BETWEEN LITERATURE AND SCIENCE: THE RISE OF SOCIOLOGY

7/29/2019 BETWEEN LITERATURE AND SCIENCE: THE RISE OF SOCIOLOGY

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I D E A S I N C O N T E X T

E d i t e d b y R ic h a r d R o r t y , J . B. S c h n e e w in d , Q u e n t i n S k i n n e r ,

a n d W o l f Le p e n ie s

T h e b o o k s in t h is s e r ie s w ill d is c u s s t h e e m e r g e n c e o f in t e lle c t u a l t r a d i t io n s

a n d o f r e la t e d n e w d i s c ip lin e s . T h e p r o c e d u r e s , a im s , a n d vo c a b u la r i e s t h a t

w e r e g e n e r a t e d w ill b e s e t in t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e a lt e r n a t i ve s a va i la b le w it h in

t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y fr a m e w o r k s o f id ea s a n d in s t it u t io n s . T h r o u g h d e t a i le d

s t u d ie s o f t h e e v o lu t i o n o f s u c h t r a d i tio n s , a n d t h e ir m o d ific a t i o n b y d if-

fe r e n t a u d ie n c e s , it is h o p e d t h a t a n e w p ic t u r e w ill fo r m o f t h e d e v e lo p m e n t

o f id e a s in t h e ir c o n c r e t e c o n t e x t s . B y t h is m e a n s , a r t i fic i a l d i s t i n c t i o n s

a m o n g t h e h is t o r y o f p h ilo s o p h y , o f t h e va r i ou s s c ie n c e s , o f s o c i e t y a n dp o l it ic s , a n d o f lit e r a t u r e m a y b e s e e n t o d is s o lve .

Th i s s e rie s is p u b lis h e d w it h t h e s u p p o r t o f t h e E x x o n E d u c a t io n F o u n d a t io n .

Th is b o o k is p u b l is h e d a s p a r t o f t h e jo i n t p u b l is h in g a g r e e m e n t e s t a b l is h e d

in 1 9 77 b e t w e e n t h e F o n d a t io n d e la M a is o n d e s S c ie n c e s d e l’H o m m e a n d

t h e P r es s S y n d i ca t e o f t h e U n iv e r s i t y o f C a m b r i d ge . T it l e s p u b l is h e d u n d e r

t h is a r r a n g em e n t m a y a p p e a r in a n y E u r o p ea n la n gu a g e or , in t h e c a se o f

v o lu m e s o f c o l le c t e d e ss a ys , in s e v e r a l la n gu a ge s .

N e w b o o k s w i ll a p p e a r e it h e r a s in d ivid u a l t it le s o r in o n e o f t h e s e r ie sw h i ch t h e M a is o n d e s S c ie n c e s d e l’H o m m e a n d t h e C a m b r i d g e U n i ve r s i t y

P r es s h a v e jo in t l y a g r e e d t o p u b lis h . A ll b o o k s p u b l is h e d jo in t l y b y t h e

M a is o n d e s S c ie n c e s d e 1’ H o m m e a n d t h e C a m b r i d g e U n iv e r s i t y Pr e s s w ill

b e d i s t r ib u t e d b y t h e P r es s t h r o u g h o u t t h e w or ld .

C e t o u v r a g e e s t p u b l ie d a n s l e c a d r e d e l’a c c o r d d e c o e d it i o n p a s s e en 1 9 77

e n t r e la F o n d a t io n d e la M a i s o n d e s S c ie n c e s d e 1’ H o m m e e t le P r e s s S yn d i-

c a t e d e l’U n ive r s i t e d e C a m b r id g e . T o u t e s l es la n gu e s e u r o p e e n n e s s o n t

a d m is e s p o u r le s t it r e s c o u v e r t s p a r c e t a c c o r d , e t l es o u v r a g e s c o l le c t i fs

p e u v e n t p a r a it r e en p lu s ie u r s la n g u e s .Le s o u v r a g e s p a r a i s s e n t s o i t i s o le m e n t , s o it d a n s l ’u n e d e s s e r ie s q u e la

M a is o n d e s S c ie n c e s d e l’H o m m e e t C a m b r i d g e U n iv e r s i t y P r es s o n t con

ve n u d e p u b l ie r e n s e m b l e. L a d is t r ib u t io n d a n s le m o n d e e n t ie r d e s t it r e s

a in s i p u b l ie s c o n jo in t e m e n t p a r le s d e u x et a b lis s e m e n t s e s t a s s u r e e pa r

C a m b r i d g e U n iv e r s i t y Pr es s .

B E T WE E N LIT E R AT UR E A N D SCIENCE:

THE RISE OF SOCIOLOGY

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W O L F L E P E N I E S

T R A N S L A T E D B Y R. J . H O L L IN G D A L E

C a m b r i d g eU N I V E R S I T Y P R E S S

Publish ed b y th e Press S yndicate of the Univers ity of Ca m br id ge

The Pit t Building, Trumpington Street , Cambridge CB2 1RP

32 East 57th Street, New York, NY 100114211, USA

10 Sta m ford Roa d, Oa kleigh, Melbou rn e 3166, Au stra lia

an d Editions de la Maisons des Sciences de 1’Hom m e

54 Boulevard Raspail, 75270 Paris Cedex 06

Or igin ally published in Germ an as Die Drei Kulturen

by Carl Hanser Verlag 1985

and © Carl Hanser Verlag Miinchen Wien

First published in English by Editions de la Maison des Sciences

de l’Hom m e an d Ca m br idge Univers ity Press 1988 as Between

Literature and Science: The Rise o f Sociology

En glish t ra ns lation © Ma ison des Sciences de l’Hom m e an dCa m b rid ge Univers ity Press 1988

Reprinted 1992

Printed in Great Britain by

Th e Ath ena eu m Press Ltd , Newcas tle u pon Tyn e.

British Library cataloguing in publication data

Lepenies, Wolf Between literature and science: the

rise o f sociology.(Idea s in con text ).

1. Sociology

I. Title II. Series III. Die Drei

Kul turen . English

301 HM51

Library o f Congress cataloguing in publication data

Lepenies, Wolf

[Drei Kulturen. English]

Between litera tu re a n d science: the rise o f s ociology/ Wolf

Lepenies: translated by R.J. Hollingdale.

p. cm .(Idea s in cont ext)

Tra n slat ion of: Die drei Ku ltur en .

Bibliography.

Includes index

ISBN 0521328527. ISBN 0521330107 (paperback)

1. Lit er a tu re a n d society. 2. Sociology. I. Title . II. Series.

PN51.L3913 1988809 '.93 35 5dcl9 8825663 C IP

ISBN 0 521 32852 7 hardback

ISBN 0 521 33810 7 paperback

ISBN 2 7351 0228 9 hardback (France only)

IS B N 2 73 51 0 2 3 0 0 p a p e r b a c k (F r a n c e o n ly )

For Annette and Ju lia , Philipp ; Rob ert

I N T R O D U C T IO N

In th is b o o k I d e s c r ib e t h e c o n t e n t io n b e t w e e n t w o gr o u p s o f

in t e lle c tu a l s : o n o n e h a n d t h e m en o f le t t e r s , i. e. t h e wr it e r s a n d

c r it ic s , o n t h e o th e r t h e s o c ia l s c ien t is t s , a b o v e a ll t h e s o c iolo gis t s .

F r o m t h e m id d le o f t h e n in e t e en t h c en t u r y o n w a r d s lit e r a t u r e a n d

s o c io lo g y c o n t e s t e d w it h o n e a n o t h e r t h e cla i m t o o ffe r t h e k e y

o r ien t a t io n fo r m o d e r n c iviliz a t i on an d t o co n s t it u t e t h e gu id e t o livin g

a p p r o p r i a t e t o i n d u s t r ia l s o c ie t y. Th is c o n t e n t i o n p la y e d a s i gn ifi-

c an t ro le in t h e p u b l ic life fir s t l y o f F ra n ce an d En glan d , t h en a l s o o f

Ge rm a n y : it s co n s eq u en ces a re s t i ll v is ib l e t od ay .

Th is c o m p e t i n g d is c los e s a d ile m m a w h ic h d e t e r m in e d n o t o n ly

h o w s o c io lo g y o r ig in a t e d b u t a ls o h o w it t h e n w e n t o n t o d e ve lo p : it

h a s os c i lla t e d b e t w e e n a s c ie n t ific o r ie n t a t io n w h ic h h a s le d i t t o a p e

t h e n a t u r a l s c ie n c e s a n d a h e r m e n e u t ic a t t it u d e w h ic h h a s s h ift e d t h e

d i s c ip lin e t ow a r d s t h e r e a lm o f lit e r a t u r e . T h e c o n t e n t io n b e t w e e n a

lit e r a r y in t e llig e n t s ia a n d a n in t e llig e n t s ia d e v o t e d t o t h e s o c ia l

s c ie n c e s wa s t h u s a n a s p e c t o f a c o m p le x p r o ce s s in t h e c o u r s e o f

w h ic h s c i e n t ific m o d e s o f p r o c e d u r e b e c a m e d iffe r e n t ia t e d fr o m

lit e r a r y m o d e s ; a n d t h is d iv o r c e wa s a c c e n t u a t e d id e o l o g ic a lly

t h r o u g h t h e c o n fr o n t a t io n o f c o ld r a t io n a lit y a n d t h e c u lt u r e o f t h e

fe e lin g s o n e o f t h o s e a n t it h e s e s w h ic h m a r k e d t h e c o n flic t b e t w e e n

t h e E n ligh t e n m e n t a n d th e c ou n t e r E n ligh t e n m e n t

Th e s c ie n c e s o f t h e e ig h t e e n t h c e n t u r y w e r e r ic h in c r e a t io n m y t h s .

F r o m Lin n a e u s , w h o wa s o n l y t o o gla d t o h e a r h im s e lf c o m p a r e d

w it h Ad a m , a n d M on t e s q u ie u , w h o d e s c r ib e d t h e. Es prit des lois as 'pro-

tan sine m atre trea t am ’, t o B u ffo n , W in c k e lm a n n a n d La vo is i e r , t h e r e

i u n s t h r o u g h e v e r y d is c i p lin e a lo n g s u c ce s s io n o f m e n w h o a s s e r t e d

t h e y h a d c r e a t e d e n t ir e ly o n t h e ir o w n a c c ou n t s o m e t h in g n o ve l th a t

w o u ld s t a n d t h e t e s t o f t im e . B r e a c h w it h c o n t in u it y a n d t h e fo u n d -

in g o f n e w c o n t i n u it ie s b e lo n g in t im a t e l y t o g e t h e r in t h is e p o c h o f

t h e e v o lu t i o n o f s c ie n c e : m o s t s c i e n t ific in ve s t i ga t o r s s a w t h e m -

s e lve s us gia n t s s t a n d in g on t h e s h o u l d e r s o f d w a r fs r a t h e r t h a n t h e

2 I N T R O D U C T I O N

r e ve r s e . E x c e s s iv e a m b it i o n , i n m a n y ca s es a fo o l h a r d y e x a g g e r a t i o n

o f t h e g oa ls t o b e a c h ie ve d , a n d a n e e d fo r a c on t in u a l c om m e n t a r y

o n o n e ’ s o w n a c t i v i t i e s w e r e n o t e c c e n t r i c i t i e s b u t a n e v e r y d a y

m a t t e r in t h e r e a lm o f s c ie n c e .T h e d a y o f t h e a m a t e u r w as o v e r a n d t h e c o n t o u r s o f c le a r ly

c ir c u m s c r i b e d d o m a i n s o f r es e a r ch , e a ch b e n t o n s e lf s u ffic ie n c y ,

w e r e g r a d u a l ly gr o w i n g vis ib le , e v e n i f o n e ca n h a r d l y s p e a k y e t o f

p r o fe s s io n a lis m o r s p e c i a liz a t io n . T h e s c ie n t i s t h a d lo n g s in c e

c ea s e d t o b e a m e r e vir t u o s o w h o s e o b j ec t ive s in c lu d e d t h e p r o -

vis i on o f a m u s e m e n t ; y e t t h e c o n v ic t i o n s t ill r e ig n e d t h a t s c ie n c e

wa s a ca l lin g a n d c o n fe s s io n r a t h e r t h a n a p r o fe s s io n a l o c cu p a t io n .

M a n y r e ga r d e d t h e p r o c e s s o f d i s c o v e r y as a p u r e l y in d i vid u a l ,

in d e e d a s o lit a r y a c t t h e w o r ld a r o u n d h im w as a s a r u le o n ly a dis -

t u r b a n c e t o t h e in d i vid u a l in h is a c q u is i t io n o f k n o w le d g e . S o c ie t ie s

d e v o t e d t o s c ie n c e in c r e a s e d in n u m b e r , b u t fa i t h in a k n o w le d g e

p r o m o t i n g ‘s c i e n t ific c o m m u n it y ’ wa s as y e t f e e b l y d e v e l o p e d

w it h in m a n y d is c ip l in e s cu lt s fo u n d e d o n fr ie n d s h ip s , o r e v e n u p o n

e n m it ie s , c o n s t it u t e d t h e e m o t io n a l e q u iva l e n t o f c o m m u n it ie s

in s t r u m e n t a l t o t h e a d v a n c e m e n t o f s c ie n ce .

A t t h e e n d o f t h e e ig h t e e n t h c en t u r y a s h a r p d i vis io n b e t w e e n t h e

m o d es o f p r o d u c t io n o f lit e r a r y a n d o f s c ie n t ific w or k s wa s n o t y e tp o s s ib le . T h e c a r e e r o f B u ffo n o ffe r s a n e x a m p l e o f h o w a d iffe r e n -

t ia t io n b e t w e e n t h e m o cc u r r e d a nd t h e n a c c e le r a t e d In t h e

e ig h t e e n t h c en t u r y B u ffo n ’s H is toire Na tu re lle was a be s t s e l le r : w h en

t h e fir s t v olu m e s a p p e a r e d in 1 7 49 t h e y w e r e s o ld o u t w it h in a fe w

w ee k s ; fu r t h e r p r i n t i n g s fo l lo w e d in t h e s a m e ye a r , a n d i n t h e e n d

t h e r e w e r e n o fe w e r t h a n 2 5 0 p o p u la r e d it io n s o f t h e H is toire

Na tu re lle in F rance .

B u ffo n wa s a grand seigneur o f s c ie n c e a n d a s su c h t y p ic a l o f t h e

e ig h t e e n t h ce n t u r y: a n e n t r e p r e n e u r w h o k n e w w ell h o w t o c a p i t a lize

o n h is s c ie n t i fic a b ilit ie s ; a m a s t e r o f la n g u a g e, e v e n i f o n ly o f h is

o wn ; a t o n c e a m a n o f t h e w o r l d a n d a lo c a l h e r o w h o h a d n o n e e d t o

t r a v el a b r o a d t h e a g e ’s lin e s o f c o m m u n ic a t i on c o n ve r g e d u p o n

h im as t h o u g h a s a m a t t e r o f cou r s e .

I t wa s a s a s t ylis t t h a t B u ffo n g a in e d h is r e p u t a t i on : n o t e v e r y o n e

lik e d w h a t h e s a id b u t a l m o s t e v e r y o n e w a s im p r e s s e d b y t h e w a y in

w h i ch h e sa id it Th is t o o w a s h o w p o s t e r it y r e m e m b e r e d h im :

F l a u b e r t n o t e d i n h i s Dict ion n a ire des idees revues w h a t t h e c u lt iva t e dp e r s o n wa s e x p e c t e d t o sa y w h e n B u ffo n wa s m e n t i o n e d ‘ Me t ta it des

manchettes pou r e crire.’

T o s e e in t h is n o t h in g b u t a fo i b l e o f a n a g e lo n g p a s t w o u ld b e a

m is t a k e , fo r B u ffo n ’s a t t it u d e w as m o r e t h a n t h e w h im o f a n ec ce n

In trod u ction 3

t r i e : t h e C o u n t r e p r e s e n t e d n o t a u n i q u e c a s e b u t a t y p e ; h e

e m b o d i e d a r o l e w h ic h t h e s o c ie t y o f h is t im e d id n o t m e r e ly

r e c o g n iz e b u t va l u e d a n d r e w a r d e d ve r y h i gh ly.

W h e n , a ft e r p r o lo n g e d p r e s s u r e fr o m Lo u is X V , B u ffo n w a s in17 5 3 e le c t e d t o t h e Ac a d e m ie F r a n g a is e , h e s p o k e o n t h e s u b j ec t o f

s t yle . T h e fa c t s u r p r i s e d n o o n e : i t wa s co n s i d e r e d q u it e n a t u r a l t h a t

a s c ie n t i s t s h o u l d a ls o r e ga r d h im s e lf a s a n a u t h o r , a s s o m e o n e , t h a t

i s , w h o p a i d h e e d n o t o n l y t o w h a t h e s a i d b u t a l s o t o t h e w a y i n

w h i ch h e s a id it , a n d w h o w is h e d n o t o n ly t o i n s t r u c t h is p u b l ic b u t

a l s o t o e n t e r t a in t h e m a s h e d i d so. B u ffo n ’s a d d r e s s wa s a c c o u n t e d

o n e o f t h e fin e s t e v e r d e l iv e r e d b e fo r e t h e Ac a d e m ie e ve n

B a u d e l a i r e w a s i m p r e s s e d b y i t .

T ow a r d s t h e e n d o f t h e c e n t u r y , h o w eve r , t h a t w h i ch h a d fo r m e r ly

p r o c u r e d c e l e b r i t y fo r B u ffo n h a d fa t a l c o n s e q u e n c e s fo r h im : h e

wa s t h e la s t s c h o la r w h o s e r e p u t a t io n w a s fo u n d e d o n h is t a le n t fo r

p r e s e n t a t i o n a n d t h e fir s t t o l os e h is r e p u t a t io n b e c a u s e h e h a d

d e vo t e d h im s e l f t o o m u c h t o a u t h o r s h ip a n d t o o lit t le t o r es ea r ch .

D u r in g B u ffo n ’s life t im e t h e c o n c e p t o f t h e n o ve l u n d e r w e n t a

d e c is i ve r e e va l u a t io n : i f h is w r it i n g s h a d a t fir s t b e e n r e a d a n d c o m -

m e n d e d p r e c is e ly o n a c co u n t o f t h e ir e n t e r t a i n m e n t va lu e t h e y w e r e

n o w d e n o u n c e d as ‘romans scientifiques’, s u it a b l e fo r w o m e n a n dla y m e n b u t o f n o in t e r e s t t o t h e p r o fe s s io n a l s cie n t is t . T h e fo r m u la

I h a t p u t a n e n d t o B u ffo n ’s c a r e e r a n d in h ib i t e d t h e r e c e p t i o n o f h is

work s was: 'S tiloprim u s , d octrina ultim us ’\ t h e d e v e lo p m e n t t h e r e w it h

in a u gu r a t e d , a n d i ts s e e m in g ir r e v e r s i b ilit y , c a n b e d e m o n s t r a t e d b y

r e v er s i n g t h is fo r m u la . ‘ Doct rin a primus , s tilo ultim us ’ w o u l d n e ve r b e

o l le r e d a s a r e p r o a c h t o a s c ie n t i s t t o d a y.

