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Effect of frozen storage and freezethaw cycles on the rheologicaland baking properties of frozen doughs
Monisha Bhattacharyaa,*, Tami M. Langstaffa, William A. Berzonskyb
aDepartment of Cereal and Food Sciences, North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND 58105, USAbDepartment of Plant Sciences, North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND 58105, USA
Received 14 July 2002; accepted 25 October 2002
Abstract
The effects of prolonged frozen storage and repeated partial freezethaw cycles on the rheological and baking properties of nine
commercial wheat cultivars were evaluated. The gluten strength of the cultivars ranged from medium to high, whereas the starch
swelling characteristics were similar for most cultivars, except Parshall, which exhibited exceptionally high swelling properties. The
doughs were subjected to frozen storage for 412 weeks, with and without freezethaw cycles. The enthalpy of freezable water was
significantly affected by initial freezing, whereas, the rheological properties of the doughs were more susceptible to freezethaw
cycles. After baking, all cultivars produced bread of acceptable quality, although cv. Parshall exhibited the highest crumb softness,
irrespective of the frozen treatment. Results indicate that flours with high starch swelling characteristics, along with moderately
high gluten strength, may be most ideal for producing optimum quality frozen doughs, with good shelf life and baking properties.
# 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Frozen dough; Freezethaw cycles; Starch; Gluten; Bread
1. Introduction
Demand and market opportunities for value-added
wheat-based products have been growing rapidly over
the past few decades. The frozen dough market has
steadily grown in recent years due to consumer demand
for convenience and high quality baked products.
Dough strength and frozen storage play an important
role in the quality of bread produced from frozen
doughs, since they must withstand harsh freezing and
thawing conditions. The ice crystals formed during fro-
zen storage and repeated freezethaw cycles reportedly
causes physical damage to the gluten protein structure
(Varriano-Marston, Hsu, & Mahdi, 1980), resulting in
the weakening of hydrophobic bonds, redistribution of
water in the dough gluten network (Ra sa nen, Blan-
shard, Mitchell, Derbyshire, & Autio, 1998), loss of gas
retention (Autio & Sinda, 1992; Berglund, Shelton, &
Freeman, 1991), and poor loaf volume (Inoue &
Bushuk, 1991, 1992). Flour protein strength was found
to be more important than flour protein content for
optimum frozen dough quality (Inoue & Bushuk, 1991;
Wolt & DAppolonia, 1984b). Yeast survival and gas
retention in dough after prolonged storage are other
major problems in frozen dough production. Yeast via-
bility or gassing power is strongly affected by freezing
rate and frozen storage temperatures (Bender & Lamb,
1977), frozen storage time (Berglund & Shelton, 1993),
and freezethaw cycles (Hsu, Hoseney, & Seib, 1979).
Freezable water, or the fraction of free water that
does not bind to gluten during dough formation, freezes
when the dough is subjected to frozen storage (Davies &
Webb, 1969). Berglund et al. (1991) observed that
dough subjected to prolonged frozen storage encoun-
tered water migration with concomitant dough dete-
rioration. Lu and Grant (1999a) compared the freezable
water content of doughs made from an extra strong
hard red spring wheat cultivar, and a weak wheat culti-
var, after subjecting the doughs to 16 weeks of frozen
storage. The amount of freezable water was found to be
significantly higher in the extra strong wheat, suggesting
that while strong flours are necessary for frozen dough
production, extremely strong gluten may be detrimental
0963-9969/03/$ - see front matter # 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S0963-9969(02)00228-4
Food Research International 36 (2003) 365372
www.elsevier.com/locate/foodres
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +1-701-231-7737; fax: +1-701-231-
7723.
E-mail address: monisha.bhattacharya@ndsu.nodak.edu
(M. Bhattacharya).
http://www.elsevier.com/locate/foodres/a4.3dmailto:monisha.bhattacharya@ndsu.nodak.edumailto:monisha.bhattacharya@ndsu.nodak.eduhttp://www.elsevier.com/locate/foodres/a4.3d8/7/2019 Bhattacharay masa congelada
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because of the formation of a high amount of freezable
water in the dough.
