Biotechnology

• Technology is the application of scientific knowledge, skills, materials, labor, and wealth for a practical purpose

• Biotechnology is application of biological principles, organisms, and products to practical purposes

Living

• Ability to reproduce

• Ability to extract energy from the environment

• Unit of Life: The Cell

• Cell: Interior (cytoplasm) surronded by a barrier called a cell membrane

Living Systems

• Cells

• Biological Molecules

• Chemical Reactions

Cells

• Prokaryotic Cells: Bacteria, single-celled organisms, primitive, single internal compartment

• Eukaryotic cells: Yeasts-Plants-Mammals, many internal compartments including a nucleus

Prokaryotic Cell

Cell Membrane

Membranes between Neurons

Plant Cell

Lily Parenchyma Cell

Animal Cell

Liver Cell

NucleusThe nucleus occurs only in eukaryotic cells, and is the location of the majority of different types of nucleic acids. All DNA is restricted to the nucleus. Ribonucleic acid, RNA, is formed in the nucleus by coding off of the DNA bases. RNA moves out into the cytoplasm. The nucleolus is an area of the nucleus (usually 2 nucleoli per nucleus) where ribosomes are constructed.

Liver cell nucleus and nucleolus

Structure of the nuclear envelope and nuclear pores.

Nucleus with Nuclear Pores

The Cytoskeleton

Actin and tubulin components of the cytoskeleton.

The Endoplasmic Reticulum

Endoplasmic reticulum is a mesh of interconnected membranes that serve a function involving protein synthesis and transport. Rough endoplasmic reticulum (Rough ER) is so-named because of its rough appearance due to the numerous ribosomes that occur along theER. Rough ER connects to the nuclear envelope through which the messenger RNA (mRNA) that is the blueprint for proteins travels to the ribosomes. Smooth ER; lacks the ribosomes characteristic of Rough ER and is thought to be involved in transport and a variety ofother functions.

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

Golgi apparatus

Golgi Complexes are flattened stacks of membrane-bound sacs. They function as a packaging plant, modifying vesicles from the Rough ER. New membrane material is assembled in various cisternae of the golgi.

Golgi Apparatus in a plant parenchyma cell

Mitochondrion

Mitochondria contain their own DNA (termed mDNA) and are thought to represent bacteria-like organisms incorporated into eukaryotic cells over 700 million years ago (perhaps even as far back as 1.5 billion years ago). They function as the sites of energy release(following glycolysis in the cytoplasm) and ATP formation (by chemiosmosis). The mitochondrion has been termed the powerhouse of the cell. Mitochondria are bounded by two membranes. The inner membrane folds into a series of cristae, which are the surfaces on which ATP is generated.

Muscle Cell Mitochondria

Biological Molecules

• Lipids

• Proteins

• Nucleic Acids

• Carbohydrates

Polymers

• A chain of small molecules, called monomers

• Chemically linked to form larger molecules

• Linear polymers able to be made in universal fashion

Polymers

Lipids

• Hydrophobic fat and oil molecules

• Micelles, Monolayer, Bilayered Vesicle

• Basic building block of membranes

• Semipermeable: allows some stuff in/out, not other (hydrophyllic toxins)

Proteins

• Transporters, Structural, Chemical Processors

• Polymer made from 20 monomers (amino acids)

• 300 monomers long - 20^300 possible proteins

• Chemical groups to link together, and side groups that uniquely identify monomer

• Side groups can interact to fold protein

• Units chemically active

• Primary Structure - sequence of amino acids

• Secondary Structure - Alpha helix

• Tertiary Structure - Folded Shape

Polymers

Nucleic Acids

• Storage and Transmission of biological information within the cell

• Linear Polymers built from nucleotides

• Two Kinds: RNA and DNA

• More Later

Carbohydrates

• Sugars and Starches

• Structural Elements

• Energy Source

Chemical Reactions

• Chemical Bonds

• Biological Thermodynamics

• Oxidation-Reduction

Chemical Bonds

• Forces that hold molecules together

• Ionic

• Covalent

• Hydrogen

Ionic Bonds

• From between an atom that easily gives up an electron and another that readily accepts an electron

• Doner becomes negative, Acceptor becomes positive

• Strong Interaction with water, forms hydration shell arount ionic materials

• Relatively weak, NaCl

Covalent Bonds

• Atoms share electrons

• Atom’s ability to attract electron is electronegativity

• Different -> Ionic

• Middle -> Covalent, Carbon

• Polar Covalent Bonds is partially ionic

Hydrogen Bond

• Water, O (negative), H (positive), shielding effect, slightly polar

• H to O or N, Hydrogen Bond

• Water surrounds everything in the cell

• Need to move water to interact

• Hydrogen Bonds are very weak

Hydrophobic Forces

• Interaction of biomolecules and water key force in shape of larger structures

• Lipids: Hydrophobic head, hydrophyllic tail

• Proteins: Hydrophobic Groups

• DNA: Helix formation and Base stacking

Oxidation-Reduction Reactions

• Oxidation: Loss of electron, frequently accompanied by giving off energy

• Reduction: Gaining of Electrons

Activation Energy

• Energy to get chemical reaction started• Cells lower this energy through enzymatic

catalysis• Acitvation Energy is overhead to bring

reactants together• Catalyst assists the process, and lowers

activation energy• Catalyst not changed by reaction

Enzymes

• Almost always proteins

• Join reactants so that reactions become more favorable

• Anabolic: Building up reactions

• Catabolic: Breaking down reactions