T h e c o u r s e o f B u ffo n ’s c a r e e r a n d t h e c h a n g e s in t h e wa y h is

His toire Na tu re lle w a s r e c e i v e d e n a b l e u s t o s e e h o w t h e s c i e n c e s

g r a d u a l ly b e c a m e a l ie n a t e d fr o m lit e r a t u r e a n d t r a d it io n a l va lu e s

I h a t c o u l d b e d e s c r ib e d a s lit e r a r y w e r e e x c lu d e d f r o m t h e c a n o n o f

. ic t o p t e d k n o w le d g e . Th is p r o c es s d id n o t p r o c e e d in a s t r a igh t ,

u n d e via t i n g lin e , b u t wa s c h a r a c t e r ize d r a t h e r b y t h e d iffe r e n c e in

l h e p a c e a t w h ic h it t o o k p l a c e i n t h e d i ffe r e n t d i s c ip l in e s : it d i d n o t

• • n c o m p a s s e v e r y d is c ip l in e , a n d t h o s e it d i d e n c o m p a s s it a ffe c t e d

w it h a d iffe r in g d e g r e e o f in t e n s i t y. N a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r is t i c s p l a y e d

h i in s t r u c t ive r o le . T h e G e r m a n s n e ve r a b a n d o n e d t h e s u s p ic io n

ih u l t h e F r e n c h h a d n e v e r s e r io u s ly in t e n d e d t o e x p e l lit e r a t u r eI m m t h e s c ie n c e s : w h e r ea s , a c c o r d in g t o Ta in e , in t h e F r e n c h

a c a d e m i es t h e m e n o f le t t er s lo n g c on t in u e d t o t r e a t t h e n a t u r a l

M le n lis t s a s t h e ir s e r va n t s t h o u g h t h e s e s e r va n t s w e r e n o n e t h e les s

I a vo is i e t , La g r a n g e a n d La p l a c e t h e B r a n d e n b u r g S o z ie t a t d e r

W is s e n s c h a ft e n fir s t o f a ll c la s s i fie d e ve r y F r e n c h m a n , w h e t h e r h e

wa s a d r a m a t i s t o r a p h y s ic is t , a s a m a n o f le t t e r s .

H o w r i c h i n t e n s i o n t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n l i t e r a t u r e a n d t h e

s c ie n c es n o n e t h e les s r e m a in e d is m a d e cle a r b y t h e p h e n o m e n o n o f

‘s t o r a g e ’, b y w h ic h is m e a n t t h e fa c t , o f s i g n i fic a n c e fo r t h e h is t o r y o f

s c ie n c e, t h a t t h e o r e t ic a l p r o g r a m m e s a t fir s t r e j e c t e d h a v e fr e q u e n t ly

n o t s im p ly d is a p p e a r e d o r b e e n fo r g o t t e n b u t , h a v in g p a s s e d a w in t e r

in c o n c e a l m e n t , h a ve r e t u r n e d a n d r e e n t e r e d t h e s t r e a m o f s c ie n -

t i fic d i s cu s s io n . T h e s e p l a c es o f c o n c e a l m e n t m a y lie w i t h i n t h e

o r i gin a l d i s c i p lin e it s e l f o r in n e i gh b o u r i n g d is c i p lin e s , a n d o n e t h e n

s p e a k s o f in t r a o r i n t e r d i s c ip l in a r y s t o r a g e ; t h e y m a y , h o w e ve r ,

a ls o lie o u t s i d e t h e fr o n t ie r s o f s c ie n c e a lt o g e t h e r , a n d o f t h is t h e

s u b s e q u e n t h is t o r y o f B u ffo n ’s H is toire Na tu re lle o f f e r s a s t r i k i n ge x a m p l e .

J u s t a h u n d r e d ye a rs a ft e r t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e H is toire Na tu re lle ,

B a lza c in 1 8 4 2 c o m p o s e d t h e p r e fa c e t o h is Comedie Hum aine: in it he

a p p e a le d , a m o n g m a n y ot h e r s , t o a p o e t w h o h a d a ls o b e e n a n a t u r a l

s c ie n t is t , n a m e ly G o e t h e ; h e a l s o a p p e a le d , a n d v e r y e m p h a t i c a lly ,

t o a n a t u r a l s c ie n t i s t w h o h a d in t h e e n d b e e n r e j e c t e d b y h is g u ild a s

b e i n g a m a n o f le t t er s , n a m e ly B u ffo n .

B a lza c w a n t e d t o d o fo r s o c i e t y w h a t B u ffo n h a d d o n e fo r z o o l o gy :

h e w a n t e d t o a n a lys e t h e s o c ia l s p e c ie s o f w h ic h F r e n c h s o c i e t y co n -

s is t e d a n d t o w r i t e t h e t r u e h is t o r y o f m o r a ls w h ic h t h e h is t or ia n s ,

fix a t e d a s t h e y w e r e o n t h e g lo r i e s o f t h e b a t t le s a n d s t a t e o cc a s i on s

t h e y d e s c r ib e d , u s u a lly fo r g o t t o w r it e . T h e r e a d e r o f B u ffo n ca n

r e c o gn iz e e le m e n t s o f t h e H is toire Na tu re lle in Ba lzac ’s nove l s down

t o t h e s m a l le s t d et a ils ; a n d w h e n o n e c on s id e r s t h e e x t e n t t o w h i ch

B a lza c in flu e n c e d P r o u s t i t b e c o m e s c le a r t h a t , via t h e Comedie

Hum aine, B u ffo n a ls o fo u n d h is wa y to C o m b r a y a n d t h e F a u b o u r g

S a i n t G e r m a i n .

B u t w h a t w e h a v e t o d o w it h h e r e is m o r e t h a n a s t o r y o f s u r viva l.

W e c a n n o t c o n fin e o u r s e lve s t o t r a cin g t h e m ig r a t i on o f t h e o r ie s

a n d t r a d i t io n s o u t o f t h e n a t u r a l s c ie n c e s in t o lit e r a t u r e , fo r d u r in g

t h e fir s t t h ir d o f t h e n in e t e e n t h c e n t u r y t h e s o c ia l s c ie n c e s c a m e in t o

b e i n g a n d b y d e m o n s t r a t in g t h e ir d i s c ip l in a r y s e lf s u ffic ie n c y

s o u g h t t o g a in a p l a c e in t h e a c a d e m ie s a n d u n i ve r s it ie s .

B a l za c wa s a n in h e r i t o r b u t h e wa s a ls o a c r e a t o r . H i s w o r k i s t ie d

t o t h e o ld n a t u r a l h i s t or y, b u t a t t h e s a m e t i m e i t is in c o m p e t i t io n

w i t h a n e w d i s c ip l in e : s o c i o lo g y . B a lz a c h i m s e l f fo r m u la t e d t h is

c la i m , f o r h e a t fir s t in t e n d e d t o c a ll h is w o r k , n o t t h e Comedie

Hum aine, b u t Etudes Socialer, a n d w h e n h e d e s c r i b e d h im s e lf a s a

‘docteu r es sciences societies' th e re l ay in th i s d es ign a t ion a li t t l e se l f iron y

In trod u ction 5

a n d a g r e a t d e a l o f s e lf a wa r e n e s s : fo r w h a t s o c i o lo g is t o f t h e m id -

n in e t e e n t h c e n t u r y co u ld c o m p e t e w it h t h e a n a lyt ic a l in s igh t o f t h is

n o v e lis t a n d h is ‘science s ociale’ n o t t o s p e a k o f c o m p e t in g w it h h is

a r t o f d e s c r ip t io n ? M a r x, w h o c o m p a r e d h im s e lf t o t h e h e r o o f t h e

Ch e f d’oeuvre inconnu, a n d E n ge ls p o s e d t h is r h e t o r ic a l q u e s t i on w h e n

t h e y m a in t a i n e d t h a t t h e y h a d le a r n e d m o r e fr o m B a lza c t h a n t h e y

h a d fr o m a ll t h e p r o fe s s io n a l e c on o m is t s a n d h is t o ria n s p u t t o g e t h e r

fr o m ‘Guizot e tu t t i qu a n t f , a s t h e y m a lic io u s l y c a lle d t h e m .

As a c r it ic a n d c o lle a g u e , H e n r y J a m e s d e s c r ib e d t h e m e d ia t i n g

r o le B a lza c a s s u m e s b e t w e e n n a t u r a l h is t o r y a n d s o c io lo g y: fr o m t h e

s im p l e a c c u m u la t i on a n d a s s e m b lin g o f t h e fa c t s o f s o c ie t y ‘s o cia l

b o t a n iz in g ’, 1a s J a m e s c a lls it B a lza c p a s s es o v e r t o t h e c o n s t r u c t io no f a s o c ia l s y s t em , a n d t h e Comedie Humaine fin a lly co m e s t o c o n -

s t it u t e a n e xa c t c o u n t e r p a r t t o t h a t w h ic h C o m t e , t h e fo u n d e r o f t h e

d is c ip lin e , s t r o v e t o a c h ie ve w it h h is s o c i o lo g y . N o o n e h a d a c le a r e r

p e r c e p t i o n o f t h is t h a n H ip p o l y t e Ta i n e , w h o m t h e y c a lle d ‘B a lza c ’s

s o n ’ a n d w h o r a n g ed B a lza c b e s id e S h a k e s p e a r e a n d S a in t S im o n

a n d d e s c r ib e d h is w o r k a s ‘t h e g r ea t e s t s t o r e h o u s e o f d o c u m e n t s o n

h u m a n n a t u r e t h a t w e p o s s e s s ’. 2 It wa s t h r o u g h B a l za c t h a t Ta in e

d e t e c t e d a n d d e v e l o p e d a s p e c ific vie w o f w h a t t h e s o c ia l s c ie n c e sc o u l d a n d c o u l d n o t d o : ‘Nou s aurons depasse, d 'ici a un demi-s iecle, la

pcriod e descriptive; en biologie, elle a dure ju s qu ’a B ich a t et Cu vier; en

w ciologie, nous y sommes encore; tachons de nous y ten ir, avec app licat ion et

intelligence, sans am bitions excessives, sans conclus ions precipitees , sans theories

husardees et preconques, p ou r en trer b ientot dans la pe riod e des clas s ifications

in/ in relies et d efin itives . . . ’3 W r it t e n in 1 8 9 0 , m o r e t h a n t h ir t y ye a rs

n ft e r C o m t e ’ s d e a t h , t h is is a n a s t o n i s h in g d o c u m e n t it r ec a lls

M illio n ' s d ic t u m t h a t n a t u r a l h i s t o r y s h o u ld b e r e ga r d e d a s b e i n g

a b o v e a l l ‘description exacte'-, a n d w h e n T a in e s ays , in h i s H is tory o f

Unglish Literature, t h a t o u r fir s t t a s k is t o d i s c o v e r in fo r m a t i ve d o c u -

m e n t s a n d t h e n k n o w h o w t o in t e r p r e t t h e m , t h is a d vo ca c y o f t h e

m o d es t t as k o f d e s c r ip t i on r a t h e r t h a n a p r e m a t u r e s y s t e m a t iza t io n

I1 .is m u c h in lin e w it h t h e a t t it u d e o f t h e s o c i o lo g ic a l m o n o g r a p h s o f

I h r n in e t e e n t h c e n t u r y a s it is w i t h t h a t a d o p t e d b y t h e n a t u r a l h is

l o iy o f t h e e i gh t e e n t h . S o it wa s t h a t in 1 9 0 2 t h e ye a r in w h ic h

1 W h i le n o s o u r c e is giv e n f o r a q u o t a t i o n it s so u r c e is t h e s a m e as t h e p r e c e d i n g

i i lr i en ce . Hen ry J ames , 'H on or e de Ba lzac ’ [18751 , in Lit era ry Crit icis m (French

II iifn i. Othe r i.urupean Writers, The Prefaces to the New York Ed ition ) ( N e w Y o r k : T h e

I 11>t n ry o! America, 19H4), p. 37.

I l lp p olytc Taine , Hiilz n c A Crit ica l Study , t r ans la t ed , w ith an app rec ia t ion o f Ta ine ,

I'V I or i' ii/ .o O ’Kou rk e (N e w York : Ha sk el l Hou se , 1 9 7 )), p . 240.

II I ,i li ie In A. Dela i rc , 19 Apr i l 1890 ; qu ote d Irom Ca rlo Mon gard ini , Storm e

wiiti/ ttXiii Hell' o/ iera ill I I iu in e (Milu n o: (j lu l lre , 196 5), p. 251

E m ile D u r k h e im a r r ive d in P a r is P a u l B o u r g e t c o u l d s p e a k o f t h e

‘enseignement sociologique 4 o f th e Comedie Humaine a s b e in g a c r o w n in g

fe a t u r e o f B a l za c ’ s w o r k .

As s o o n a s s o c io l o g y h a d a d va n c e d it s c la im t o b e a s e lf s u ffic ie n td i s c i p lin e it s a w it s e l f c o n fr o n t e d n o t o n ly b y t h e ill w i ll o f t h e

e s t a b lis h e d d i s c ip lin e s b u t a ls o b y c o m p e t it io n o n t h e p a r t o f lit e r a -

t u r e ; o n e r e a s o n fo r t h i s la s t wa s t h a t , in t h e c lim a t e o f b e l ie f in

s c ie n c e th a t ch a r a c t e r ize d t h e n i n e t e e n t h c en t u r y, s o m e b r a n c h e s o f

lit e r a t u r e c la i m e d a s t a t u s e q u a l t o m a n y s c i e n t i fic d is c ip l in e s s o fa r

as t h e a d v a n c e m e n t o f k n o w le d g e w as c o n c e rn e d .

H i s g r e a t a m b i t io n s n o t w it h s t a n d i n g , B a l za c ’s a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s

s c ie n c e h a d s o m e t h in g p la y fu l a b o u t i t W i t h F la u b e r t a ll is s er iou s .

Th e ‘impa s s ibilite ’ h e d e m a n d s o f t h e w r i t e r is t h e t r a n s fe r e n c e t o

lit e r a t u r e o f a m a x im o f s c i en t ific r e s ea r ch : lit e r a t u r e m u s t b e c o m e

m o r e s c ie n t ific i f it w a n t s t o s u r vive . As B a u d e l a ir e d e m a n d e d in

1852 : 'Le temps n’estpas loin oit I’on comprendra que toute litterature qui se

refuse a m archerfraternellement en tre la science et la philosophie est une litt e r ature

homicide e t s uicide .'1W h e n F la u b e r t , w h o b o a s t e d o f h is s o lit a r y s it u a t io n

in is o la t i on fr o m s o c ie t y ‘ Bedouin; tan t qu ’i l vous p la ira ; Citoyen ,

ja m a is '*'- w r o t e t o G e o r g e S a n d in 1 8 71 t h a t i f F r a n c e w e r e t o a w a k e n

it m u s t a b a n d o n in s p ir a t io n i n fa v ou r o f s c ie n c e , g i ve u p e v e r y k in do f m e t a p h y s ic s a n d b e g in t o p r a c t i s e c r it ic is m , Le . i n ve s t i ga t e t h in g s

t h e m s e lve s , h e t h e r ew it h fo r m u la t e d a p r o g r a m m e w h ic h w o u ld

e ve n in it s c h o ic e o f w o r d s h a ve d e lig h t e d a n E m ile D u r k h e im . A t

o n c e a c r i t ic o f t h e s c ie n c e s a n d a b e l ie v e r i n s c ie n c e , F la u b e r t w a s

s e l f c o n fid e n t in b o t h w h a t h e r e ve r e d a n d w h a t h e d e s p is e d a

C la u d e B er n a r d s e e m e d t o h im m o r e s a cr os a n c t t h a n P iu s IX , b u t h e

c o u l d n o t t a k e s e r io u s ly t h e p r e t en s io n s o f a n Au g u s t e C o m t e a n d

c a lle d fo r a m o d e r n Ar is t o p h a n e s t o e x c it e g e n e r a l m o c k e r y o f t h is

t h e o r y m a n u fa c t u r e r ’s fa n t a s ie s . F la u b e r t u n d o u b t e d ly r e ga r d e d h is

w o r k a s a fin e r k in d o f s o c ia l s c ie n c e h e f e l t s u p e r i or t o t h e

s o c io lo g is t s b e ca u s e h e b e lie v e d t h a t as a n a u t h o r h e c o u ld e lu d e t h e

c on s t r a i n t s o f s o c ie t y: 'Q u i etes-vous done, 6 societe, pou r me fo rce r a qu oi

que ce s oit?'1

4 P a u l B ou r g e t, La Polit iqu e de B alz ac ( 1902); Bou rget , Socio/ ogieet Litera tu re, E t u d e s e t

Portr a i ts , No . 3 (Pa ris: Plon , 19 06 ), p. 46.

5 Cha r les Baud ela i re , ‘L’Ecole paien n e’ [185 2], in Oeuvres completes , t ex te e tab l i ,

p res en t e e t an n o te p a r C lau d e P i ch o i s (Pa r is : B ib lio th e q u e d e la P le i ad e , 1 9 7 6 ),

Vol. 2, p. 49.

6 Gu s t a ve F l au b er t t o Lo u ise C o le t , 23 J an u ary 18 5 4 ; F lau b er t , Correspondance I I {Ju ly

1851 December 18 5 8 ), e d i t io n e t a b lie , p r e s e n t e e e t a n n o t e e p a r J e a n B r u n e a u

(Par is : B ib l io th equ e de la P le ia de, 1980 ), p . 515.

7 F lau b er t t o Mad em o ise l le Lero y er d e Ch a n tep i e , 1"8 May 1 8 5 7 ; F lau b er t , Correspon

dance II, p. 719.

Introd u ction 1

F la u b e r t ’ s c la i m t o b e a b le t o s e e t h r o u g h s o c ie t y a n d a t t h e s a m e

t i m e e lu d e it s t ie s a n d d u t ie s c on t a i n s a g r e a t d e a l o f p r e s u m p t i on . In

Z o l a t h i s a t t it u d e is, w h e r e p o s s ib le , e n h a n c ed . H is t h e o r y o f t h e

e x p e r im e n t a l n o v e l w h i ch h a d, t o b e s u r e, l it t l e c o n n e c t io n w i t hh is p r a c t ic e as a w r i t e r b e c a m e t h e fo u n d a t io n o f t h e c la im t o s c ie n -

t i fi c a l ly a d va n c ed b y a c e r t a in t y p e o f lit e r a t u r e w h ic h u n d e r s t o o d

it s e l f a s a fin e r k in d o f s o c i o lo g y: w h e n Z o l a s p o k e o f t h e ‘sociologie

pra tiqu e ’* th a t ch a ra c te r i 2e d h is n o ve ls h e i m p l ie d t h a t in t h e la s t

r e s o r t it w as h e w h o p r a c t is e d t r u e s o c io lo g y.

S o c i o lo g y wa s t h u s fa c e d w i t h g r o w i n g a n d d a n g er o u s r iva ls , a n d

t h e s o c ia l s c ie n c e s w e r e w e l l a w a r e o f t h is c o m p e t i t io n , w h ic h

t h r e a t e n e d t h e ir d is c i p lin a r y id e n t i t y a t it s c or e : f or , u n lik e t h e h is -

t o r ic a l d is c i p lin e s w h o s e id i o gr a p h ic o r ie n t a t io n fu r n is h e s t h e m ,

e s p e c ia l ly in G e r m a n y , w it h a m e t h o d o l o gic a l c o u n t e r w e ig h t t o t h e

n o m o t h e t i c c la i m s o f t h e e x a c t s c i e n c e s t h e s o c ia l s c ie n c es , a b o v e

a ll in F r a n c e a n d E n g la n d , fo r t i fie d t h e ir s t r u g gle fo r a n a c a d e m ic

ic p u t a t io n b y im it a t i n g t h e n a t u r a l s c ie n ce s . T h e p r o x i m it y o f a n d

c o m p e t i t io n fr o m lit e r a t u r e s e r v ed t o in t e n s i fy th is s t r a t e gy.

