suffering. The energies of a mighty kingdom have been wasted in building up the power of selfish and ignorant men…

We Demand Universal Suffrage.We Demand the Ballot.

…To public safety as well as public confidence, frequent elections are essential.

We Demand Annual Parliaments.…abolishing all property qualifications in the members

Living Conditions1792-1815

Living Conditions ↓

Food Prices Rise Faster Than Wages

Gustave Doré

In industrial England life expectancy never averaged over 30 years old

After 1840 diet, pay, and clothing improved labor hours increased housing did not improve Why?

Factory Owners and Cotton Lords• Varied Backgrounds

– Merchants, artisans, Quakers, Scots, Protestants, Jewish, etc.

• Pro-Free Market (laissez-faire)

• The “New Aristocrats”• Women pushed toward

“feminine” domestic activities - “Victorian values”

• Class-Conscious

Indust. spread to the ContinentWho is Ahead? Who is Behind?

Challenges for the continent• Revolutions and wars• GB wanted to keep secrets• Expensive

– Copying alone doesn’t always work

• Cheap British goods• Resistance from landowning elites

Advantages for the continent

• Copy the British (what worked?)– ex. William Cockerill took secrets to Belgium

• More Government support• Geography• Nationalism

• Protective TariffsProtective Tariffs• State funded roads, State funded roads,

railroads, and canalsrailroads, and canals• Government support for Government support for

private investors private investors (banking)(banking)

Government Support

German Friedrich List

Economic Nationalism

-------------------------------------- Protective Tariffs for “national security”

1834 Zollverein

Zollverein - Tariff-Free Zone

But…-Many jobs changed slowly-1850 Farm and domestic labor still most common-Small-scale production unchanged in many crafts