Dough extension properties are very important when
evaluating frozen doughs because they influence oven
spring and loaf volume of the final baked product. Wolt
and DAppolonia (1984a) found a decrease in exten-
sibility with an increase in frozen storage time, which wasattributed to overall gluten network deterioration. Inoue
and Bushuk (1991) observed no significant changes in
rheological properties during short-term storage. How-
ever, repeated freezethaw cycles produced a significant
decrease in dough resistance and an increase in dough
extensibility. They concluded that doughs made from
strong flours are generally resistant to freeze damage, but
severe processing conditions, such as repeated freeze
thaw cycles, could significantly weaken dough structure.
The type of wheat flour used for frozen dough pro-
duction is crucial in imparting desirable baking charac-
teristics after prolonged frozen storage. Hard red spring
(HRS) wheat is preferred for making different bread andfrozen dough products because of its superior gluten
strength. However, not all HRS wheat cultivars that
possess superior bread baking traits produce bread of
comparable quality after frozen storage, possibly due to
higher susceptibility of some cultivars to harsh proces-
sing and frozen storage conditions (Lu & Grant, 1999b).
Frozen dough manufacturers generally use a blend of
some popular bread wheat genotypes for frozen dough
production, which often leads to inconsistency in quality
due to lack of adequate information about ideal quality
attributes (personnel communication). Lack of know-
ledge of the performance of different commercial wheatcultivars in a frozen dough system makes it difficult for
frozen dough manufacturers to select superior, identity-
preserved wheat cultivars, for consistently producing
high quality frozen dough. The objectives of this study
were to (1) study the effects of prolonged frozen storage
and partial freezethaw cycles on the rheological and
baking properties of selected popular bread wheat cul-
tivars; and (2) determine flour quality attributes asso-
ciated with improved end-use quality and frozen storage
stability, so as to provide criteria for selection of
improved cultivars for frozen dough markets in the
future.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Wheat cultivars and sampling
Eight regionally adapted commercial hard red spring
(HRS) wheat cultivars, with acceptable bread making
quality, were evaluated for their performance in a fro-
zen dough system. The cultivars included Alsen, Argent,
Grandin, McNeal, Oxen, Parshall, Russ, and Trenton.
These HRS cultivars were selected for their high gluten
strength, a prerequisite for making frozen doughs. A
Canadian Western Extra Strong Red Spring (CWESRS)
wheat, Glenlea, known to maintain good oven spring
and high loaf volume after prolonged frozen storage
(Inoue & Bushuk, 1992), was included for comparison.
All nine cultivars were grown at two locations, Prosper
and Casselton, situated within 20 miles of each other inthe southeastern region of North Dakota. Each cultivar
had two replications at each location.
Wholemeal samples were obtained by grinding kernels
on an Udy Cyclone Mill (UD Corp., Boulder, CO), fit-
ted with a 1 mm screen. Flour samples were obtained by
tempering the grains to 15.5% moisture for 16 h before
milling into straight-grade flour on a Buhler laboratory
mill. All flour samples were placed in plastic bags and
kept at room temperature for 2 weeks to condition the
flour before conducting quality evaluations.
2.2. Physicochemical analyses of wholemeal and flour
Wholemeal samples were tested for falling number
values using AACC Approved Method 56-81B (2000).
The moisture content of the flour samples was deter-
mined using AACC Approved air oven method 44-15A
(2000). Protein content (14% mb) of the flours was
determined using the combustion method with a Leco
FP428 nitrogen analyzer (St. Joseph, MI) according to
Approved Method 46-30 (AACC, 2000). Rheological
properties of the dough samples were determined with
the Brabender farinograph according to Approved
Method 54-21 (AACC, 2000). Parameters recorded were
water absorption of flour (%) (14% mb), peak time(time between the addition of water and development of
maximum consistency of the dough), mixing stability
(the time in minutes that the farinogram remained
horizontal on the 500 BU line), and time to breakdown
(the time in minutes from the start of mixing to the time
at which consistency decreased 30 BU from the peak
point).