T h u s t h e r e w a s s o o n s e t i n t r a i n a n i n n e r d i s c i p l i n a r y p r o c e s s o f

l>u r i f i c a t ion : d i s c ip l ine s such a s soc io logy , wh ich a t f i r s t l a cked

i ( c o g n it i o n w i t h in t h e s y s t e m o f k n o w l e d g e a n d h a d t o a c q u ir e it ,‘• ou gh t t o d o s o b y d i s t a n c in g t h e m s e l ve s fr o m t h e e a r ly lit e r a r y

lo t m s o f t h e ir o w n d i s c ip l in e , w h o s e p u r p o s e wa s r a t h e r t o d e s c r ib e

u n i cla s s ify t h a n t o a n a l ys e a n d r e d u c e t o a s y s t e m . F r o m t h i s p r o c e s s

I l in e a r o s e a c o m p e t i t i o n b e t w e e n a lit e r a r y i n t e l lig e n t s i a c o m

Ih is cd o f a u t h o r s a n d c r i t ic s a n d a s o c ia l s c i e n t i fic i n t e l lig e n t s i a . T h e

p r o b l em o f s o c io lo g y is th a t , a lt h o u g h i t m a y im it a t e t h e n a t u r a l

i Ir n c e s , i t ca n n e v e r b e c o m e a t r u e n a t u r a l s c ie n c e o f s o c ie t y: b u t i f

II a b a n d o n s it s s c ie n t i fic o r i e n t a t i o n i t d r a w s p e r i lo u s l y c lo s e t o

III cu ltu re.

S o c i o lo g y ’s p r e c a r io u s s i t u a t i o n a s a k in d o f ‘t h ir d c u lt u r e ’ b e t w e e n

t in n a t u r a l s c ie n c e s o n t h e on e h a n d a n d lit e r a t u r e a n d t h e

Im m u n it ie s on t h e o t h e r wa s e x a c e r b a t e d b y t h e fa c t t h a t t h e

in t e lle c tu a l t r a d i t io n s o f t h e E n lig h t e n m e n t a n d t h e c o u n t e r

U n l lg h t e n m e n t s t r u g gle d w it h o n e a n o t h e r o v e r it s d e s tin y .

I m m t h e fo u n d i n g o f t h e F r e n c h a n d E n g lis h a c a d e m i es in t h e

m ve n t c e n t h c e n t u r y o n w a r d s , t h e n a t u r a l s c ie n c e s h a d a c h ie ve d t h elilg h p r e s t ig e t h e y e n jo y e d a n d t h e p o s s i b i lit y o f a c q u ir i n g s t a t e s u b

v< 111 lo u n o t le a s t t h r o u gh t h e a b s e n c e o f p a s s i on o r s e lf in t e r e s t t h a t

I nilli / *(»!«, ' l .e R o m a n e x p e r i m e n t a l ’ 1 1H8 ()| , i n Oeuvres critiques I: Notices et notes de

I L h u Mitteruini (Pu rls : Cer cle (In l ivie prc cicu x, 19 68), p. 1 Ihh .

s u p p o s e d l y ch a r a c t e r ize d t h e m . In it ia lly t h e s o c ia l s c ie n c e s f o llo w e d

t h is p a t t e r n ; i t wa s n o a c c id e n t t h a t C o n d o r c e t , w h o e m b o d i e d as n o

o n e els e d i d t h e E n lig h t e n m e n t ’s fa i t h in s c ie n c e , s h o u l d h a ve b e e n

t h e d e c is i ve c h a m p io n o f a s o c ia l m a t h e m a t ic s . O n c e t h e c o r r e c t

e m p l oy m e n t o f t h e fa c u lt y o f r ea s o n h a d b e e n m a s t e r ed t h e r e w e r e

n o g r ou n d s fo r t h in k i n g t h a t m o r a l it y , p o lit ic s a n d p o l it i c a l s c ie n c e

w o u l d n o t p u r s u e a co u r s e o f d e v e lo p m e n t as s ou n d a n d p u r p o s e fu l

a s t h o s e d i s c i p l i n e s m a k i n g h e c t i c p r o g r e s s i n t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f

n a t u r e. I t wa s n o t le a s t b e ca u s e t h e y w e r e a c a d e m ic la t e c o m e r s t h a t

t h e s o c ia l s cie n c e s e x h ib it e d in t h e n in e t e e n t h c e n t u r y a d e g r e e o f

o p t im is m a s t o t h e p o s s ib i lit ie s o f k n o w le d g e w h ic h wa s e x c e e d e d b y

n o o t h e r d i s c ip l in e : t h a t n a t u r e h a d s et n o lim it s t o w h a t w e m ig h th o p e fo r , a n d t h a t h u m a n r e a s on w o u ld e v en t u a l ly le a d m a n k in d t o

E lys iu m , a r e a m o n g it s o r i gin a l d o gm a s .

Alr e a d y b y t h e e n d o f t h e e igh t e e n t h c en t u r y, h o w e ve r a n d n o t

le a s t as a c o n s e q u e n c e o f a g en e r a l s o b e r in g u p e n g e n d e r e d b y t h e

a b u s es fo s t e r e d b y t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n t h e p r a c t ic e o f t h e s o cia l

s c ie n c e s in i m it a t in g t h e n a t u r a l s c ie n c e s wa s c o m in g t o s e e m m o r e

a n d m o r e p r o b le m a t i ca l : t h e in s igh t gr e w t h a t t h e a im o f t h e ‘m o r a l

s c ie n c e s ’ w a s t o r e d u c e t o t h e fo r m u la e o f s c i en c e d o m a i n s o f life

w h ic h w e r e in p r in c ip l e o t h e r t h a n n a t u r a l o b je ct s . T h e n a t u r a l

s c ie n c es h a d a c h ie ve d t h e ir s u c c es s es t h r o u g h e x p e r im e n t a t io n a ll

t o o s o on it wa s t o b e c o m e a p p a r e n t t h a t in t h e r e a lm o f s o c ie t y

e x p e r im e n t c ou ld n o t s im p ly b e s u b s t it u t e d fo r e x p e r i en c e . It a ls o

b e c a m e in c r e a s in g ly qu e s t io n a b l e w h e t h e r t h e s c ie n c es o f m a n

o u g h t t o b e p u r s u e d i n a d i s p a s s i o n a t e a n d d i s i n t e r e s t e d m a n n e r ,

w h e t h e r t h e h e a r t o u g h t t o b e s a c r ific ed t o t h e h e a d a n d r e lig io n t o

r ea s on . It wa s t h e ch a m p io n s o f t h e E n lig h t e n m e n t t h e m s e lve s w h o

fir s t fo r m u la t e d , n o t a d is t r u s t o f r e a s o n in p r in c ip l e , b u t a r e c o g -

n it io n o f t h e h a r m fu l e f fe c t o f it s o ve r e s t im a t io n , as, fo r e x a m p l e ,

d id Less ing in the l i nes :

D ie g r iib e l n d e V e r n u n ft d r in g t s ic h in a lle s e in ,

U n d w ill, w o s i e n ic h t h e r r s c h t , d o c h n ic h t e n t b e h r e t s e in . . .

G e b ie t e r i s c h s c h r e ib t s ie v or , wa s u n s e r n S in n e n t a u g e,

M a c h t s ich z u m O h r d e s O h r s , u n d w ir d d e s Au g e s Au g e.

(B r o o d in g r e a s o n f o r c e s it s wa y in t o e ve r yt h in g ,/ a n d w h e r e it d o e s n o t r u le

it n o n e t h e l e s s d e m a n d s t o b e in d is p e n s a b le . . ./ It im p e r i o u s l y d e c r e es t h e

w o r t h o f o u r s en s es ,/ m a k e s o f it s e lf t h e e a r o f o u r e a r an d b e c o m e s t h e e ye

o f o u r e y e . )9

H o w e v e r w i d e l y t h e y m ig h t d iffe r in o t h e r r e s p e ct s , t h e ch a m

* Go t th o ld Ep h ra im Less in g , Arn ica Hi-rrn Ma rpurg u h crt lic lU^ t ln Jcr VCincus iba/ tcn zum

11'1‘rf’niit‘i'n, L e s s i n g , VC'erie, B a n d I ( M i in c h e n : M a ns e r , 1 9 7 0 ) , | > ! ( > '

In trod u ction 9

p io n s o f t h e c o u n t e r E n lig h t e n m e n t w e r e u n i t ed in t h e ir c r it iq u e o f

t h e o ve r e s t im a t io n o f r ea s on , a n d in t h e ir d e t e r m in a t i on t o p r o t e c t

s o c ie t y fr o m a b s t r a c t p o l it ic a l a n d s o c ia l e x p e r im e n t s o f w h i ch t h e

c r im in a l e x p e r i m e n t o f t h e F r e n c h R e v olu t i on wa s t h e p r i m e e xa m p le .N o n e o f t h es e t h in k e r s w h o e s p ou s e d t h e c o u n t e r E n ligh t e n m e n t

s t o o d c l o s e r t o s o c i o l o g y t h a n d i d C o u n t L o u i s d e B o n a l d , w h o m

R o b e r t S p a e m a n n w a s r ig h t t o r e ga r d a s o n e o f t h e fo u n d i n g fa t h e r s

o f t h e d is c i p lin e , w h ic h h e ca l le d a ‘discipline du f a it ' 10 th a t a n t i c ipa ted

p o s i t ivis m . D e B o n a ld , w h o wa s a c c o u n t e d a s c h o la s t ic a n d wa s a n y-

t h in g b u t a bel es prit , a t t h e b e g in n in g o f t h e n in e t e e n t h c en t u r y s e t

d o w n in a n u m b e r o f b r i e f a n d e x c e e d in g ly c le a r s i gh t e d s k e t c h e s

t h e d ile m m a fa c in g t h e s o c ia l s c ie n c e s a s t h e y o s c illa t e d b a c k a n d

lo r t h b e t w e e n a n o r ie n t a t io n t o wa r d s s c ie n c e a n d a n in c lin a t i onlo r l i t e ra tu re .

D e B o n a l d s a w in t h e w i d e n in g d i vo r c e b e t w e e n s c i en c e a n d lit e r a

i u r e a s ign o f m o d e r n it y a n d t h u s a s y m p t o m o f d e ca d e n c e. E ve n in

in a g e as r e c e n t a s th a t o f Lo u is X I V n o d i s t i n c t i on h a d b e e n m a d e

I id wee n sciences a n d lettres, a n d t h e d ic t io n a r y o f t h e Ac a d e m ie

I i a n ga is e wa s c o n s is t e n t w h e n u n d e r t h e r u b r ic science it r e fe r r e d t h e

l e a d e r t o litterature a n d d e f i n e d lettres i n t h e p l u r a l a s 'toute sorte de

u tru ce et de d o c t r i n e ' D e B o n a l d m o u r n e d fo r a n a g e in w h ic h t h e

• I ie n c e s w e r e r e l a t e d t o l it e r a t u r e a s c o n t e n t is t o f or m : t o h imM a s s illo n wa s a r e p r e s e n t a t ive o f a t h e o lo gic a l , M o n t e s q u ie u o f a

p o lit ic a l , B o s s u e t o f a h i s t o r i c a l a n d La B r u y e r e o f a m o r a l literature-

I I icy s p o k e o n b e h a lf o f d is c ip l in e s t h e o u t c o m e o f w h o s e r e s e a r c h e s

i cmid in n o way b e s epa ra ted from th e fo r m in wh ich it was p re s en ted

Uni Ion ’s His toire Na tu re lle d e m o n s t r a t e d t h e e x t e n t t o w h ic h e ve n

l l i e n a t u r a l s c i e n c e s c o u l d b e a t o n e w i t h l i t e r a t u r e .

I lie d i v o r c e b e t w e e n lit e r a t u r e a n d t h e s c ie n c e s wa s t h e r e s p o n s i-

b ilit y n o t le a s t o f a n e w cla s s p r o d u c e d b y t h e E n lig h t e n m e n t : i f

i l ii 'i i' liad in th e ea r ly ph as e be en s ch o la r s wh o la c ked fee l in g fo r

li ii in, 'savants sans litte ratu re' , 12 a m o n g m o d e r n in t e lle c tu a l s a n o ve r

<ml i n ut io n o f fo r m c o n c e a le d a la c k o f c o n t e n t t h e y w e r e 1litterateurs

\ itm ren ta b le s cience'. U n d e r t h e d o m in a t in g in flu e n c e o f t h e s e m e n o f

l it ii'is , wh o we re d evo id o f a l l kn owledge , th e na tu ra l s c iences , w ith

.... . li< u ia t ic s a t th e ir head , ha d com e t o rep re s en t th e le a d in g d is c i

111111<s o l t h e m o d e r n a g e; t h e *sciences exactes' w e r e n o w a c co u n t e d t h e

h im !('i nicnces’. T h i s c h a n g e in p r e s t i ge a m o n g t h e s c ie n t i fic d is c i

I'lim . wa s p r o d u c in g h a r m fu l e ffe c t s n o t le a s t in t h e w o r l d o f ed u

I’imiI llou rn ct , 'L e Rc a lism e de B on a ld’ [ 19<>4| , in Sociologie et Litterature, p. 43.

" I n u l l d r Donald , ' l i e * Sciences , des le t t r es e t des ar t s ’ 118 07) , in Oeuvres, Melanges

lilh h im i, / lolihi/ uei et / >/ ji/oiophiques (Paris: Librairie d’Adrien I.e Clerc, 1H52),|> JMM 11 Ih iil,, p. 290.

c a t i o n . L i t e r a r y d e c a d e n c e a n d s c i e n t i f i c d e c a d e n c e w e r e o n l y t w o

s id es o f t h e s a m e c oin : a s t h e t r a g ed y o f t h e An c ie n R e g im e b e c a m e

t h e b o u r g e o is d ra m a , s o t h e t i t le o f h o n o u r ‘hautes sciences' p a s s e d

fr o m t h e ‘sciences morales’ t o t h e ‘sciences phy s iques '.It wa s p r e c i s e ly t h e ir e x a c t it u d e , h o w e ve r , t h a t p r e c lu d e d t h e

n a t u r a l s c ie n c e s fr o m b e in g p la c e d a t t h e h e a d o f t h e s c i e n t i fic d i s c i-

p lin e s : i t wa s p r e c i s e l y b e c a u s e , a s P a s c a l a n d L e ib n iz h a d s h o wn ,

t h e y c o u ld a ls o b e p u r s u e d b y m a c h in e s t h a t t h e s e s c ie n c e s w e r e o f

t h e s e c o n d r a n k a s c o m p a r e d w it h t h e o l o gy o r et h ic s , j u r is p r u d e n c e ,

p o l it ic s o r h is t o r y, w h ic h r e q u ir e d t h e u s e o f la n g u a g e a n d w o u l d

t h e r e fo r e a l wa ys r e m a in h u m a n .

In d e B o n a ld ’ s e ye s t h e s u p e r i or it y o f t h e m o r a l s c ie n c e s t o t h e

n a t u r a l s c ie n c e s wa s m a n ife s t : t h e a n t h r o p o c e n t r ic is m o f t h e l a t t e r i f n o t h in g els e , t h e ir u n a v oid a b le r e lia n c e o n t h e c o n c e p t s o f ‘c h a r a c t e r ',

‘fa m ily ’, ‘ in t e n t i o n ’, ‘a ffe c t ’, d e m o n s t r a t e d t h e ir i n a b i lit y t o s u r v iv e

w it h o u t b o r r o w in g fr o m t h e s c ie n c es o f m a n . T h e i d e o lo g y o f p r o -

gr es s p r o p a g a t e d b y t h e n a t u r a l s cie n c es wa s a ch i m e r a : fu n d a m e n -

t a lly t h e y fo l lo w e d t h e i d e n t ic a l p r in c ip l e s t h e y h a d f o llo w e d s in c e

p r im e va l t im e s a n d a s a r u le t h e ir le a r n e d m e n p r o ffe r e d n o t h in g b u t

e lu c id a t io n s o f p o p u la r p r a c t ic e s w h ic h w o r k e d ju s t a s w e ll w it h o u t

t h em . F r o m r e a d in g th e J ou rn a l de Phy s ique d e B o n a ld ga i n e d t h e

im p r e s s io n t h a t t h e a g e o f g r e a t d is c o ve r ie s w a s p a s t in t h e n a t u r a ls c ie n c es ; t h e y w e r e n o w d o m in a t e d b y 7 e p e t it e s p rit "3 a n d w e r e

e n g a g e d le s s in d is c o v e r i n g t h a n i n im p r o v in g o n w h a t wa s a lr e a d y

k n o w n a n d fu r t h e r r e fin in g w h a t wa s a lr e a d y p e r fe c t W h a t e v e r a ir s

t h e m a t h e m a t ic ia n s m ig h t g iv e t h e m s e lve s , m a n k in d w o u ld s t ill

b u ild h o u s e s a n d s p in w o o l e v en i f t h e r e w e r e n o s u c h t h in g as

g e om e t r y .

It wa s n o t t h e s e l f o ve r e s t im a t io n o f t h e n a t u r a l s c ie n c es t h a t c o n -

s t i tu t e d fo r d e B o n a l d t h e d e c is i ve p r o b le m : o f g r e a t e r c o n s e q u e n c e

wa s t h e p o s s ib i lit y t h a t t h e s t a t e w o u ld a p p r o p r i a t e t h i s s e lf-

o ve r e s t im a t io n a n d d e r ive fr o m it t h e fu n d a m e n t a l p r i n c ip l es o f it s

e d u c a t io n a l p o lic y. Th a t i n t h e m e c h a n ic a l s c ie n c es , w h e r e m a c h i n e s

w e r e gr a d u a l ly r ep la c in g m a n , t h e r e s h o u l d a p p e a r m o r e a n d m o r e

m e n w h o r e s e m b le d m a c h in e s w as a r e gr e t t a b le fa c t b u t o n e w h o s e

c o n s e q u e n c e s c o u ld b e live d w it h ; w h a t w a s in c o m p a r a b ly m o r e

d e t r im e n t a l wa s t h a t m o d e r n s o c ie t y ’s id e a s o f t r u t h a n d u t ilit y,

e x a c t it u d e a n d s o lid i t y, w e r e a s s o c ia t e d a l m o s t e x c l u s i ve ly w it h t h e

n a t u r a l s cie n c e s . It w a s n o t o n ly t h e s o c ia l s c ie n c e s t h a t s u ffe r e d

h a r m : t h e c o r e o f s o c i e t y it s e l f wa s a ffe c t e d b y i t

T h e n a t u r a l s c ie n c e s r e q u ir e d f o r t h e ir l eg it im a t io n t h e b e l i e f in

11 de Bon ald , ‘Des Progres ou d e la decad en ce des l e t t res ’ [18 10 ], in Oeuvres,

In trod u ction 11

p r o gr e s s : i f t h is b e l i e f wa s u n m a s k e d as s u p e r s t it io n t h e c la i m t o p r e -

d o m in a n c e a d v a n c e d b y th e e x a c t d is c ip lin e s w o u ld b e u n d e r m in e d .

W i t h t h e m o r a l s c ie n c e s it wa s d i ffe r e n t : non nova, sednove14 was t h eir

im p e r is h a b le m o t t o , a n d a ll t h e y w e r e c o n c e r n e d w it h wa s t h e d is -c o ve r y o f n e w, c o n t e m p o r a r y fo r m s fo r t h e o l d a n d t im e le s s t ru t h s .

Th is fu n c t i o n w a s a ll t h e m o r e v it a l in t h a t , in a n a g e in w h ic h a s a

c on s e q u e n c e o f t h e E n lig h t e n m e n t t h e a u t h o r it y o f t h e r e ve a le d

r e lig io n s wa s b e in g in c r e a s in g ly c a lle d in t o q u e s t io n , t h e m o r a l

o r ie n t a t io n o f m a n k in d h a d t o b e p r o v id e d b y t h e m o r a l s c ien c es .

( '. h r is t ia n it y in s c ie n t i fic fo r m , t h e m o r a l s c ie n c e s h a d fo r t h e ir

o b je c t i ve t h e p r e s e r v a t io n o f s o c ie t y t h r o u g h m o r a l d i r e c t io n o f t h e

In d ivid u a l a n d s t a b iliz a t i o n o f t h e le g i t im a t e p o l it i c a l r e g im e : fo r

t h is r e a s o n t o o t h e m o r a l s c ie n c e s t h e ‘sciences m ora le s '- w e r e in a

n .11 r o w er s e n s e b o t h t h e s c ie n c e s o f s o c i et y t h e ‘sciences de la s ociete ’

and fo r soc i e ty .

W h a t wa s r e q u ir e d wa s t h e u n d o in g o f t h e n e w h ie r a r c h y o f t h e

d is c ip lin e s c r e a t e d b y t h e E n lig h t e n m e n t : t h e n a t u r a l s c ie n c e s w e r e

on ly an c illa ry t o t h e fir s t o f a l l s c iences , t h &science de la societe. S t u d i e s

in t h e n a t u r a l s c ie n c e s m ig h t a s sis t t h e r e p u t a t i o n o f a s c h o la r t h e y

w ou ld d o n o t h in g t o a d va n c e t h e fa m e o f a n a t io n . I f m o d e r n s o c i et y

w er e t o a b a n d o n t h e n a t u r a l s c ie n c e s n o n o t ic e a b le d is o r d e r w o u ld

en s u e; i f t h e p r o p a g a t io n o f t h e p r in c ip l e s o f C h r i s t ia n m o r a lit y w it h

d i e a id o f t h e s o c ia l s c i en c e s w e r e t o c e a s e , h o w e v e r , s o c ie t y w o u ld

lie p lu n g ed in t o m o r a l a n d p o l it ic a l ch a o s .

Co u n t Lo u is d e B o n a ld wa s n o u n p r e ju d ic e d o b s e r v er o f t h e c o n -

t e n t io n s a r is in g b e t w e e n lit e r a t u r e a n d t h e s c ie n c e s in t h e w a k e o f

i Ih E n lig h t e n m e n t h e wa s a p a r t is a n o f t h e An c ie n R e gim e , a s te ad

• I •• l it >yalis t an d a m em b er o f th e C a th ol ic Ch u rch . Bu t as th e r oya l is t

u n i ( 'a t h o lic B a lza c , w h o fr e q u e n t ly c it e d d e B on a ld , wa s c a p a b le o f

ilefu l ib i n g t h e s o c i e t y o f h is t im e w it h a n u n c o m p r o m is in g r e a l is md ia l e v ok e d t h e a d m ir a t i on o f M a r x a n d E n ge ls , s o d e B on a ld , t h e

lilt i ’log is t o f t h e Res to r a t ion , cou ld ju s t a s c lea r ly fo r es ee t h e fu tu re

ill ,t in y o f t h e s o c ia l s c ie n c e s as , c a r r ie d a lo n g b y t h e E n lig h t e n -

m e n t 's e n t h u s ia s m fo r s c ie n c e , t h e y b e g a n t o im it a t e t h e n a t u r a l

mi I r n c e s :

/ 1 i n n in r i morales, q u i ont longtem ps regne sur les sciences et sur les lettres, quoiqu e

,inii, i Jo hi pa ix, ne peu v en t rien p ou r la m aintenir, dep uis que la pbilosophie a en v abi ou

i ii ./if / run p in i beauxdomaines, lepo litiqu e et la tbeologie, et qu’ellef a it journ ellem ent •A i itm n i f m cmv sur la morale. Repoussees par les sciences exactes, dedaignees pa r les

h u u i / riiiiih’i, d ies writ hors d'et at de fa ir e respecter leur m ediation ou leur neutrality , et

" ilr lloiiultl, ' De* Sciences’, p. }16." ill Itimuld, 'Slit In (iucr re den sciences et des lettres ' in Oeuvres, p. JH7.

subiront la lo i du vainqueur. Mais cornme elles ont tout a craindre des sciences, dures et

orgueilleuses, leurs vueux secrets seront pour les lettres, p lus hum aines et p lus genereuses,

et qui n’ont pas perdu tout souvenir de leur ancienne et etroite alliance avec les

sciences morales.

D e B o n a l d w r o t e i n a n a g e w h i c h h e s a w t h r e a t e n e d b y t h e

d o m in a t io n o f th e 'p e t i t esprit ’ a n d t h e los s o f t h o s e s e r io u s a n d m a n ly

vir t u e s t h a t h a d c h a r a c t e r i ze d t h e An c ie n R e g im e . In t h e s p ir it o f t h e

An c ie n R e g im e h e g e n e r a lly t o o k r e fu g e in m ilit a r y m e t a p h o r s t o

d e s c r i b e t h e flu c t u a t i on s o f t h e s p ir it u a l c o n t e n t io n s in w h i c h h e

h im s e l f t o o k p a rt . T h e i n t e lle c t u a l d e b a t e s s c h o la r s c o n d u c t e d

w i t h o n e a n o t h e r i n e a r l i e r t i m e s w e r e l i k e c o n t e n t i o n s b e t w e e n

r e gu la r s o ld ie r s c o m m a n d e d b y ge n e r a ls o f e q u a l c o m p e t e n c e : d is c i-p l in e a n d c h iva l r y r e ig n e d ; v ic t o r y b r o u g h t h o n o u r b u t d e fe a t wa s in

n o wa y d is h o n o u r a b l e. An a s p e ct o f t h e Ag e o f E n lig h t e n m e n t wa s

t h a t t h is h o n o u r a b le wa r b e t w e e n c om b a t a n t s o f e qu a l r a n k h a d

c e a s e d t o e x is t : ill a r m e d s c r ib b l e r s fo u g h t g u e r r i lla e n g a g e m e n t s

w it h o n e a n o t h e r in feu ille ton s a n d p a m p h le t s , a n d in t h is ‘ p etite guerre

contre tout ce qu i est bon et ju s te ' 16 r e a s on w as o b lig e d t o a c c o m m o d a t e

i t s e lf t o fo rm s o f w a r fa re e s s en t ia l ly a lien t o it.

W e m u s t b e a r t h is c o n t e x t in m in d i f w e a r e t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e

m e a n in g o f t h e t it le d e B o n a l d ga v e t o h is lit t l e t r e a t is e o n t h e fu t u r e

d e s t in y o f t h e s o c ia l s c ie n c e s c a u gh t b e t w e e n lit e r a t u r e o n o n e s id e

a n d t h e n a t u r a l s c ie n c e s o n t h e o t h e r ‘Sur la guerre des sciences et des

lettres'. T o d e B o n a l d , w h a t wa s r e f le c t e d in t h e d is u n io n o f t h e s o c ia l

s c ie n c es wa s t h e c o n t e n t io n b e t w e e n t h e An c ie n R e g im e a n d t h e

m o d e r n a g e, R e s t o r a t i on a n d R e v olu t io n , E n lig h t e n m e n t a n d

c o u n t e r E n l ig h t e n m e n t . I t is o f t h is b a t t le g r o u n d t h a t m y b o o k is

a r epo r t .

In h i s Lectures on Aes th etics H e g e l d e s c r ib e d t h e n o v e l a s t h e a r t fo r m

wh ich recovers th e ‘ o rd er an d pr ose o f rea l ity ’.17Th e n ove l, t h e m oder n

b o u r g e o is e p o p e e , ‘p r e s u p p o s e s a r e a l it y a lr e a d y o r d e r e d as p ros e . . .

O n e o f t h e m o s t c o m m o n a n d , t o t h e n o ve l, a p p r o p r i a t e c o n flic t s is

t h e r e fo r e t h a t b e t w e e n t h e p o e t r y o f t h e h e a r t a n d t h e p r o s e o f

e ve r yd a y c ir c u m s t a n c es a n d t h e a c c id e n t s o f t h e e x t e r n a l w o r ld t h a t

o p p os e i t . . H e g e l’s d e s cr ip t io n m a k es i t cle a r w h y fr o m t h e

m o m e n t o f it s in c e p t io n s o c io lo g y b e c a m e b o t h a c o m p e t i t o r a n d a

c o u n t e r p a r t o f lit e r a t u r e . O n t h e o n e h a n d , w h e n s o c io lo g y d e s ir e d

16 de Bona ld , ‘Aver t i ss em en t’ , in Oeuvres, p. 2.

17 G e org W i lh e lm F r i ed r i ch H ege l , Vortesuiigen uber die As thetik I-1 I1 (IH1H 18 29 ),

Werkausgabe, ed . Eva M olden h au e r and Kar l Marku s M iche l , B and 15 (Fran kfu r t

am Main : Suh rkam p, 19 70), pp . 3923 .

In trod u ction 13

t o b e s o c io g r a p h y it ca m e in t o c o n flic t a b o v e a l l w it h t h e r e a lis t i c

n o ve l o v e r t h e c la im t o o ffe r a n a d e qu a t e r e p r o d u c t io n o f t h e ‘p r o s e

o f e ve r y d a y c ir c u m s t a n c e s ’; w h e n , o n t h e o t h e r , it c la i m e d t o b e

s o c ia l t h e o r y it in c u r r e d t h e s u s p ic io n o f d e g e n e r a t in g in t o a ‘c lo s e t

s c i en c e ’, 18 t h a t is o f b e lo n g in g t o t h a t g r o u p o f d is c ip lin e s w h ic h ,

a c c o r d i n g t o N ie t z s c h e ’s m a l ic io u s d e fin it i o n , a r e u n a b le t o

d e m o n s t r a t e ‘ t h a t a n y k in d o f gr a n d c u lt u r a l g o a l lie s w it h in t h e ir

h o r iz o n ’: t h is a r i d c lo se t s c i e n c e wa s t h e n c o n t r a s t e d w i t h l it e r a t u r e

In it s ca p a c i t y t o e x p r e s s t h e ‘p o e t r y o f t h e h e a r t ’.

In t h is c o m p e t i t io n o v e r t h e cla i m t o b e t h e r u le o f life a p p r o p r ia t e

10 in d u s t r i a l s o c i e t y s o c i o lo g y c a n n o t , h o w e v e r , s i m p l y b e e q u a t e d

w it h r a t io n a lit y a n d lit e r a t u r e w it h fe e lin g . O c c a s io n a lly t h e r e a r e

c o a lit io n s : D ic k e n s , fo r i n s t a n c e , a c t e d as a n a d vo c a t e o f t h e c u lt u r e

>>1 fee lin g w h en in H a rd Times h e s c o u r g e d t h e d e h u m a n izin g e ffe c t s

o l (h e u t ilit a r i a n is m o f a J a m e s Mill; F la u b e r t , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d ,

11 ild ly d e t e r m in e d t o d i s s e ct t h e m o d e r n w o r l d lik e a n a n a t om is t ,

i e n s u r e d th e e x a g g er a t e d p o e t iz in g t h a t m a r k e d t h e n in e t e en t h cen

It ir y, a n d f e lt e n t it l ed t o m a k e m e r r y o v e r t h e s p e c u l a t io n s o f a n

Au gu s t e C o m t e n o t le a s t b ec a u s e h e t o o k t h e metier o f lit e r a t u r e

• l e i l o u s l y a n d p u r su e d i t w i t h s c i e n t i f i c p r e t e n s i o n s .In essence , h owever , th e ba t t le lin es a re dra wn as fo llows: s oc io logy

i i d i sc ip l in e ch a ra c te r ized by co ld ra t ion a lity , wh ich seeks to com

| >it 'h en d t h e s t r u c tu r es a n d la ws o f m o t io n o f m o d e r n in d u s t r ia l

■ k le t y b y m ea n s o f m e a s u r e m e n t a n d c o m p u t a t io n a n d in d o in g so

• •iily s e r ve s t o a lie n a t e m a n m o r e e f fe c t i v e l y fr o m h im s e l f a n d fr o m

I lie w o r l d a r o u n d h im ; o n t h e o p p o s it e s id e t h e r e s t a n d s a lit e r a -

t im w h o s e in t u it io n c a n s e e fa r t h e r t h a n t h e a n a lys e s o f t h e

mu lo lo g is t s a n d w h o se a b i lit y t o a d d r e s s t h e h e a r t o f m a n is t o b e

(H r lc i r ed t o t h e p r o d u c t s o f a d is c ip l in e t h a t m is u n d e r s t a n d s i t s e l f as

I n . ilu r a l s c i e n c e o f so c ie t y . T h is i s t h e a r g u m e n t a d va n c e d b y

I n^ ,llsh p oe t ry an d lit e r a ry c r i t ic is m fr om Ma t th ew Ar n o ld t o T . S.

I l i i11, a n d b y t h e F r e n c h lit e r a r y in t e llig e n t s ia f r o m C h a r le s P e g u y

u n w in d s . ( Ie r m a n y co n s t it u t e s a s p e c ia l ca s e: h e r e, o n t h e o n e h a n d ,

i In io c ia l s c ie n c e s , t a k in g u p a n d d e v e l o p in g im p u lse s f r o m t h e

Iiliill >:,ophy o f life , h a ve n e i th er for m ed a sh ar ply de fin ed d is c ip l in e ,

i ft th e ca s e in F r a n c e , n o r b e c o m e a r e c o g n iz e d c o n s t it u e n t o f

....m I 'c o m m o n s e n s e ’, a s t h e y h a v e in E n gla n d ; o n t h e ot h e r , t h e

u n i IIlic n is o l lit e r a t u r e a n d p o e t r y h a s b e e n m a i n t a in e d in a ll it s

" I i le i 11It It N i e t z s c h e t o P a u l D e u s s e n , O c t o b e r 1 H6 8 ; N i e t z s c h e , t ir itj e . Se ptember

IN iri A p ril INh 't , Br le lw c c h s e l , K r i t is c h e G e s a m ta u s g a b e , e d . G io r g io Co l li a n d

Mu Inn Mtin t ln »r i , I is te Abt el lu n g, Ban d 2 (Be r l in an d New York : de Gru yter ,

I 'J M ) , p, U 9 .

s e v er it y o n ly in G e r m a n y , w h e r e it h as b e e n e x a c e r b a t e d t h r o u g h a n

a s o c ia l it y o f p o e t i c a l p r o d u c t i o n i n p r i n c ip l e , t h a t e v e n s e e s it s c h ie f

t a s k as b e i n g t h e ‘ r e fu t a t i on o f t h e s o c ia l ’ (H u g o v o n

H o fm a n n s t h a l). 19T h e c o n flic t b e t w e e n c o l d r e a s o n a n d t h e c u lt u r e o f fe e lin g , t y p ic a l

o f t h e c o m p e t i t io n b e t w e e n t h e s o c ia l s cie n c e s a n d lit e r a t u r e , is n o t

c o n fin e d t o t h e r e a lm o f s c i e n t i fic a n d lit e r a r y p u b l ic a t i on s : it a ls o

s e ts it s s t a m p o n t h e live s , p r iv a t e a n d p u b lic , o f t h e w r it e r s a n d

s c h o la r s w e a r e t o c o n s id e r . An d t h is is c o n s i s t e n t w it h t h e fa c t t h a t

in th is con ten t ion , wh ich I see as a k ind o f* sec re t h is to ry ’ o f th e m oder n

s o c ia l s c ie n c e s , s o s i gn ific a n t a r o l e is p la y e d b y w o m e n : C l o t il d e d e

Va u x , H a r r i e t T a y lo r , B e a t r i c e W e b b .

T h e a s s a u lt o n s o c i o lo g y b y lit e r a t u r e a n d t h e m e n o f le t t e r s in

m a n y in s t a n c es a n a s s a u lt in s p ir e d b y t h e s p i r it o f t h e c ou n t e r

E n lig h t e n m e n t h a s a lw a ys b e e n s u c ce s s fu l w h e r e v e r s o c io lo g ic a l

t h i n k in g, o ve r p o w e r e d a n d t r a n s p o r t e d b y t h e d e s ir e t o im it a t e t h e

n a t u r a l s c ie n c e s , h a s c la i m e d t h e a b ilit y w h o lly t o r e p l a c e m e t a -

p h y s ic s a n d r e lig io n a n d b e c o m e a s u b s t it u t e fo r fa i t h a n d t h e h e a r t

T h e e x p u ls i on o f t h e fe e lin g s fr o m t h e s o c ia l s c ie n c es a n d o t h e r

d i s c ip l in e s h a s t a k e n p l a c e in t h e n a m e o f a n a r r o g a n t r a t io n a l it y

w h ic h d e s ir e s t o b e n o t o n l y t h e m e a n s t o k n o w le d g e b u t a t t h e s a m e

t im e a p h ilo s o p h y o f life a n d a s u b s t i t u t e r e lig io n . In a t t e m p t in g t h is ,

h o we ve r , r a t io n a lit y a t t em p t s t o o m u c h a n d p r o m is e s m o r e t h a n i t

ca n p e r fo r m ; a n d w h e n t h e s e lf d o u b t t h u s e n g e n d e r e d d o e s n o t

s u ffic e fo r s e lf h e a lin g t h e fe e lin g s d o n o t m e r e l y r e ga i n t h e ir r ig h t s

t h e y a r e e n h a n c e d t o a c u lt o f ir r a t io n a lit y s u c h a s fin d s e x p r e s s i o n in

t h e t o t a l i t a r i a n i d e o l o g i e s .

In t h e lo n g ru n , t h e r e fo r e , t h e r e oc c u r s a b u ild u p o f t h e lo n g in g

fo r r e a l o b j e c t s o f b e l i e f w h i ch a p p e a l t o t h e fe e l in g a n d n o t o n ly t o

t h e m in d ; a n d w h e n t h e w a y b a c k t o s u c h o b je c t s is b a r r e d n e w on e sa r e s o u g h t a n d ca l a m it o u s a l t e r n a t ive s fo u n d , a s t h e F r e n c h l it e r a r y

m e n o f t h e p o lit ic a l r ig h t fo u n d p r o t o F a s c is m a n d s u ch E n g lis h

s o cia lis t s a s S id n e y a n d B e a t r i c e W e b b fo u n d S o v ie t C o m m u n is m

d u r in g it s m o s t d e g e n e r a t e p e r io d . In t h is r e ga r d , a n a t t e m p t t o t u r n

t h e s o c i o lo g ic a l in t e llig e n t s i a t o wa r d s l it e r a t u r e , o r t h e p l a y in g o f f

o f p o e t r y a n d s o c ia l s c ie n c e a g a in s t o n e a n o t h e r , is t h e fir s t s i gn o f a

d r i ft i n t o a t o t a lit a r i a n id e o l o g y : i t is in s t r u c t i ve t h a t t h e o f fi c ia l d is -

b a n d m e n t o f G e r m a n s o c i o lo g y in N a t io n a l S oc ia lis t G e r m a n y is

a s s o cia t e d w it h t h e n a m e o f H a n s F r e ye r , t h e a u t h o r o f t h e Revolu tion

19 Hu go von Hofm an n s t h a l , ‘Das Sch r i ft t u m a ls ge is t i ge r Raum dc r Na t i on ’ (192 7], in

Na tu r u nit Erk anntn is : Ess ays (Ber l in an d Darmsta dt : Deutsc he Hu cl iGem ein sch af t ,

1957), p. 173.