2.3. Flour swelling volume
Flour samples (0.4 g, dwb) were mixed with 12.5 ml of
1 mM AgNO3 in 125 16 mm Pyrex culture tubes and
heated at 92.5 C for 30 min, following the procedure ofBhattacharya, Jafari-Shabestari, Qualset, and Corke
(1997). The samples were cooled in ice water bath for 1
min, and centrifuged at 1000 g for 15 min. The swel-
ling volume was calculated by converting the height of
the resultant gels to a volume basis, and the results were
recorded as ml/g of dry flour.
2.4. Rapid visco analyzer
Pasting profiles were determined on wholemeal sam-
ples using a Rapid Visco-Analyser (RVA) Model 4
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(Newport Scientific, Narrabeen, Australia) in presence
of 1 mM AgNO3 to eliminate possible a-amylase activity
(Bhattacharya & Corke, 1996). In an earlier study, it
was established that wholemeal was a reliable alter-
native to flour or starch when samples available for
testing were limited (Bhattacharya & Corke, 1996).
Wholemeal (4 g, 14% mb) was mixed with 25 g of 1 mMAgNO3 solution in a RVA canister. A standardized
heating and cooling cycle was employed according to
the method of Bhattacharya et al. (1997). Parameters
recorded were peak viscosity (PV), hot paste viscosity
(HPV), breakdown (PV-HPV), cold paste viscosity
(CPV) and setback (CPV-HPV). All measurements were
replicated twice and the results were reported in Rapid
Visco Units (RVU).
2.5. Dough preparation and frozen dough treatments
Flour samples (400 g per sample) were mixed to opti-
mum using a no-time dough mixing procedure (Inoue &Bushuk, 1991). The baking formula (flour basis) was:
100 g flour (14% mb), 5 g compressed yeast, 4 g short-
ening, 4 g sugar, 1.5 g salt, 100 ppm ascorbic acid, and
50 ppm potassium bromate (Lu & Grant, 1999b). The
water added to form optimum dough was calculated as
the water absorption of flour obtained on the farino-
graph, minus 4%, which resulted in better machinability
and reduced stickiness for moulding and sheeting.
Sugar, salt, and oxidants were pre-dissolved in chilled
water (part of the total water amount). Dough tem-
perature was maintained at about 20 C by utilizing ice
water, and a chilled mixing bowl. A common checksample was included with every batch of dough mixed
per day to ensure that experimental error was kept to a
minimum. The dough was divided into four 160 g pie-
ces, rounded, and rested for 10 min at 4 C. After
sheeting and molding, three dough pieces were placed
into pans, and were subjected to a23 C freezer until a
core dough temperature of5 C was maintained. The
frozen dough pieces were then depanned, bagged in
freezer bags, and stored in a 23 C freezer for different
time periods. The fourth dough piece (control) was
baked on the same day without being subjected to any
frozen treatment.
The dough pieces were subjected to the following fourfrozen storage treatments: (1) control, no frozen sto-
rage, (2) frozen storage for 4 weeks, with no freezethaw
cycle prior to baking, (3) frozen storage for 12 weeks,
with no freezethaw cycle during the frozen storage, and
(4) frozen storage for 12 weeks, with two freezethaw
treatments, one after 4 weeks and one after 8 weeks of
frozen storage. A freezethaw cycle was established as
partially thawing the dough at 4 C for 8 h, after which
the panned dough piece was subjected to frozen storage
again. Each frozen storage treatment had four repli-
cations per cultivar (two locations two replications).
At the end of the storage time, the doughs were thawed
and baked as described later.
2.6. Dough quality testing
An identical set of dough samples were prepared
under similar conditions, and subjected to the same fourtreatments. Samples were evaluated for thermal and
rheological changes in gluten properties during frozen
storage and freezethaw cycles by physical dough mea-
surements. The control sample was tested after the
molding step, while the frozen doughs were thawed, but
not proofed before the analysis. Each frozen storage
treatment had four replications per cultivar.
Freezable water of the dough was measured after each
frozen storage treatment using a DSC (DSC-220C,
Seiko Instrument Inc., Tokyo, Japan), following the
method of Lu and Grant (1999a). The control and
thawed dough pieces were weighed (5.0 mg, dwb)
directly into an aluminum pan and hermetically sealed.The sample pan was run with an empty crucible for
reference. The sample was frozen to 50 C using liquid
nitrogen, and then heated to 50 C at the rate of 10 C/
min. The enthalpy (H) of the endothermic freezable
water transition was recorded as the energy change that
occurred during the melting of ice in the frozen dough.