In trod u ction 15

o f the Righ t , w h o h a s b e e n c a lle d t h e E x p r e s s io n is t a m o n g G e r m a n

s o c io lo gis t s , a n d t h a t H e l m u t S c h e ls k y , w h o a t t h e e n d o f h is life

s t y le d h im s e l f a n a n t i s o c i o lo g is t , u n it e d h i s a p o s t a s y fr o m h is d is c i-

p lin e w it h a d e s p a ir in g a p p e a l t o H e i n r ic h B o ll t o o v e r c o m e t h e

t r a d i t io n a l G e r m a n s c h is m a n d b r in g G e r m a n y ’s lit e r a r y a n d

s o c i o lo g ic a l in t e l lig e n t s ia t o g e t h e r a ga in .

15 4E N G L A N D

t h a t t o o w a s w h y t o m a n y o f h i s c on t e m p o r a r i es h e s e e m e d t o b e .1

s o c i o l o g is t , a n d a f a n a t i c a l o n e m o re o v e r .

T h e S o c i o lo g i c a l S o c ie t y w h i c h W e l l s h e l p e d t o f ou n d i n 1 9 0 3 wan

o n e o f t h e f ir s t p r o fe s s i o n a l o rg a n i za t i o n s o f s o c i o lo g is t s . W i t h th<

e x c e p t i o n o f t h e n e w ly c r e a t e d U n i v e r s i t y o f L on d o n , a l l e n d e a v o u r

t o i n s t i t u t i o n a l i ze s o c i o l o g y i n t h e E n g l i s h u n i v e r s i t ie s c a m e t<

n o t h i n g ; i t w a s o n l y a f t e r t h e S e c o n d W o r l d W a r t h a t i t w a s gr a d u a lly

i n t r o d u c e d i n t h e m , a n d n o t u n t il t h e la t e 1 9 6 0 s d i d i t en t e i

C a m b r i d g e, w h e r e a v is i t f r o m t h e A m e r i c a n s o c i o lo g i s t Ta l co t i

P a r s o n s , f a r fro m fa c i li t a t i n g i t s i n t ro d u c t i o n , h a d o n l y r et a rcl ei l

it. P a r a d o x i c a l l y t h e l a t e i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f s o c i o l o g y in En g la m l

wa s d u e t o t h e e a r l y r ea d i n e s s o f s t a t i s t ic ia n s , o f fi c ia l s a n d r e fo rm M

p o l i t ic i a n s t o a p p l y s o c i o l o g i c a l s t a t i s t ic s t o t h e s o l u t i o n o f s oc hil

p ro b l e m s : t h i s in f il t r a t i o n o f s o c i o l o g i c a l k n o wl e d g e i n t o t lin

a d m i n is t r a t i o n m a d e t h e s e c u r i t y o f s o c i o l o g y t h r o u g h a n o r g a n i/ i <1

s t ru c t u re s e e m fa r l es s p re s s i n g a m a t t e r t h a n i t wa s o n t li*1

C o n t i n e n t .T h i s f a c t a l s o m a k e s i t c o m p r e h e n s i b l e w h y t h e d e b a t e o n ilir

r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t we e n s o c i o l o g y a n d l it e r a t u re wa s c o n d u c t e d fa r lend

d ra m a t i c a ll y i n En g la n d t h a n i t wa s , fo r e x a m p l e , i n F ra m «

A lt h o u g h D u r k h e i m ’ s e n d e a v o u r t o s e c u r e a h o m e fo r s o c i o lo g y III

t h e u n i v e r s i t ie s wa s a l s o o n l y h a l f s u c c e s s fu l , t h e i n t ro d u c t i o n

s o c i o l o gy i n t o t h e N e w S o r b o n n e n o n e t h e l es s c h a n g ed iIim

c u r r i c u l a : t h e i n f l u e n c e o f s o c i o l o g y o n t h e t r a i n i n g o f t e a t In n

s e e m e d t o t h r e a t e n t h e h e g e m o n y o f F r a n c e ’s li t er a r y c u l tu r e . In

En g l a n d , o n t h e c o n t r a ry , l it e r a ry m e n a n d s o c i o lo g i s t s we re r i ot III

c o m p e t i t i o n fo r a c a d e m i c p o s i t io n s ; a n d t h e in t e l le c t u a l d if fe re n t >*

b e t w e e n t h e t wo we re , m o re o v e r , n o t s o s t ro n g l y m a rk e d a s t in v

we re i n G e rm a n y o r F ra n c e . B u t wh a t e s p e c i a l ly b l u n t e d I It*

c o n t r o v e r s y i n E n g la n d a n d t h u s a l w a ys l e n t i t s o m e t h i n g o f t h e air (If

a ga m e wa s t h e fa c t t h a t t h e c o n t e s t a n t s u s u a l ly c a m e f ro m t h e N.n m

m i li eu a n d h a d p a s s e d t h r o u g h a s im i la r c o u r s e o f ed u c a t i o n . I t w f l

o n l y in t h e d e b a t e o v e r t h e t w o c u lt u r e s t h a t n e w a n d s h a r p e r I 1

d i v i s i o n a p p e a re d .

l i n e n 1

Concealed sociology: English literary criticismin the nineteenth and twentieth centuries

T h e t w o c u l tu r e s

t >u 6 O c t o b e r 1 9 5 6 C . P . S n o w p u b l is h e d i n t h e Ne w St ate sm an , th e

we ek l y j o u rn a l fo u n d e d b y S i d n e y a n d B e a t r i c e W e b b , a n a r t i c le

1 n t i t l e d ‘Th e Tw o C u l t u re s ’ . W h e n , t h re e ye a r s la t e r , h e wa s i n v i t e d

In d e l i ve r t h e R e d e Le c t u r e in C a m b r i d g e , h e e x p a n d e d h i s a r t i c le

Mlul s p o k e o n t h e t w o c u l t u r e s a n d t h e s c i e n t i fi c r e v o l u t i o n t h e r e b y

In a u g u ra t i n g a c o n t ro v e r s y wh o s e s l o g a n s a re s t i l l c u r r e n t a n d a

| ih us of d i spu te toda y.

I' h e t w o c u l t u r e s w h i c h S n o w c o n f r o n t e d w i t h o n e a n o t h e r w e r e

ilii: cu l t u re o f t h e l it e r a r y m e n a n d t h e c u l t u re o f t h e s c i e n t is t s . H e

It l i n e d e s p e c i a l ly we l l q u a l if ie d fo r t h e t r e a t m e n t o f th i s t h e m e :

jfiirn in 1 9 0 5 , h e wa s n o t o n ly a t r a in ed p h ys ic is t w it h c on s id er a b le

I p e r i e n c e i n s c i e n t i fi c m a n a g e m e n t a n d s c i e n t i f ic p o l i cy m a k i n g ,

(m l a l s o a wr i t e r wh o h a d i n a s e r i es o f n o v e l s t r e a t e d t h e p ro b l e m s

I i n n in g i n c o n n e c t i o n wi t h t h e e x e rc i s e o f s c i e n t i f ic p o w e r a n d t h e

f il li e s o f s c ie n c e . S n o w s p o k e o f t h e c u l t u re s o f t h e s c i e n t i s t a n d o f

| lit l i t e r a ry m a n a s an a n t h ro p o l o g is t m i g h t s p e a k o f t wo h o s t i le

(l il ie s : t h e y we re g ro u p i n g s wh o s e d i ff e r i n g v a l u e s a n d n o rm s o f In l i. iv io u r m a d e c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e m v i r t u a l ly im p o s s i b l e

Im l m a d e e v e ry c o n t a c t s o o n e r o r l a t e r d e g e n e r a t e i n t o h o s t i l it i e s .

I | n I h is d i vi s i o n b e t w e e n t h e t w o c u l t u re s S n o w s a w t h e ro o t p r o b l e m

nl 1l ie W e s t e r n wo r l d ; a n d i t h a d p ro d u c e d e s p e c i a ll y d ra s t i c co n

■ i *i | u e n c e s in En g la n d , wh e r e t h e t e n d e n c y fo r s o c i a l fo rm s t o c rys

:| l u lll ze wa s m o re p r o n o u n c e d t h a n i t wa s in E u ro p e o r t h e Un i t e d

'it t ie s: in En g la n d t h e re wa s a p p a r e n t l y n o t a s i n g l e a r e a i n wh i c h

B ln 1 t w o i n t e ll e ct u a l ca m p s a l m o s t i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e fr o m o n e

■ k n m h er wi t h r e s p e c t t o t h e i r s o c ia l cla s s , t h e i r in t e l l ig e n c e a n d t h e i r

A in u 1i al s it u a t i o n s we re n o t s t i ll t o b e fo u n d .

I Althou gh Snow, who rega rd ed sc ience a s h i s profess ion and wri t ing

B it li<*»ca l l ing, rep roa ch ed t he sc ient i s t s for t he i r l i t e ra ry ph i li s t in i sm

156 E N G L A N D

a s m u c h a s h e d i d t h e h u m a n i s t s a n d a r t i s t s f o r t h e i r d r e a d f u l

ig n o r a n c e o f t h e s c ie n c e a n d t e c h n o lo g y o f t h e c i viliz a t i o n in w h ic h

th e y live d , h e le ft n o d ou b t as t o w h e r e h is s ym pa th ie s la y: i t wa s on

t h e s id e o f t h e s c ie n t is t s , w h o fo r h im w e r e t h e e m b o d im e n t o l

t h e f u t u r e .

H is c h ie f r e p r o a c h a g a in s t t h e m e n o f le t t er s , h o w e ve r , w a s n oi

t h a t t h e y w e r e s c i e n t i f i c a l l y i g n o r a n t b u t t h a t t h e y w e r e m o r a l l y

d e fe c t ive . A lm os t a l l t h e w r it e r s w h o , i n h is vie w , h a d s e t t h e ir s t a m p

o n t h e l it e r a t u r e o f t h e t w e n t ie t h c e n t u r y w r it e r s s u ch a s Ye a ts ,

P o u n d a n d W y n d h a m Le w is w e r e p o l it ic a l ly n o t m e r e ly id io t s b m

villa in s : t h e v ie w o f life t h e y e m b o d ie d h a d a c c e l e r a t e d a n e vo lu t io n

t h a t h a d fin a l ly r e s u lt e d in Au s c h w it z. An t i d e m o c r a t ic a t t it u d e *

w e r e in t h e ea r ly tw e n t ie t h c e n t u r y n o w h e r e m o r e c o m m o n t h a n in

lit e r a t u r e a n d t h e a rt s. S c ie n c e , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , w a s a t h e a r t p r o

fo u n d l y m o r a l a n d e v e r y s cie n t is t wa s a t b o t t o m a n e t h ic is t F rom

th is it fo l l ow e d th a t t h e v it a l is s u e fo r W e s t e r n c iv il iz a t i on w a s t ha t i t

s h o u ld d o a w a y w it h t h e t r a d i t io n a l p r e d o m in a n c e o f lit e r a r y cu lt u 11

a n d fin a l ly a c c o r d p r e e m in e n c e t o t h e c u l t u r e o f s c ie n c e.

Sn ow was r ep l ied t o by th e lit e r a ry c r it i c F. R Lea vis in h is Rich m on d

Le c t u r e o f 1 9 6 2 . A n a c a d e m ic o u t s i d e r a l l h is life , w h o a c h ie ve d

s e c u r it y o n ly la t e o n t h r o u g h a le c t u r e s h ip a t C a m b r i d g e , Le a v is wa s

a m e r c ile s s p o l e m ic i s t t h r o u g h n e e d a s w e l l a s b y in c lin a t io n , a n d

w h e n h e a t t a c k e d S n o w h e a t t a c k e d n o t o n l y t h e a r r o g a n c e o f tin

s c ie n t is t b u t t h e E n g lis h lit e r a r y e s t a b l is h m e n t a s w e lL In Le a vis '

e ye s S n ow wa s d e vo id o f a l l i n t e l le c t u a l d i s c ip lin e ; t h e vu lga r i t y ol

h is s t y le wa s a r e fle c t io n o f t h e n u llit y o f h is a r g u m e n t s , a n d t h U

‘s p ir it u a l s o n o fH . G . W e l ls ’ 1c o u ld q u it e s im p l y h a v e b e e n ign o r ed

i f h e h a d n o t , l ik e a n e v il o m e n , in d i ca t e d t h e c on s e q u e n t cn

t h r e a t e n i n g fr o m t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y d ec a y o f c u lt u r e .T o c h e c k t h is c u lt u r a l d e c a y t h e t im e d e m a n d e d a n a s s e m b lin g ol

a ll s p ir it u a l fo r c es , t h e c o n c e n t r a t io n o f a n e x p e r i e n c e d a n d c r ea t ive

in t e l lig e n t s ia in t o a v it a l ‘ E n g lis h S c h o o l’ o f w h ic h a fu n d a m e n t a lly

r e fo r m e d u n i ve r s it y s h o u ld b e t h e c en t r e: fo r t o u n d e rs t a n d We s t e r n

c iv iliz a t i o n , a n d t h e In d u s t r i a l R e v o l u t i o n t h a t h a d p r o d u c e d It,

t h e r e e x is t e d n o b e t t e r in s t r u m e n t t h a n lit er a t u r e.

T h i s w a s p r e c is e ly w h a t S n o w h a d d e n ie d : t h e lit e r a r y i n t e lle c t nalu

w h o s t o o d a l ie n a t e d fr o m t h e s c ie n t ific c u lt u r e o f t h e ir t i m e w e re Inn o p o s it io n a d e q u a t e l y t o a s ses s t h e o r ig in s a n d c on s e q u e n c e s o l t ho

In d u s t r i a l R e v o l u t i o n , le t a lo n e t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e m . S u c h wr it er ;. .<n

1 F. R. Lea vis , Tw o Cultures? The S ignificance o f C. P. Snow. Be ing t ie Richmont i l.i t ht>e,

1 9 62 . W i t h a N e w P r e fa c e fo r t h e Am e r i ca n R e a d e r (N e w Yo r k : P a n t h e o n Hou lt h,

1963) , p . 40.

Concea led s ociology 157

Ru s k in , M o rr is , Th o r e a u , E m e r s o n a n d D . H . La w r e n c e h a d c o n s i s t -

e n t ly c lo s e d t h e ir e y es t o s o c ia l r e a lit y: t h e y w e r e Lu d d it e s , o u t o f

ign o r a n c e , w h o r efu s e d t o u n d e r s t a n d t h a t u n h in d e r e d in d u s t r ia liz-

a t ion a lon e he ld ou t any h op e fo r t h e wor ld ’s poor . Sn ow the sc ien t is t

p r o n o u n c e d Le a v is t h e lit e r a r y cr it ic in c a p a b l e o f u n d e r s t a n d in g th eIn d u s t r ia l R e v o l u t i o n o r c o n t e m p o r a r y s o c ie t y, a n d Le a v is a s s e r te d

t h e s a m e o f S n o w : t h u s t h e y c o n t e n d e d f o r a n in t e r p r e t a t iv e

p r iv ile g e t o w h ic h , s in c e t h e m id d le o f t h e n in e t e e n t h c en t u r y,

soc io logy had l a id c l a im.

In t h e c o n t e n t io n b e t w e e n t h e t w o c u lt u r e s a t h ir d , t h a t o f t h e

s o c i o lo g ic a l in t e llig e n t s ia , s t o o d , a h u g e p r e s e n c e , in t h e b a c k -

gr o u n d . F i lle d w it h a n ge r , t h o u g h n o t w it h s u r p r is e , Le a v is s a w t h e

soc io logis t s we igh in g in on th e s ide o f Snow, wh ile t h e la t t e r ob se rved

w it h p le a s u r e t h a t h is t o r ia n s a n d s o c io lo g is t s w e r e e v e r m o r e fir m ly

r e fu s in g t o b e r e g a r d e d as c a m p fo llo w e r s o f t r a d i t io n a l lit e r a r y

cu l tu re :

I 'h e y a r g u e t h a t , t h o u g h t h e y a r e n o t s c ie n t is t s t h e m s e lve s , t h e y w o u ld s h a r e

ii g o o d d e a l o f t h e s c i e n t i fic fe e l in g . T h e y w o u ld h a v e a s l it t l e u s e p e r h a p s ,

n ic e t h e y k n e w m o r e a b o u t it , e ve n les s u s e f o r t h e r e c e n t l it e r a r y c u lt u r e

is t h e s c ie n t is t s t h e m s e lve s . J . H . P l u m b , Ala n B u llo c k a n d s o m e o f m y

Am e r ic a n s o c i o lo g ic a l fr ie n d s h a v e s a id t h a t t h e y v ig o r o u s ly r e fu s e t o b e

c o r r a lle d in a c u lt u r a l b o x w i t h p e o p le t h e y w o u l d n ’t b e s e e n d e a d w it h , o r t o

lir r e ga r d e d as h e l p in g t o p r o d u c e a c lim a t e w h ic h w o u ld n o t p e r m it o f

Mod a l h o p e . 2

Ih o u g h t h e t h e m e s wh ic h S n o w a n d Le a vis h a d s t r u c k u p m a y h a ve

o u n d e d u n ive r s a l, a n d t h e s o c ia l p a n o r a m a w h ic h t h e y s p r e a d o u t

b e fo r e t h e ir r e a d e r s m a y h a v e ex t e n d e d fa r in t o p a s t a n d fu t u r e , t h is

d is p u t e w a s a l s o a n d n o t le a s t a c o n t e n t i o n o n a lo c a l le ve l: f o r

l.ca vis , S n o w e m b o d i e d t h e o ld , e n c r u s t e d C a m b r id g e w h o s e

e n s c o n c e d a c a d e m i cs h e r e g a r d e d a s h is e n e m ie s , w h ile h e h im s e lf,

In c la im e d , r e p r e s e n t e d a n e w a n d th e t r u e C a m b r i d ge . A t t h e e n d o f

In , R ic h m o n d Le c t u r e h e e x p r e s s e d t h e h o p e t h a t t h e C a m b r i d ge o f

i lie fu t u r e m ig h t b e c o m e a p l a c e in w h ic h t h a t c u lt u r e p r o p a g a t e d b y

i lie S u n d a y p a p e r s w o u ld n o lo n g e r b e r e g a r d e d a s a n e x a m p l e o f ‘ t h e

I'< st t h a t is k n o w n a n d t h o u g h t in t h e w o r l d ’.3

A s e v e r y o n e w i t h a l i t e r a r y e d u c a t i o n w o u l d h a v e a t o n c e

u n d e r s t o od , w i t h t h is q u o t a t i o n , w h ic h h e d id n o t d e s i gn a t e a s s u ch ,

I i iivis h a d c o n ju r e d u p t h e h is t o r ic a l c o n t e x t w it h in w h ic h h e w a n t e d

in s e t h is d e b a t e w it h S n o w. L e a vis h a d q u o t e d M a t t h e w Ar n o ld , w h o

1 I I* Sn ow, The Two Cultures und the Scientific Revolution [T h e R e d e Le c t u r e , 1 9 5 9 ]

(N r w Yor k : Ca m br i dge Un ive r s i t y Pr e s s , 1959), p . 9 .

I It , Lea vis , Two Cultures?, p. 50.

1 5 8 E N G L A N D

h a d a lr e a d y in t h e la s t q u a r t e r o f t h e n in e t e e n t h c e n t u r y c on d u c t e d a

d is p u t e o v e r t h e t w o cu lt u r e s w it h T h o m a s H e n r y H u x le y ; a n d in

t h is c o n t e n t io n t o o t h o u gh t h e p a r t ic ip a n t s m a y n o t a lwa ys h a ve

b e e n a w a r e o f it t h e in vis i b le t h ir d d i s p u t a n t , s o c io lo g y, p l a y e d a

key ro le .

L it e r a r y c r it ic is m a s a g u id e t o l iv in g : M a t t h e w Ar n o l d

M a t t h e w Ar n o ld , w h o m a d e s o la s t in g a n im p r e s s i on o n t h e l it e r a r y

a n d s o cia l c r it ic is m o f t h e Vic t o r ia n a ge , wa s t h e s o n o f a n e m in e n t

Vic t or ia n , T h o m a s A r n o ld . D r Ar n o ld wa s b o r n in 1 7 9 5 , a n d b e c a m e

h e a d m a s t e r o f R u g b y in 1 8 27 . T h o u g h h e m a y h a ve d is a p p o in t e d

t h o s e w h o h a d e x p e c t e d h im t o r e fo r m t h e e d u c a t io n a l s ys t em of

t h e p u b l ic s c h o o ls fr o m t h e gr o u n d u p , h e wa s n o n e t h e les s t h e fir s t

t o in c lu d e s u c h s u b je ct s as m a t h e m a t ic s , m o d e r n l a n g u a g es an ti

m o d e r n h is t o r y in t h e cu r r ic u lu m o f h is s c h o o l. In 1 8 4 1 , a ye a r

b e fo r e h is d e a th , h e wa s a p p o in t e d R egiu s P r o fe s s o r o f H is t o r y

o f O x fo r d .

W it h t h e fir s t e x c r e s c e n c e s o f t h e In d u s t r ia l R e vo lu t i o n b e fo r e h is

e ye s , D r A r n o l d s a w w it h t r e p id a t io n h o w in h is t i m e w o r k in g p e o p le

w e r e b e g in n in g t o fo r m o r ga n iza t i on s w h ic h s e e m e d r e a d y t o r e s oi It o r e b e llio n a n d m u r d e r ; a s a r es u lt h e b e c a m e t h e a d vo c a t e o f a s ta t e

w h ic h wa s s t r o n g b u t a w a r e o f it s so c ia l r e sp o n s ib i lit ie s , a n d o f .i

c h u r c h a m a l ga m a t e d w i t h t h e s t a t e w h ic h wa s c o n c e r n e d les s wit li

p r e a c h in g s t a b i liz in g d o gm a s t h a n w it h a c q u ir in g it s le git im a c y

t h r o u g h t h e a c t iv e a m e lio r a t i on o f s o c ia l a b u s es . In t h e c o n t e n t io n

b e t w e e n t h e ‘m e n o f le t t e r s ’ a n d t h e ‘s c ie n t is t s ’ in w h ic h M a t t h e w

Ar n o ld w a s la t e r t o p l a y a le a d in g r o le h e a s s u m e d a n u n c o m

p r o m is in g ly c o n s e r v a t ive p o s t u r e : h e w r o t e t o a fr i e n d t h a t h e w ou lilr a t h e r h a v e h is s on b e l ie ve t h e s u n w e n t r o u n d t h e e a r th t h a n t h a t Ii In

m in d s h o u ld b e o ve r w h e lm e d b y t h e n a t u r a l s c ie n ce s .

M a t t h e w Ar n o ld , b o r n in 1 82 2 , wa s a p o e t , c r it ic , p e d a g o gu e am i

p r o fe s s o r . F o r o v e r t h i r ty y e a r s fr o m 1 85 1 t o 1 8 8 6 h e wa s a ct ive

a s o n e o f H e r M a j es t y ’s In s p e c t o r s o f s c h o o ls , a n d i n 1 8 5 7 h e b e ca me

P r o fe s s o r o f P o e t r y a t O x fo r d , w h e r e h e wa s t h e fir s t t o le c t u r e In

E n glis h . C o m m is s io n e d b y th e g ove r n m e n t , h e u n d e r t o o k a n e x t en

s ive ex a m in a t i o n o f t h e Fr e n c h , G e r m a n , D u t c h a n d ot h e r ed u c a t ion a l

sy s t em s so as t o p a v e t h e w a y fo r e d u c a t i o n a l r e fo r m s in E n gla n d

W h a t e v e r M a t t h e w Ar n o ld d id h e d id in t h e gr a n d m a n n e r . H e wn >

a n d c o n t in u e d t o b e a p o e t w h o s e s t r e n g th wa s in t u it io n a n d wh oM

w e a k n e s s w a s a n a l y s i s ; a s c i e n t i s t w h o r a r e l y p r o c e e d e d sy #

t e m a t i c a lly a n d p r e fe r r e d t o p r e s e n t h is a r g u m e n t s b y ex a m p l e*; a

Concealed sociology 159

lo v e r o f d r a m a t ic ge s t u r e s a n d fo r g e r o f r o u s i n g s lo ga n s m a n y o f

w h ic h a r e c u r r e n t in E n glis h e v en t o d a y. H i s d i a g n o s e s o f t h e ills o f

s o c ie t y w e r e as a r u le a c u t e a n d a c cu r a t e , b u t h is c u r e s w e r e m o s t l y

va g u e a n d in d e fin it e . R e le n t le s s a n d r e p e t i t iv e , h i s s t y le r e s e m b l e d

t h a t o f a p r e a c h e r h a m m e r in g a s in gle t r u t h in t o t h e h e a d s o f h is c on -

g r e g a t i on : h e h im s e l f c a l le d h i m s e l f a s im p l e, u n s y s t e m a t i c w r i t e r

w it h o u t p r e c o n c e iv e d id ea s ; h e d id n o t w h o lly la c k a s en s e o f

h u m ou r , b u t m a n y o f h is w r it in g s a r e p e r m e a t e d b y t h e ju s t p e r c e p -

t ib l e u n in t e n t io n a l c o m ic a l it y o f a w r i t e r w h o t a k e s e v e r yt h in g

too s e r ious ly .

T o M a t t h e w Ar n o ld , t oo , W o r d s w o r t h b e ca m e t h e p o e t t h r o u g h

w h o s e life a n d w o r k t h e m ig h t y p o w e r o f p o e t r y c o u l d b e s t b e m a d em a n ife s t In t h is t h e r e la y a c e r t a in p a r a d o x, fo r W o r d s w o r t h h a d

n e v er r e c e i ve d in E n gla n d t h e r e c o g n it io n h e d e s e r ve d : n o s o o n e r

lia d h e e m e r g ed fr o m t h e s h a d o w o f S c o t t a n d B yr o n t h a n T en n y s o n

l>ega n t o o b s c u r e h is fa m e . As W o r d s w o r t h h im s e l f h a d s o b e r ly

( a lc u la t e d , in a n a g e in w h i ch B e n t h a m d e t e r m in e d E n gla n d ’s

p h ilo s op h y o f life h is p o e m s h a d n o t e a r n e d h im e n o u gh m o n e y e ve n

to pay fo r h i s boo t la ce s .

T h r o u g h o u t E u r o p e E n glis h p o lic y wa s in c r e a s i n g ly s u b je c t t o

» i it ic ism ; E n g lish pa in t ing was a t be s t p rov in c ia l; th e En g lish ha d no

m u s ic a t a ll; b u t E n glis h s c ie n c e r e c e i ve d r e c o g n it i o n a n d , e x c e l le d

on ly b y G o e t h e , W o r d s w o r t h s t o o d a t th e s u m m it o f E u r op e a n

p o et r y. W o r d s w o r t h ’s p o e m s s h o w ed h o w clo s e h u m a n s p e ec h

i o u ld a p p r o a c h t o p e r fe c t io n a n d h o w it c o u l d b e c o m e a m e d iu m

t h r o u g h w h ic h m a n c o u ld c o m e c lo s e t o e x p r e s s in g t ru t h . F o r

W o r d s w o r t h t h e w r i t in g o f p o e t r y wa s a m o r a l a ct , a n d t h e gr e a t n e s s

" 1 .1 p o e t w as t o b e m e a s u r e d b y t h e d e g r e e o f s e r iou s n e s s w it h w h i ch

In .is k ed a n d a n s w e r e d t h e q u e s t i on o f h o w m a n o u g h t t o live : a d u t yill I h e w e i g h t ie r in t h a t t h e p r o b le m s o f t h e c o n d u c t o f l ife w e r e in

I iif, la n d in c r e a s i n g ly b e c o m in g t h e p r o v in c e o f p e d a n t s a n d p r o

l< s io n a ls a m o n g wh o m w e r e a ls o n u m b e re d t h e a d h e ren t s o f t h e

m w socia l sc iences .

A r n o l d w a r n e d a g a i n s t t a k i n g W o r d s w o r t h ’ s c o m m e n t a r i e s a n d

h i Ii in if ic sou n d in g a rgu m en ts s e r iou s ly, fo r , like o t h e r poe t s , h e too

U| is t'd in t o a k in d o f h ig h e r r i gm a r o le w h e n h e b e c a m e t o o

| ililliisoph ica l: on ly h is p oe t ry con ta in ed rea lity, w h ile h i s ph ilo sop h y

wir. .is a r u le o n l y illu s io n . W o r d s w o r t h c o u ld n o t b u t e x p e r i e n c e

il ll lk u lty in a n a lys ing h i s own poem s , fo r th ey we re a s s eem in g ly

In evita b le a s n a t u re it s e lf; i t was as th ou gh n a tu re had t a ken h i s pen

In m i h im a n d w r i t t e n o n h is b e h a l f. W h e t h e r o r n o t t h is wa s a n

160 E N G L A N D

a c c u r a t e c h a r a c t e r iza t i on o f W o r d s w o r t h , M a t t h e w Ar n o ld in s is t ed

in g en e r a l t h a t g o o d w r it in g wa s p r o d u c e d , n o t b e ca u s e m e n c on -

s c io u s l y a n d d e l ib e r a t e ly d e c id e d t o p r o d u c e it , b u t b e ca u s e t h e y

w e r e c o n s t r a in e d t o it s p r o d u c t io n o u t o f a n ‘ in s t in c t o f s elfp r e s e r v a t i o n ’ . 4

F o r t h is p e r fe c t la n g u a g e c a lle d p o e t r y in t e r p r e t e d life fo r u s; it

c o n s o le d m a n k in d a n d s u s t a in e d it in t h e wo r ld . W i t h o u t p o e tr y

e ve n t h e s c ie n c e s s e e m e d i n c o m p l e t e , a n d m o s t o f w h a t in Ar n o ld ’s

t im e s t i ll cou n ted as re l ig ion an d ph ilosop h y would , he was convinced ,

in fu t u r e b e r e p la c e d b y p o e t r y. T h e s t r e n g t h o f p o e t r y r e s id e d in it*

p o w e r t o in t e r p r e t , t o la y o p e n t h e w or ld : it wa s a p o w e r p o s s e s s e d in

t h e fir s t p l ace by t h e ly r ic , b u t m an y p r ose w ork s pos se s sed it t oo. 11

c o u ld n o t b e t h e go a l o f p o e t r y t o s e t d o w n t h e s o lu t io n t o tins e c r e ts o f t h e u n ive r s e in b la c k a n d w h i te : i t wa s c o n c e r n e d r a t h r i

w it h e s t a b l is h in g a m e a n in g fo r m a n in t h e w o r l d a n d e lu c id a t in g t o

h im h i s p l a c e in i t S c ie n c e n e v er a d d r e s s e d t h e w h o le m a n ; an d

t h e r e f o r e it wa s n o t Lin n e , C a ve n d is h a n d C u vie r w h o h a d com

m u n ic a t e d t o h im a p r e s e n t im e n t o f w h e r e t h e s e c r et o f n a t u r e tru ly

la y, b u t Sh a k e s p e a r e , W o r d s w o r t h a n d Ke a t s , C h a t ea u b r ia n d mid

S e n a n c o u r .

T h e m o r e a s c ie n t i s t s t r o ve t o m a k e o f h im s e l f a w h o le m a n , ilm

m ore a rd en t ly d id h e yea rn , in t h e m ids t o f h i s a r id ac t i vit ie s , lo i il

r e f r e sh m en t t ha t p oe t r y a l one cou ld fu rn ish . As t o w ha t th i s poet ic ,il

r e fr e s h m e n t c o n s is t e d o f in t h e la s t r e s o r t, A r n o l d w a s d e l ib e i. it <lv

va gu e : p o e t s h a d c o m m a n d o f a ‘m a gic a l fa c u lt y’/ a n d G o e t h e h id

in his Nla xim en und Refle xion en , a l read y said a ll th a t was t o b e Mild

a b o u t i t ‘T h e a r t s a n d s c i en c e s a r e a t t a in e d b y t h in k in g, p o e l iy l»

n o t fo r p o e t r y is in s p ir a t i on . ’6

Ar n o ld w as , h o w e ve r , v e r y fa r f r o m a s s ig n in g p o e t r y t o t h e r< dm

o f t h e ir r a t ion a l: on t h e con t r a ry , it was p r ec i se l y it s h igh e r in l e lli e >

t u a l it y t h a t d is t in gu ish ed p oe t ry from a ll t h e o t h e r a r t s, an d on ly I It !

fa c t t h a t h e t h o u g h t e m o t i o n a lly d i vid e d t h e p o e t f r o m t h e sc ion llu l

A rn o l d w as h igh ly c r it ic a l o f t h e c rea t i ve ou t bu r s t in E n glish HlPt M

t u r e d u r in g t h e fir s t q u a r t e r o f t h e n in e t e e n t h c e n t u r y : t h e p o t it ill

4 M at th ew Arn o ld , ‘Th e S tu dy o f Poe t r y ’ [1880 ], i n En glis h Litera tu re und Iru/ i

( The Complete Prose Works o f Matth ew Arnold , Vol. 9 ), ed. R. H. Su per (An n Adiltjl

Un ivers i ty o f Mich igan Press , 19 73), p. 188.

5 M at th ew Arn o ld , ‘M au r ice de G u er in ’ [ 1863), i n Lecture s an il Essays in Cri/ iuiHi I I Afc

Complete Prose Works of Matthe w Arnold, Vol. 3), ed. R. H. Su per, with th eiu tt l im iil ifB

Sis t e r Tho m a s M ar ion H oc to r (A nn A r b or U n ive r s i ty o f M ich igan Prt I'lr tlp j

p. 16.

6 Mat th ew Arn old , ‘On P oet ry’ | 1879j , in Englis h Litera tu re and Irish Politlt i, | i l4 fl

G o e t h e , Ma ximen und Re flexionen (from Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre).

Concea led s ociology 161

t h is er a , h e t h o u g h t , k n e w t o o l it t l e b u t s t ill w e n t o n m a d ly w r it in g .

A m ig h t y e x c it a t io n o f e m o t io n , n o t o f s p ir it , a r o s e fr o m t h e p o e m s

o f S h e lle y a n d B y r o n ; a n d in a n a g e in w h ic h G o e t h e ’ s G e r m a n y wa s

g r ou n d in g t h e s t r e n g th o f it s cu lt u r e in e d u c a t io n a n d t h e fa c u lt y o f c rit ic is m , e v en W o r d s w o r t h h a d v e r y lit t l e in t e r e s t in b o o k s .

E v en i f p o e t ic a l in s p ir a t io n r e s t e d le s s o n a n a l ys is t h a n o n s yn -

th es is a n d p r e s e n t a t io n , t h e p o e t n o n e t h e les s h a d a b o v e a ll t o k n o w

i gre a t d eal:

A p o e t . . . o u g h t t o k n o w life a n d t h e w o r l d b e fo r e d e a lin g w it h t h e m in

p o et r y; a n d life a n d t h e w o r ld b e in g in m o d e r n t im e s v e r y c o m p le x t h in g s,

t lir c r e a t i on o f a m o d e r n p o e t , t o b e w o r t h m u c h , i m p l ie s a g r e a t c r it ic a l

i l lo r t b eh in d i t . . . 7

Ai c o r d in g t o Ar n o ld , t r u e c r it ic is m wa s p o s s ib le o n ly fr o m a p o s -

it io n o f im p a r t ia lit y . ‘D is i n t e r e s t e d n e s s ’ m e a n t t h e s e a r c h fo r ‘t h e

In st t h a t is k n o w n a n d t h o u g h t in t h e w o r l d ’8 in d e p e n d e n t ly o f a ll

pi k t ic a l o r p o l it i c a l c o n s i d e r a t io n s a n d fr e e fr o m a n y c a l c u la t io n o f

u t ilit y. C u lt u r e d e p e n d e d a b o v e a ll o n d i s c ip l in e ; y e t d i s c ip l in e wa s

I Vn y h a r d t o a c h ie v e in E n g la n d , b e c a u s e t h e c o u n t r y la c k e d a c e n t r e

'•in h a s t he Aca d em ie Fran<;a ise t h a t co u ld h a ve wa tch ed o ver cor

11**»t ness o f i n fo rm a t ion , j u d gm en t an d t a s t e . In En glish p oe t r y t h e re

*iin t o o m u c h in s p ir a t io n a n d n o t e n o u g h i n t e llig e n c e ; a n d a h o s t o f

p t os c w r it e r s e x is t e d w h o fo u n d it e a s y t o w r i t e w e l l b e c a u s e t h e y

I f r i r c o n t e n t t o s a y l i t t l e .

I'o e t r y a n d c r it ic is m w e r e a c t ivit ie s t h a t h a d a lm o s t n o t h in g t o d o

With a e s t h e t ic s b u t v e r y m u c h t o d o w i t h m o r a lit y ; Ar n o ld , w h o

rtlwiiys o r i e n t a t e d h im s e l f b y t h e l ife , c h a r a c t e r a n d a c t io n s o f m e n ,

ih ilt c d s o m e t h in g lik e a n e t h o l o g y o n a p o e t i c fo u n d a t io n , a n d

U n d e r s t oo d t h e g r e a t p o e m a s a d i e t e t i c o f p r iv a t e a s w e l l a s p u b l ic

III* In t h e l igh t o f su ch a c la im, h owever , p oe t r y an d c r i t ic ism wer e

H lMiu d t o e n t e r in t o c o m p e t i t io n n o t o n ly w it h s c ie n c e b u t w it h

It ll| 'lon a s well, e s p ec i a l ly s ince Arn o ld h ad a s s e r t ed th a t , in h is own

t h e s t r e n g t h o f r e l ig io n r e s id e d in t h e fa c t t h a t it wa s u n c o n

ll Im e. p o e t r y . In A r n o l d ’ s ‘ cu lt u r a l a r i t h m e t i c ’9 t h r e e q u a r t e r s o f l i fe

B| | | | Nlsled o f m o r a lit y o f c o n d u c t , w i t h s c ie n c e a n d a r t s h a r in g t h e

l^ lin t ln ln g q u a r t e r. P r in c ip le s o f r ig h t b e h a vio u r w e r e a m o n g t h e

M II'M Im p o r t a n t t h e m e s o f r e lig io n , w h ic h h e c h a r a c t e r iz ed a s

Mil l lirw Arn o ld , ‘T h e Fu n c t ion o f Cr i t ic ism a t the Pre s en t T im e’ (18 65 ), in Lectures

■ »>/ fiu.<yi h i Criticism, p. 261. * Ibid ., p. 268.