Dough micro-extension testing was done using a
TA.XT2 texture analyzer, equipped with SMS/Kieffer
dough and gluten extensibility rig, following the method
of Suchy, Lukow, and Ingelin (2000) with slight modifi-
cations. The thawed dough was placed into a Ziploc bag
and allowed to equilibrate at 4
C for 15 min. A smallportion of the dough was placed into a Teflon-coated
block, lined with parafilm, and cut into dough strips
using the mould. The dough strips were allowed to rest
for an additional 15 min at 4 C, before being stretched
by the hook extension at the speed of 3.3 mm/s for a
distance of 100 mm. Parameters, dough extensibility
(mm) from start to rupture, and maximum resistance
(g), the maximum height of the curve, were auto-
matically calculated by the data processing software
supplied with the instrument.
2.7. Baking quality testing
At the end of the storage period, the frozen dough
pieces were removed from the freezer, placed in greased
pans, and allowed to retard at 4 C for 13 h. Following
thawing, the dough pieces were placed into a proof box
at 30 C, 85% RH. Time required to proof the dough
pieces to a desired proof height of$3 cm above the pan
sidewall was recorded. The dough pieces were then
baked at 220 C for 25 min. Bread loaves were allowed
to cool for a minimum of 1 h prior to further testing.
Loaf volume was determined by rapeseed displacement
after 1 h of oven exit. Crust color, crumb color, and
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grain and texture were evaluated by visual comparison
to a standard using constant illumination source. Each
loaf was scored using a scale of 110, with 10 repre-
senting the highest quality. The central slices of each
loaf were used to measure crumb firmness using the
TA.XT2 texture analyzer, following AACC Approved
Method 74-09 (2000).
2.8. Statistical analysis
Data were analyzed using the general linear model pro-
cedure of Statistical Analysis System (SAS) (ver. 6.10,
SAS Institute, Cary, NC). For each dependent variable,
the error mean squares from each location were tested for
homogeneity of error variance at P
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temperature treatments. Across treatments, the mean
freezable water content of the doughs was found to be
76 J/g on day 0, which increased substantially to 84 J/g
after 4 weeks, and to 86 J/g after 12 weeks of frozen
storage (Table 3). Thus, the largest increase in the
enthalpy of freezable water occurred during the initial
frozen storage, from day 0 to week 4. This moisture
migration and increase in freezable water immediately
after freezing was attributed to the deterioration of glu-
ten network as a result of initial exposure of dough to
extremely low freezing temperatures. There was a fur-
ther increase in the enthalpy of freezable water in pre-sence of two partial freezethaw cycles within 12 weeks
(Table 3). This could be attributed to the melting and
recrystallization of ice during freezethaw cycles, with
subsequent damage to the gluten network and separa-
tion of water molecules (Autio & Sinda, 1992; Kulp,
1995). The wheat cultivars used in the present study did
not differ significantly among each other in their freez-
able water content during frozen storage (data not
shown). However, Lu and Grant (1999a) observed that
wheat genotypes with extremely high gluten strength
displayed a consistent increase in freezable water with
increase in frozen storage time, possibly due to a greater
association of water molecules with the nonpolar and
polar amino acids of the flour protein. They concluded
that the gluten strength of wheat genotypes significantlyaffected the quality of frozen dough, and the subsequent
baked end product. This discrepancy in results could be
attributed to the different genotypes used in the two
studies. Lu and Grant (1999a) compared genotypes
ranging widely in their gluten strength, so as to evaluate
their susceptibility to frozen storage, whereas the cur-
rent study evaluated some top-ranking commercial cul-
tivars with a narrow range of high gluten strength,
which subsequently resulted in a non-significant range
of freezable water content during frozen storage.