■ fill'll A I >i u 11c y , Ma tthew Aruu / d and Science, P u b lic a t io n s o f th e M o d e r n La n gu a ge

B A "" " Ullon ol Am erica , *>7 (1 94 2), p. 273.

1 6 2 E N G L A N D

‘m ora lit y t ou ch ed b y em ot ion ’: 10 i n t h i s w ay r e li g ion was secu la r i zed

and soc i e t y s anc t i f i ed .

Ar n o ld c o n s id e r e d Lit e ra tu re and Dogm a (1 8 7 3 ) a n a t t e m p t a t a

b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d in g o f t h e B i b le h is m o s t im p o r t a n t p r o s e w or k .

T h e fir s t s t e p t o wa r d s a p r o p e r c o m p r e h e n s i on o f t h e B ib l e la y in tin

r e a liz a t i on t h a t t h e la n g u a g e o f t h e h o ly s c r ip t u r e s is n o t r i gid a n il

in fle x i b l e b u t flu id a n d a p p r o x i m a t iv e , n o t s c ie n t ific b u t lit er a r y,

a n d t h a t c o n s e q u e n t ly t h e B i b le c o u ld b e a n o b je c t o n ly o f lit er a r y,

n o t o f s c ie n t ific c r it ic is m . O n ly t h e n a t u r e o f t h e Ze itge is t o f th e

n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , w h i c h h a d e l e v a t e d t h e n a t u r a l s c i e n t i s t t o t i n

s t a tu s o f it s i d o l a n d s t r o v e t o s u b j e c t e ve r y s p h e r e o f life t o s c ie n cc ,

c o u ld e x p la in w h y t h e t h e o lo g ia n s w e r e in c r e a s in g ly r e n o u n c in g all

e d u c a t ive d u t ie s a n d m e r e ly s e e k i n g r e c o g n it io n a s s t u d e n t s o f tin

B ib le . T h e p r o d u c t io n o f u n d o c t r in a i r e es s a ys n o lo n g e r in t e r es t e d

t h e m : in fu t u r e t h e d o g m a s o f r e l ig io n w e r e t o b e p r e s e n t e d , n o t In

lit e r a ry fo rm , b u t w it h s c i en t i fic exac t it u de .

W i t h t h a t , h o w e ve r , d o g m a t ic t h e o lo g y a b a n d o n e d t h e cla im in

b e e v o lv in g t h e p r in c ip l e s o f t h e m o r a lit y o f c o n d u c t , fo r t h e s e wet *'

t o b e a c q u ir e d , n o t t h r o u g h t h e p r o c e d u r e s o f s c ie n c e , b u t o n l y liy

c r i t ic a lly ap p rop r i a t i n g ‘ t he b e s t t h a t ha s b een sa id and t h ou g lil III

t h e w or l d ’. 11T h eo l og ia n s w a n t ed t o b e ‘a t h le t e s o f log i c ’, 12and in t h fl

p r o c e s s f o r g o t t h a t m a n k in d d i d n o t lo n g fo r l o g ic a t all, b u t lo le d u c a t io n a n d h is t o r ic a l u n d e r s ta n d in g . W h e n S t P a u l e m p lo ye il

su ch exp r e s s ion s a s ‘g ra ce ’, ‘ r eb ir t h ’ o r ‘ju s t i fic a t i on ’ h e u s ed t lx in

a p p r o x i m a t iv e ly , as t h o u g h h e wa s t a k in g p a r t in a c o n ve r s a t io n ,

m a k in g a s p e e ch o r w r it in g a p o e m , a n d n o t as t h o u g h t h e y w eiv

sc ien t i fic t e rm s . Pau l em p loyed n o sc ien t i fic t e r m in o l ogy: I lit

la n g u a g e o f t h e B ib le w a s a gr o p in g , p o e t i c a l la n g u a g e, .u ni

t h eo l ogia n s d i s t o r t e d t h e m ea n in g o f h is s ay in gs w h en I liny

e m p lo y e d h is lit e r a r y p h r a s e o lo g y as s c ie n t ific t e r m s .

It w as a c o m m o n p l a c e o f a n t h r o p o lo g y t h a t m e n c lo t h e d I lu lldea re s t de s i r e s i n l egends and s t o r i e s , and t ha t t he se l egends .m i l

s t o r i e s t h e re a ft e r d e t e r m in ed t h e ir beh av iou r : a fa c t such a s 11ill

r equ ir ed n o fu r t h e r s c i en t i fic in ves t i ga t ion , fo r i t w as c l o s e t

a c tu a lity th an an y d i s cover y o f sc i ence , an d re l ig ion was th e fir iiM'&l

o f a l l r e a l it ie s . A rn o l d com p a red h is ow n t i m e t o t h e e ra in wh it ll

C h r is t c am e t o J udea : t h e P ro t e s t a n t d is s iden t s w e re like ilil

Pha r i sees , a n d ‘ou r fr i end s th e ph ilosop h ica l Liber a l s , wh o be l li vi*

10 M at th ew Arn o ld , ‘L it e ra tu re an d D ogm a: An Essay Tow ard s a B e t t e r A pw r i hi im lt lBo f th e Bible’ [18 73 ], in Diss en t and Dogm a (Th e Com ple te Prose Works of tAuithew , Ii «i*m|

Vol. 6 ), ed. R. H. Su per (An n Arb or: Un iver si ty o f Michigan I’riss, Hindu

p. 176 . " Ibid ., p. 168 Ibid ., p. 169.

Concea led sociology 163

n e it h e r in a n g el n o r sp i r it b u t in Mr H e r b e r t S p e n c e r ’13 c o r r e sp o n d e d

t o t h e S a d d u c e e s .

An a d m ir in g r e a d e r o f t h e Im ita tio Ch ris ti, Ar n o ld t h o u gh t t h a t th e

g r a v e s t p e r i l f a c i n g h i s a g e l a y i n t h e f a c t t h a t t h e m a sse s w e r egr a d u a lly lo s i n g t ou c h w it h t h e B ib l e. A m o n g t h e fo r c e s r e s p o n s i b le

lo r t h i s lo s s w e r e n o t le a s t t h e p s e u d o s c ie n c e o f B i b l ic a l c r i t ic ism

,i n d t h e i m p e r t in e n c e o f t h o s e p r o fe s s o r s o f t h e o l o gy w h o c o n c e a le d

i h e ir l it e r a r y ig n o r a n c e b e h in d a b s t r u se r e a so n in g s : lik e a l l w h o

I'la c e d t h e ir fa i t h in s c ie n c e , t h e s e B i b l e s t u d e n t s t o o la c k e d a b r o a d

r x p e r i e n c e o f t h e d i ve r s it y o f r e a l life s u ch as lit e r a t u r e w a s w e ll

p la ced t o c om m u n ic a t e . Ar n o ld q u o t e d w it h a p p r o va l G o e t h e ’s

d e fin it i on o f s u p e r s t i t io n a s t h e p o e t r y o f l i fe it wa s in p r e c is e ly t h is(•u se t h a t r e l ig io n h a d t o b e c o m e s u p e r s t it io n a ga in .

IJ y in s is t in g o n r e a d i n g t h e B i b le a s a lit e r a r y d o c u m e n t a n d n o t a s

a s c i e n t i fic s o u r c e M a t t h e w Ar n o l d r e i n fo r c e d t h e c la i m o f lit e r a r y

1 1 11ic ism t o b e t h e o n ly p r o p e r g u id e t o l iv in g fo r h is a ge : a t t h e s a m e

lim e h e t h e r e b y d e n ie d t h a t n a t u r a l s c ie n c e c o u ld m a k e a s im ila r

i la iin .

T h e t w o c u lt u r e s in t h e n in e t e e n t h c e n t u r y

I In d is p u t e b e t w e e n t h e t w o c u lt u r e s go e s b a c k t o b e fo r e t h e

n in e t e en t h c en t u r y , b u t it wa s o n ly w h e n t h e s o c ia l a n d c u l t u r a l c on

ii 'in d ic e s o f t h e In d u s t r ia l R e v o lu t i o n b e c a m e p e r c e p t ib le , a n d t h e

i Hit lin e s o f t h e n e w s c i e n t i fic a n d t e c h n o l o g ic a l c i v iliz a t i o n b e c a m e

I a 1111 ly vis i b le a g a in s t t h e s k y lin e , a n d p u b l ic e d u c a t io n s t a r t e d m o r e

a i" I m o r e t o a ffe c t l a r ge r s e g m e n t s o f t h e p o p u la t io n t h a t it b e c a m e

I f m t r a l t o p ic o f d a y t o d a y p o lit ic s .

W lir n , fo r e x a m p l e , J o h n S t u a r t M ill wa s e l e c t e d r e c t o r o f S t

An d r e ws U n iv e r s i t y it wa s a m a t t e r o f c o u r s e t h a t in h i s in a u gu r a l

t id dic ss h e s h o u l d b r o a c h t h e s u b je c t o f t h e t w o c u l tu r e s . H e c o u ld

ft dy o n h is h e a r e r s a g r e e in g w it h h im w h e n h e r e fu s e d t o r e g a r d t h e

J lH lvr is it y a s a p l a c e w h e r e m e n w e r e i n s t r u c t e d in a p r o fe s s io n : n o

liln wa s t o r e c e iv e t h e r e a t r a in in g t h a t w o u ld l a t e r e n a b le h i m t o

i h i n a livin g. A u n ive r s it y d i d n o t t u r n o u t e ffi c ie n t la w ye r s , d o c t o r s

h i e n g in e er s : it p r o d u c e d m e n c a p a b le o f c iv iliz e d in t e r c o u r s e w it h

• •il. a n o t h e r . W h e r e c o n t e n t i o n a r o s e wa s o v e r t h e q u e s t i o n o f *ln iIn i t h is ge n e r a l e d u c a t i o n s h o u l d b e p r e d o m in a n t ly lit e r a r y or

l ll e n l lfl i. Ac c o r d in g t o M ill t h e t r u t h wa s , h o w e v e r , t h a t e v e r y

lin ivt iMt y e d u c a t io n m u s t p u r s u e in t e lle c t u a l , m o r a l a n d a e s t h e t ic

11 Ib id ., p. 399.

190 E N G L A N D

Fich te ’ s 'Gelehrter> b e c a m e fo r C a r l yle t h e ‘lit e r a r y m a n , ’ a nt i

J o h n s o n , R ou s s e a u a n d B u r n s w e r e t h e ‘m e n o f le t t e r s ’ w it h w h o m

h e c o n c e r n e d h i m s e l f w r it e r s o f t h e s e co n d r a n k , c o m p a r e d wit h

G o e t h e , b u t b ec a u s e o f t h e c ir c u m s t a n c e s o f t h e ir live s m o re

fa m ilia r t o a n E n glis h p u b lic . T h e l it e r a r y m a n , w i t h h i s ‘ co p y r ig h t sand cop ywron gs ’,62 was a t on ce a p r o fa n e an d a s ac red figu re : som e

o n e w h o d e f r a y e d h i s l i v i n g e x p e n s e s w i t h b o o k s a n d a t t h e s a m e

t im e e v o lv e d in t h e m a gu id e t o l ivin g wh ic h m a n k in d c ou ld

follow.

T o C a r ly le h is er a s e e m e d t o b e g e t t in g m o r e a n d m o r e o u t ol

jo in t a n in d ic a t io n o f th is wa s wh a t th e w r it e r s o f b o o k s d id in the

w o r ld a n d wh a t t h e w o r ld d id t o t h e m . T h e w r i t e r wa s gu id e d in Ii In

a c t i vit i e s b y t h e r u le s o f n o p r o fe s s i o n ; n o o n e a s k e d w h e n c e In

c a m e or w h it h e r h e wa s g oin g . L ik e a p a r ia h h e w a n d e r e d t h r o u g h i

wor ld wh ich he cou ld equ al ly wel l mis lead as en l ighten ; h e was n oth ing

b u t ‘a n a c c id e n t i n s o c i e t y .’63 An d y e t b o o k s p e r fo r m e d m ir a c l es In

t h e w a y ru n e s h a d d o n e in e a r l ie r t im e s . In t h e w r e t c h e d e s t le n d i n g

lib r a r i es o f r e m o t e v illa g e s b o o k s d e t e r m in e d t h e e v e r y d a y b e h a v h mi

o f t h e ir r e a d e r s , a n d t h e m a d d e s t v ie w s o f l ife b e c a m e p r a c tlu t l

r e a lit ie s . T h e a r t o f w r i t in g u n it e d in t h e s t r a n g es t w a y t h e d is t .m i

pas t w ith th e im m ed ia te p resen t : ‘A l l th in gs we re a lt e r ed fo r men ; ill

m o d e s o f im p o r t a n t w o r k o f m e n : t e a c h in g , p r e a c h i n g, go ve r n in g ,

an d a ll e ls e . ’64 Th e u n ive r s i t ie s , in wh ich k n owled ge h ad fo r hmn

b e e n h a n d ed o n t h r ou gh s p o k e n c om m u n i ca t io n , h a d b e com e

c o l le c t i o n s o f b o o k s , a n d in t h e c h u r c h t h e t r u e p r e a c h e r s m ill

p r o p h e t s w e r e n o w t h o s e w h o c o u ld w r it e b o o k s . F o l lo w i n g Pic l il t ,

Ca r lyle s aw li t e r a tu re a s a k in d o f r eve la t ion : a s Byron an d Goe l lit ' ,

S h a k e s p e a r e a n d M i lt o n ’s c a t h e d r a l m u s ic h a d s h o wn , lit e ra ln i t *

b r o u g h t t o lig h t t h e g o d lik e in t h e t e r r es t r ia l a n d c om m o n .

T h e a r t o f w r it in g a n d p r in t in g c ou ld n o t b e s e p a r a t e d fr o m ilie

p r o g r e s s o f d e m o c r a c y , a n d s in c e t h e p o w e r o f t h e w r i t e r wa s b e t t nit

in g a n e ve r m o r e p u b l ic fa c t i t c o u ld b e e x p e c t e d t h a t m e n o f I t «let#

w o u ld s o o n o r g a n iz e t h e m s e l ve s i n t o a gu ild . T h e o b j e c t i ve o l m i lia n o r g a n iz a t i o n c o u ld n o t b e t o s e c u r e t h e fin a n c ia l in d e p e n d e n t e u|

w r it e r s t h r o u g h s t ip e n d s o r s a la r i e s C a r l yle c o n s i d e r e d it n e c e s .iti v,

r a t h er , t h a t t h e r e s h o u l d b e m e n o f le t t e r s w h o w e r e p o or , m e m ln 'il

o f a s p i r it u a l o r d e r o f b e g ga r s w h o s e m a t e r i a l p o v e r t y wo iit ll

e n h a n c e t h e i r s p i r i t u a l i n f l u e n c e .

I t w a s t h r o u g h D a r w i n i a n e y e s t h a t C a r l y l e l o o k e d u p o n l i t *

lit e r a r y w o r ld , in w h ic h a s in t h e r e s t o f s o c i e t y o n ly t h e ' iln t l l*

*' Thom as Car ly le , On Heroes, He ro- Worship, urn! the He roic in His tory , ed. Arch lbit lil MmhMeeha n (Bos ton : Ginn an d Co. , 1901 ), p. 177. *’ Ibid ., p. 183. “ I bill, , p In | j

Concealed s ociology 191

c o u ld s u r v iv e t h e s t r u g gle fo r t h e h ig h e r p o s it io n s . H e s a w in t h is

s t r u ggle t h e p r e c o n d it io n o f a ll p r o gr e s s , a n d t o h im t o o t h e r e

oc cu r r e d t h e q u e s t io n t h a t b e ca m e t h e c en t r a l p r o b le m o f t h en in e t e en t h c e n t u r y a n d it s s o c ia l s cie n c es : o u g h t t h is s t r u g gle t o b e

le gu la t e d o r s h o u ld it s o u t c o m e b e l e ft t o c h a n c e?

W r it e r s w e r e b u r d e n e d w it h w h a t t h e y h a d in h e r it e d fr o m t h e

e ig h t e e n t h c en t u r y, t h a t e ra in w h ic h P a n d o r a h a d s h a k e n e v e r y evil

m i t o f h e r b o x . It wa s a s c e p t ic a l a ge t h a t w a n t e d t o k n o w n o t h in g o f

h e r o es a n d p i ct u r e d t h e w o r ld a s a m a c h in e , a n a g e in w h ic h p e r s o n a l

In t e re s t s a n d m o t ive s , w e a v e r s ’ lo o m s a n d p a r lia m e n t a r y m a jo r it ie s

net t h e t on e . T h e e r a o f B e n t h a m a n d t h e u t ilit a r i a n is m o f t h e s te a m e n g in e wa s a n a g e in w h ic h h e r o is m wa s b l in d a n d m e n a c t ed l ik e

lo g s a n d wh e els in a c o n t r a p t i o n o f s t e e l F r o m t h is m e ch a n ic a l

w or ld t h e d iv in e s e e m e d t o h a v e va n is h e d .

It wa s in t h e fa c t t h a t m e n o f le t t e r s w e r e n o t o r g a n ize d t h a t

' u ly l e s a w t h e fu n d a m e n t a l e vil o f a n a ge s u ffe r in g fr o m b o t h

in t e lle ct u a l a n d m o r a l s c e p t i cis m w h ic h h a d b r o u g h t fo r t h s u ch

Un cia l p e s t ile n c e s a s t h e F r e n c h R e v o lu t i o n a n d C h a r t is m ; a t t h e

•h i m e t im e h e h a d n o d o u b t t h a t m e n o f le t te r s w ou ld h e n c e fo r t h

...... b in e t o g e t h e r t o fo r m a s p e c ie s o f p r ie s t h o o d a n d b r i n g t o t h e

Wot Id a n e w fa it h . T h e e i gh t e e n t h c en t u r y , t h e a g e o f u n b e l ie f, h a d

In c n a n e x c e p t io n : ‘I p r o p h e s y t h a t t h e w o r ld w i ll o n c e m o r e

liet oin e sincere; a b e l ievin g world : wi th many H e r o e s i n i t , a h e r o i c

w>i Ul!’*’5

11 wa s c u s t o m a r y t o r e p r o a c h C a r lyle w it h a la c k o f c a lm n e s s in h is

iliIn k ing , wh ich was a lways fu ll o f pa s s ion , an d w i th a llowin g h i s

In t e lle ct t o b e c lo u d e d b y e m o t io n , y e t h e fo r e t o ld w it h p r e c is i o n

I In* d e c i s ive r o l e w h ic h t h e p r i e s t h o o d o f t h e m e n o f le t t e r s wa s t o

| il»y in t h e m o d e r n w o r ld . F o llo w in g C a r l yle , M a t t h e w Ar n o l d

il> >u r lbed th e s oc ia l u p r oot in g o f th e in te l lec tu a ls as a t on ce th e

1' ie . o n d it io n fo r a n d o p p o r t u n it y o f t h e a t t a in m e n t o f h igh e r

k n o w le d g e : in t e lle c t u a ls w e r e a lie n s w h o s e vie w s w e r e d e t e r m in e d

•tot b y u p a r t ic u la r c la s s s t a n d p o in t b u t b y a n u n p a r t is a n s p ir it a n d a

ili illie l o r t h e p e r fe c t in g o f m a n k in d ; a n d w it h t h a t , J u lie n B e n d a ’s

i/ i 111 a lr e a d y c o m e i n t o t h e p ic t u r e , a s d id K a r l M a n n h e im ’s s o c ia l ly

lin| iui:t lal in te lligen ts ia.

Lit e r a r y c r it ic is m a n d s o c ia l p l a n n in g

Aim m g t h o s e wh o s u c cu m b e d t o t h e in flu e n c e o f M a t t h e w Ar n o ld

•* i I S. Elio t , an Am er ican fr om St Lou is wh o, ra ised to res p ec t

192 E N G L A N D

r e lig io n , c o m m u n it y a n d e d u c a t io n , h a d as h e h im s e l f m a d e a p o in i

o f s t a t in g b e c o m e i n E n g la n d a c la s s ic is t i n a r t, a n An g lo C a t h o lic

in r e l ig io n a n d a r o y a l is t in p o l it ic s :

U p o n t h e g la z e n s h e lve s k e p t w a t c h

M a t t h e w a n d W a l d o , g u a r d ia n s o f t h e fa it h ,

T h e a r m y o f u n a l t er a b le la w. 66

As t o t h e p o e t ’s t r u e p o s it io n E lio t wa s a t o n e w it h A r n o l d an d

S h e lle y: h e wa s t h e u n a c k n o w le d g e d l e gis la t o r o f t h e w o r ld . Bu t

E lio t wa s a t va r i a n c e w it h Ar n o ld ’s a t t e m p t t o s e e in p o e t r y a k in d ol

‘c o ffe e w i t h o u t c a ffe i n ’,67 a s u b s t it u t e fo r r e l ig io n t h a t c o u ld on ly

le a d t o a fu r t h e r d im in u t io n in t h e s i gn ific a n c e o f r e lig io n . An d h r

c o m m e n t e d i r o n ic a lly on A r n o l d ’s a t t e m p t t o fu n c t io n as a cr it ic ols o c ie t y: lik e m a n y ot h e r s i n t e r e s t e d n o t o n ly in l it e r a t u r e b u t a ls o in

id e a s in g e n e r a l, A r n o l d h a d o c c a s i o n a lly b e e n a s s a ile d b y tin

t e m p t a t io n t o s e t b o o k s a s id e s o as fir s t t o p u t t h e w h o li

c o u n t r y i n o r d e r .

In s a y in g t h is , h o w e ve r , E lio t wa s n o t c h a m p i o n in g t h e p r in c ip li

o f I’a rt p ou r I’art. a s h e w r o t e in 1 9 2 8 in t h e n e w e d it i o n o f The Sum,/

Wood, p o e t r y a lw a ys h a d s o m e t h in g t o d o w it h p o lit ic s , r e lig io n an d

e th i cs , o n ly h e wa s u n a b l e t o s ay p r e c i s e ly w h a t S c e p t i c a l t o w a t d i

e v e r y s p e c ie s o f in t e r p r e t a t i o n , E l io t r e s i s t e d a c c e p t i n g s o c io lo gis t s

a s in t e r p r e t e r s o f p o e t r y ; in t h is h e s h o w e d a s im ila r it y t o F. I<

Le a vis , w h o m o u n t e d s o ve h e m e n t a n o p p o s it io n t o t h e s o c io lo g y oI

lit e r a t u r e . O n t h e co n t r a r y h e w a r n e d t h e p o e t w h o r e fle c t e d on tin

u s e o f h is a c t i vit ie s a g a i n s t ‘in v o lv in g h im s e l f in t h e t a s k s o f I ho

s oc io log i s t ’.68 Po e t ry a s su ch p osses sed a r e ligiou s s ign ifica n ce and

e x e r t e d it s in flu e n c e o n s o c i e t y fo r t h a t ve r y r e a s o n i t m u s t n o i h i

m is u n d e r s t o o d as r e lig io n a n d l it e r a r y c r it ic is m m u s t n o t b e m is u n

d e r s t o o d a s s o c i o l o g y .W h e n E l io t vis i t e d P a r is fo r t h e fir s t t i m e in 1 9 1 0 h e s t a y ed at

r u e d e l’U n iv e r s i t e , c lo s e t o t h e S o r b o n n e ; it wa s a l s o n o t fa r fr o m

t h e C o l le g e d e F ra n c e , w h e r e in ja n u a r y a n d F e b r u a r y 19 11 h e a t t en d e d

le c t u r e s b y B e r g s o n , w h o s e e v a lu a t i o n o f in t u it io n wa s a l lie d t o hit

o w n p o e t i c a l t e n d e n c y. E lio t ’s o w n d e c la r a t io n s p e r m it t h e r ea d e t In

p e r c e i ve t h e i n flu e n c e o f B e r g s o n in ‘T h e L o v e S o n g o f J . Allie d

P r u fr o c k ’; b u t E lio t wa s a ls o a w a r e o f s o c i o lo g y , a n d a m o n g t h os e

66 T. S. E liot, ‘Cou s in Na n cy ’, in Collected Poems 1909-1935 (N e w Yo r k : ^ a r c n in l

Brace J ovan ovich , 1948 ), p . 34 .

67 T. S. Eliot , The Use o f Poetry and the Use o f Criticism Studies in the Re lation o j Critit nm M

Poetry in England. The Charles E liot Norton Lectures fo r 1932-33 ( C a m b r i d g e , Mitin

Concealed s ociology 193

w h o a p p e a r t o h a v e e x e r t e d a p a r t i c u l a r i n f l u e n c e o n h i m i n P a r i s

wa s E m ile D u r k h e im . T h e s t r o n g e s t in flu e n c e o f a ll, t o b e s u r e, w as

t h at o f C h a r le s Ma u r r a s , a n d P e t e r A c k r o y d h as p o in t e d o u t t h a t t h e

i u r r en t c h a r a c t e r i za t io n o f Ma u r r a s b y m e a n s o f t h e t r ia d 'classique,

uUholique, monarchique’69 m ay ha ve in flu en ced E l io t ’ s su bs equ en t se lf

dcsc r ip t ion .

T h e r e a l r e a d y e x is t e d in E li o t ’s ea r ly p o e t r y a sp e c ie s o f s o c i o lo g y

ol k n o w le d g e c o n c e a le d b e h in d a l l t h e ir o n y a n d s e lf ir o n y : a n

i u d u r in g t e n d e n c y t o r e n d e r t o h im s e lf a n a c c o u n t o f h is o w n

ii1 1io n s a n d p o s it i o n in t h e w o r ld . Le a vis , w h o wa s a m o n g t h e fir s t t o

" ‘cogn ize El io t ’s p oe t ic rank, a lso saw h ow grea t a ro le epis t em ologica l

it lid m e t a p h y s ic a l q u e s t i o n s p l a y e d in h is p o e m s : E l io t t h e c r it ic

• im e d a lwa ys t o b e c o m m e n t in g on E l io t t h e p o e t

Al t e r 1 92 8 t h e p e r i o d c o i n c i d i n g a lm o s t e x a c t ly w it h h is c o n v er -

s ion t o An g lo C a t h o lic is m E lio t a l s o b e c a m e a s o c ia l c r i t ic a n d

«*« Ia l th eore t ic ia n , th ou gh h e was , t o be su re, in te r e s ted m or e in d is

• t is s ion o f b a s ic p r in c ip l es t h a n in t h e s o lu t io n o f r e a l s o c ia l

I ' " >l>lems . T h e im m e d ia t e o c c a s io n w a s t h e fo u n d in g o f t h e C h a n d o s

I' 11tu p, w h i ch t o o k it s n a m e fr o m t h e r e s ta u r a n t in L o n d o n w h e r e it s

m e m b e r s w e r e a c cu s t o m e d t o m e et . F o u n d e d a ft e r t h e G e n e r a l

'■ I i ik e o f 1 9 2 6 , t h e g r o u p h a d d e fin e d it s o b j e c t i v e a s t h e d is c o ve r y o f 1 e r t a in a b so l u t e a n d e t e r n a l p r in c ip l e s o f t r u e s o c i o l o g y ’:70 t h e r e

«'ii 11 wa s s o u n d e d t h e t h e m e o f a Ch r i s t ia n s o c io lo g y t h a t n o w

m o ve d t o t h e c e n t r e o f E lio t ’s in t e r e s t In 1 9 3 3 a n d 19 4 0 h e

1I1 llve red l ec tu re s a t th e An g lo Ca th o lic Su m m er Sch oo l o f Soc iology,

mill b e t w e e n 1 9 3 8 a n d l9 4 7 h e wa s in v olve d w it h T h e M o o t , a g r o u p

"I ( le r g ym e n , w r it e r s , s c ie n t i s t s a n d p o l it ic ia n s w h o m e t o n c e a y e a r

in ilis c u s s q u e s t io n s o f so c ia l p la n n in g a n d t h e c r e a t i o n o f a n e l it e in

I los t w ar E n gla n d . T h e m in u t e s a n d c o r r e s p o n d e n c e o f t h e gr o u p

• In >w E l io t to h a ve pa r t ic ip a ted to th e fu l l in it s d e l ib era t ion s .

I le h a d a l wa y s b e e n s c e p t i c a l a s t o t h e p o s s ib ilit y o f t h e in d i vid u a l

iiiie l lec tu a l’ s p rod u c in g an y rea l e f fec t on soc ie ty :

N o ! I a m n o t Pr in c e H a m le t , n o r wa s m e a n t t o b e ;

Am a n a t t e n d a n t lo r d , o n e t h a t w i ll d o

T o s w e l l a p r o gr e s s , s t a r t a s c e n e o r t w o ,

A d v i s e t h e p r i n c e ; n o d o u b t , a n e a s y t o o l ,

D e f e r e n t i a l, g la d t o b e o f u s e,

P o l i t i c , c a u t i o u s , a n d m e t i c u l o u s ;

F u ll o f h ig h s e n t e n c e , b u t a b it o b t u s e ;

At t i m e s , in d e e d , a lm o s t r id i cu lo u s

Alm o s t , a t t im e s , t h e F o o l.

** Pe te r Ack ro yd , / S. Eliot (L on d o n : l la m is h H a m i lt o n , 1 9 8 4 ), p. 4 1.

’• Ih J . , p, 222.

194 E N G L A N D

N o w h o w e v er , in t im e o f wa r , t h e in c lin a t i on s o f t h e in d i vid u a l h ad

t o s t ep i n t o t h e b a c k g r o u n d a n d in t e lle c tu a ls h a d t o fo r m t h e m -

s e lve s in t o a gr o u p . T h e d iffe r e n c e s w h ic h d i vid e d E lio t fr o m t h e

Scrutiny g r o u p a s re ga r d s s o c ia l c r it ic is m s o o n b e c a m e e vid e n t .

Le a vis a n d h is a d h e r e n t s c o n t i n u e d t o b e p e t t y b o u r g e o is ou t s id e rs

w h o r e a c t e d t o t h e e v o lu t i o n o f c a p i t a lis m a n d s t a t e s o c ia l is m b y

c o n ju r in g u p a h a r m o n i ou s E n g lis h a gr a r ia n s o c i et y wh ic h h a d c om e

t o a d e fin it i ve e n d in t h e la s t ye a r s o f t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y: t his

s o c ia l id y ll, s u p p o r t e d b y n o h is t o r ic a l fa c t s a n d s e r v in g e s s e n t ia l ly as

a g r o u p s u s t a in in g id e o l o g y , m a d e o f lit e r a r y c r it i c is m a n o s t a lgii

d i s c ip l in e . T h e c o n s e r v a t iv e s o c i a l c r i t ic E lio t , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d,

w h o m Le a v is r e p u d i a t e d a s a va s s a l o f t h e Lo n d o n E s t a b lis h m e n t

wa s d e c id e d ly m o r e m o d e r n t h a n t h e Scrutiny g r o u p : lik e o t h e r co ns e r va t i ve s , E lio t h a d r e c o g n iz e d t h a t o n ly a c h a n g e in t h e t r a d i t io n a l

t e ch n i qu e s fo r m a in t a in in g s u p r e m a c y co u l d e n s u r e t h e c on t in u in g

d o m in io n o f t h e p o lit i c a l a n d c u l t u r a l o r t h o d o x y in E n gla n d ; an d

a ft e r t h e m e ch a n is m o f n a t u r a lly e xp a n d i n g m a r k e t s h a d ce as e d in

fu n c t io n t h e id e a o f s o c ia l p la n n in g wa s a c c e p t e d b y t h e s e c on s e rvu

t ives by com p u ls ion , ‘n o t fo r ide a l is t ic r eas ons ’.71

At t h e e n d o f t h e n in e t e e n t h c en t u r y M a t t h e w Ar n o ld h a d p e r c elvvil

in t h e s o c i o lo g y c o m in g in t o b e i n g on t h e c o n t in e n t o f E u r o p e tind i s c i p lin e w h ic h w o u ld s t a n d in c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h a lit e r a r y cr it ic is m

t h a t w a n t e d t o c o u n t as t h e g u id i n g d is c i p l in e fo r in d u s t r i a l s o cie t y

B u t Ar n o l d ’ s fe a r s w e r e g r o u n d l es s : t h o s e c o n s t e lla t io n s o f s ot l.d

h is t o r i ca l s t u d y w h ic h w e r e e ls e w h e r e c r e a t in g t h e u n ive r s i ty fa m ily

o f s oc iology were ver y far from d oin g so in En glan d, wh ere s ociolop,li ill

t h in k i n g h a d l o n g s in c e d is c o v e r e d a h o m e in p h ila n t h r o p y and

soc ia l work , in a row o f a l rea dy ex i s t in g aca de m ic d isc ip l in es , in

s t a t is t ic s a n d in p o lit i c a l a d m in is t r a t io n . W h i le in s u c h co u n t r ie s i l l

F r a n c e a n d G e r m a n y s o c i o lo g y h a d d e v e lo p e d d i s t in c t y et va t yln ((

p r o file s a s a s c ie n c e b o t h o p p o s in g a n d s u p p o r t in g t h e E s ta b lis h

m e n t , a n d h a d t h e n w it h in e a c h c o u n t r y g o n e o n t o s p l in t e i IlilH

s e p a r a t e s c h o ols , in E n g la n d s o c i o lo g y wa s s i m p ly a c o n s t it u e n t u f

s o c ia l c o m m o n s en s e : it h a d n o n e e d t o s e c u r e it s ex is t e n c e li| l

b e c o m in g a n in d e p e n d e n t a c a d e m ic fa c u lt y.

M a r x is m , w it h w h i ch s o c i o lo g y o c c a s i on a l ly s e e m e d t o H

com p et in g o r con t ra s t ing d i sc ip l in e , ha d likewise fa i led t o a i h levn it

d is t in ct p r of i le in En glan d: h er e even la rge se gm en ts o f th e wi >t I inn

71 Ha ro ld Macm illan , 'Rec on s tr u ct ion ' (1 9 3 5 ), in Art h u r Mar wick, ‘Mid dle **I *1"Itfl

in t he Th ir t ie s : P lan n i ng , P r og r e s s and Po l it i c a l " Agr eem en t ” ', The Hnnl/ lh Iln H lU

cat Review 74 (1964), p. 287.

Concea led sociology 195

cla s s ch o s e t h e To r ie s , t h e b o u r g e o i s ie wa s c o n s e r v a t ive , t h e

s o c ia lis t s w e r e r e fo r m e r s , a n d t h e b e g in n in g o f t h e n in e t e e n t h

c en t u r y s a w t h e gr a d u a l fo r m a t io n in t h e r a n k s o f t h e u p p e r m id d le

cla s s o f t h a t s t a b l e in t e lle c t u a l a r is t o c r a c y t y p i c a l o f E n g la n d w h ic hp r e s e n t e d t h e p a r a d o x o f a n in t e llig en t s ia ‘w h ic h a p p e a r s t o c o n -

fo r m r a t h e r t h a n r e b e l a g a in s t t h e r e s t o f s o c ie t y ’. 72 T h is in t e lle c t u a l

a r is toc ra cy h ad l it e r a tu re ‘in i t s bon es ’,73 an d it s gu id in g d i sc ip l in e

wa s lit e r a r y c r it ic is m . O n ly a s u p e r fic ia l o b s e r v e r c o u ld b e l ie v e t h a t

I h e r e wa s n o s o c i o lo g y in E n gla n d : a p a r t fr o m t h e Lo n d o n S c h o o l o f

I' c o n o m ic s t h e r e w a s fo r d e c a d e s n o fa c u lt y o f s o c i o lo g y , b u t liv e ly

s o c io lo g ic a l t h in k i n g la y c o n c e a le d n o t l ea s t in lit e r a r y c r it ic is m .

T h e s t o r m y 19 3 0 s d is t u r b e d t h e im p e r t u r b a b l e r ep o s e o f E n g lis h

i u lt u r e. In c r e a s in g in t e r n a t io n a l t en s io n , a n d a t h o m e t h e b r e a k in g

tip o f t h e p o l it ic a l a n d e c o n o m ic c on s e n s u s , in d i ca t e d t h a t t h e

■ a p it a lis t s y s t em wa s a b o u t t o c o l la p s e a c o n c lu s i on t h e W e b b s a ls o

IIt ew wh e n , w i t h o u t e ve r h a v in g b e e n M a r xis t s , t h e y t h r e w th e m

c lve s in t o t h e a r m s o f S o v ie t c om m u n is m . U n e m p l o ym e n t , w a ge

i (Us a n d s t r ik e s n o w m a d e t h e c la s s n a t u r e o f E n g lis h s o c i e t y s t a n d

n u t m o r e s h a r p ly.

11 wa s h e r e t h a t t h e r e la y th e s e ed s o f t h a t d e ve lo p m e n t wh ic h wa s

in t h e e n d t o c r e a t e a s o c i o lo g y in E n g la n d a s w e ll, t h o u g h , t o b en iiir , it s in s t i t u t i on a liza t ion ha d la rge ly t o wa it u n t i l w e l l a ft e r t h e

fn i o n d W o r l d W a r . C o m p a r e d w it h t h e c o n s t r u c t io n o f s c h o ols o f

Mu lo l o g y in Am e r i c a , F r a n c e a n d G e r m a n y , h o w e v e r , E n g lis h

nui lo l o g y a lw a ys r e m a in e d c u r io u s l y p a llid a n d la c k in g in d i s t in c t

lili n I it y: t h e d is c ip l in es t h a t ca m e in to b e in g in E n gla n d du r ing th e

■ liM wa r ye a r s, a n d w e r e it s e s s e n t ia l c o n t r i b u t i o n t o in t e lle c t u a l

»iii11«• i»t io n b o t h a t h o m e a n d a b r o a d , w e r e s o c a lle d ‘c u lt u r a l

**lm iles ', a s r e p r e s e n t e d b y s u c h n a m e s a s R ic h a r d H o g g a r t a n d

lliiyn t o n d Willia m s . A b r i e f c h a r a c t e r i za t io n o f w h a t c o n s t i t u t e s

i n 11in a I s t u d ie s ’ w o u ld a m o u n t t o a n a b s t r a c t o f E n g lis h in t e l le c t u a l

l ii 'i imy s in c e M a t t h e w Ar n o ld : t h e y a r e a b l e n d o f s o c i o l o g y a n d

llti iiiiy cr iticis m .

N *■ A n nan, 'Th e In tellectu a l Aris t ocr a cy’, in Studies in S ocial History : A Tribu te to G.

II I'n v tly u n , ed. J . H . P lu m b (L on d on : Longm an s , G re en an d Co . , 1955 ),

BETWEEN LITERATURE AND SCIENCE: THE RISE OF SOCIOLOGY

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