Extensibility of the thawed doughs did not change
significantly as the storage time increased from day 0 to
week 4 (Table 3). However, at week 12, there was asmall increase in dough extensibility, followed by a fur-
ther significant increase in the presence of freezethaw
cycles (Table 3), suggesting dough weakening. Similarly,
Inoue and Bushuk (1992) observed a gradual increase in
extensibility with frozen storage for up to 10 weeks. The
maximum resistance of the doughs increased steadily as
the storage time increased from day 0 to week 12, in the
absence of freezethaw cycles (Table 3), possibly due to
the stiffening of the doughs during frozen storage (Var-
riano-Marston et al., 1980; Wolt & DAppolonia,
1984a). However, in the presence of freezethaw cycles,
the doughs showed a significant drop in maximumresistance (Table 3), possibly due to ice crystallization
during freezethaw cycles (Inoue & Bushuk, 1992).
Based on the micro-extensigraph results, we infer that
maximum gluten damage of frozen doughs occur mostly
under the influence of repeated temperature fluctuations
during freezethaw cycles, compared to storage at con-
stant frozen temperature. The moisture migration or
enthalpy of freezable water on the other hand, was more
strongly influenced by the initial exposure of the doughs
to frozen storage, followed by a more gradual increase
under the impact of freezethaw cycles.
3.3. Baking quality characteristics
It is generally accepted that as frozen storage time
increases, proof time of the dough also increases (Inoue
& Bushuk, 1992; Lu & Grant, 1999b; Wolt & DAppo-
lonia, 1984a,b). This increase in proof time has been
attributed to low freezing temperatures, which sig-
nificantly decrease the viable yeast cell count, thereby
reducing the gassing power (Kline & Sugihara, 1968). In
this study, a significant increase in proof time was
observed with an increase in frozen storage time, and
ranged from a mean of 85 min on day 0108 min at
Table 2
Flour swelling volume and RVA pasting parameters of the wheat cul-
tivarsa
Cultivars FSVb RVA pasting characterisitics (RVU)
Peak
viscosity
Breakdown Setback
Alsen 49.3 184 93 115
Argent 46.0 182 76 133
Glenlea 44.8 164 56 144
Grandin 45.0 164 63 129
McNeal 45.5 178 60 146
Oxen 45.3 168 59 139
Parshall 69.3 259 153 114
Russ 48.8 174 74 132
Trenton 48.5 190 82 136
Mean 49.2 185 80 132
LSD (P
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week 4 (Table 4). At week 12, there was a further
increase in proof time, possibly due to an additional
reduction in viable yeast cells. However, doughs sub-
jected to freezethaw cycles during 12 weeks of storage
did not show significantly higher proof times compared
to doughs not subjected to any freezethaw cycle (139
min vs. 136 min, respectively) (Table 4). These resultssuggest that the increase in proof time was more
strongly affected by extended frozen storage, than due
to freezing and thawing. Our results are in agreement
with the findings of Bruinsma and Giesenschlag (1984)
who observed that yeast activity was not appreciably
reduced after consecutive freezethaw cycles, and there-
fore attributed the increase in proof time to significant
destruction of normal dough structure during freezing.
Loaf volume typically decreases with an increase in
frozen storage (Inoue & Bushuk, 1992; Wolt &
DAppolonia, 1984b). In this study, the effect of geno-
typic differences on loaf volume was non-significant,
whereas, the effect of frozen treatments was small, butstatistically significant. The average loaf volume at week
4 was 924 cc, which was not significantly different from
the volume at day 0 (Table 4). At week 12, there was a
significant decrease in loaf volume compared to week 4,
irrespective of the freezethaw cycles (Table 4). This was
consistent with the trends observed with the proof time
data, again signifying that the cultivars examined were
not as greatly affected by temperature fluctuations dur-
ing storage, as they were by ice recrystallization during
prolonged frozen storage. Except for crust color, no
significant differences were evident in bread scores for
external and internal characteristics of the loaves. Theoverall visual quality characteristics of the frozen
doughs were minimally affected by prolonged frozen
storage and freezethaw cycles (Table 4), which are in
agreement with the findings by Nemeth, Paulley, and
Preston (1996). In contrast, Wolt and DAppolonia
(1984b) found an open and gummy grain and crumb
texture, which significantly decreased the bread scores
with prolonged storage.
Crumb softness, which is a desirable quality char-
acteristic, was significantly different among cultivars,
independent of the frozen treatments. On Day 0, Glen-
lea, Oxen, and McNeal displayed undesirably higher
crumb firmness, Alsen, Argent, Grandin, Russ, and
Trenton displayed intermediate firmness, whereas Par-
shall exhibited the softest crumb texture (Table 5). Atweek 4, most cultivars displayed a substantial increase
in crumb firmness, except McNeal, which did not show
any change, irrespective of frozen storage or freeze
thaw cycles (Table 5). Interestingly, the doughs stored
for 12 weeks displayed lower crumb firmness similar to
the control, irrespective of the freezethaw cycles
(Table 5). Lu and Grant (1999b) reported that crumb
firmness was influenced by the gluten strength of frozen
dough. Doughs made from extremely strong flour
resulted in firmer crumb texture due to restricted starch
swelling during baking.
The crumb softness exhibited by Parshall was mark-
edly different from all other cultivars. Despite its gra-dual increase in firmness values from day 0 to week 12,
the overall mean values were significantly lower than the
other cultivars for all frozen treatments (Table 5). Most
of the cultivars evaluated in this study possessed desir-
able gluten characteristics for producing bread of opti-
mum quality (Table 1), and yet the crumb softness of
these cultivars varied widely in a frozen dough system.
This disparity in performance among cultivars could be
attributed to the influence of other flour components,
such as variation in the starch pasting characteristics
(Seib, 2000). The gluten strength of Parshall was not
appreciably higher than the other samples (Table 1), butit had the highest starch swelling capacity among all the
cultivars (Table 2). Possibly, the higher starch swelling
characteristics of Parshall was responsible for its super-
ior frozen dough quality, signifying the role of starch, in
Table 4
Bread baking characteristics of frozen dough as affected by frozen
storage and freezethaw cyclesa
Treatment Proof
time
(min)
Loaf
volume
(cc)
Crust
colorbCrumb
colorbGrain
and
textureb
Day 0 (control) 85 c 931 a 9.6 a 9.2 a 9.2 a
Week 4 108 b 924 a 9.4 b 9.1 a 9.0 a
Week 12 136 a 909 b 9.1 c 9.0 a 9.1 a
Week 12+FTCc 139 a 903 b 9.0 c 9.0 a 9.1 a
a Mean values represent nine genotypes and four replicates (n=36).
Means within columns followed by common letters are not sig-
nificantly different at P
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addition to gluten strength, on crumb softness. We
speculate that the unique starch swelling properties of
Parshall may have facilitated higher water retention
within the starch granules during baking, and contri-
buted to its desirable crumb softness. Conversely, the
doughs possessing medium to low starch swelling capa-
city may have been less effective at imbibing the waterreleased from the gluten network during thawing and
baking (Hoseney, 1998), resulting in a comparatively
firmer and compact bread crumb structure. Results
suggest that flours with moderately strong gluten and
high starch swelling capacity would be ideal in providing
structural integrity to the dough during frozen storage,
and desirable crumb softness after baking. Additional
research is being conducted in our laboratory to evalu-
ate the quality of frozen doughs made from blends of
waxy and normal wheat genotypes, possessing a
broader range of starch pasting characteristics, so as to
further validate the significance of starch on the texture
and staling of frozen dough (Bhattacharya, Erazo,Doehlert, & McMullen, 2002). Moreover, the influence
of diverse growing locations on the protein and starch
quality parameters in relation to frozen dough is also
being evaluated.
Traditionally, bread wheat genotypes were screened
based on their protein quality and quantity alone, as it
related closely with good loaf volume. Presently, manu-
facturers and consumers are more cognizant to quality,
and are prepared to pay a higher premium for superior
products. Consequently, it is imperative for wheat pro-
ducers and breeders to develop elite bread wheat culti-
vars with value-added quality characteristics to meetthis need. By screening for diversity in starch swelling
properties, in addition to protein quality, breeders and
producers would be better equipped to respond faster to
new market demands and create unique niche for iden-
tity preserved wheat cultivars for various end uses, such
as frozen dough.
Acknowledgements
We appreciate the financial support by the North
Dakota Wheat Commission, the State Board of Agri-
cultural Research and Education, and the Spring WheatBakers. Technical assistance by the NDSU Cereal
Science HRS Wheat Quality team and the statistical
advice of Dr. Richard Horsley are gratefully appreciated.
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