Argumentation

Structure and Development

On Argumentation:

“The aim of argument, or of discussion, should not be victory, but progress.” -Joseph Joubert, Pensees, 1842

Argument vs PersuasionPersuasion: method writer uses to

move audience (belief or action) – Relies on appeals

Argumentation: the appeal to reason– Does not try to move an audience– Primary purpose: demonstrate certain

ideas are valid and others are not– Most effective arguments combine

appeals

Basic Structure of an Argument

Makes PointsSupplies EvidenceEstablishes logical chain or

reasoningRefutes Opposing ArgumentsAccommodates the views of the

Audience

An Argument:

In an argument a writer or speaker has a specific purpose for addressing a targeted audience. He/she uses reasoning to accept or reject an idea based on its validity and truth.

An argument has a thesis statement or claim (a stand on the issue), which is supported with various premises (evidence).

When analyzing an argument:

Determine the credibility of the writers and their purposes for writing.

Be familiar with how writers appeal to targeted audiences by using three classical strategies:

Three different strategies are:PathosEthosLogos

Rhetorical TriangleAPPEALS TO LOGIC AND REASONING [logos]

APPEALS TO EMOTIONS [pathos]

APPEALS TO CREDIBILITY AND CHARACTER [ethos]

PURPOSE

Rhetorical TriangleAPPEALS TO LOGIC APPEALS TO LOGIC AND REASONING AND REASONING [logos][logos]

APPEALS TO APPEALS TO EMOTIONS EMOTIONS [pathos][pathos]

APPEALS TO APPEALS TO CREDIBILITY CREDIBILITY AND AND CHARACTER CHARACTER [ethos][ethos]

PURPOSE

At the core of the rhetorical At the core of the rhetorical triangle is purpose.triangle is purpose.

You must gain practice in identifying precisely writer’s apparent purposes.

Logical Appeal [Logos]

Appeals to an audience’s reasoning or logic

Language may be more dispassionate, appealing to the intellect rather than the emotions.

Be able to identify:INDUCTIVE

REASONING

DEDUCTIVE REASONING

specific to general conclusion (ISG = inductive moves from specific to general)

general to specific conclusion (DoGS = deductive moves from general to specific)

Also be able toUnderstand the flaws

in logic (logical fallacies).

Recognize concession and counterargument.

ConcessionAn expression of concern for

the feelings of those who may disagree with the writer’s position.

Shows the writer to be a logical thinker and a concerned, fair-minded person who realizes that every argument has two sides.

Counterargument Three parts: - acknowledging

(concession)

- accommodating (“setting

them up”)

- refuting (“shooting them

down”)

Logical reasoning will also rely on:Facts and evidenceresearchtradition (precedent)authoritiescause/effectanalogieseffective metaphors

Emotional Appeal [Pathos]

Passion, not logic, stirs most people to take a stance.

Writers will use a friendlier, more relaxed tone and appeal to the basic needs that all people have:

physical needs--life and health of the body

psychological needs--a person’s inner life, the need for love and self-respect

social needs--the need for freedom, for status and power, for acceptance by others

Three strategies to employ:connotative diction, imagery,

metaphorsappeals to pity, compassion--the

qualities that unite all humanscarefully crafted syntax such as

parallelism, anaphora, etc. to appeal to the reader’s sense of order and control

Pathos Question

How has the writer appealed to audience’s emotions?

Ethical Appeals [Ethos]Ethos in Greek loosely translates to

“character”possess good character and argue

in ways that reveal that good character

audience should see writers as people very much like themselves--establish credibility

Ethos QuestionsHow does the writer or

speaker present himself as reliable, good?

How does the writer or speaker aim to build bridges with the audience or opposition?

Ethos Strategiesmake qualified claims (exceptions

to rules, “perhaps” “some” “many”)restate opposing view accurately

and fairlyassociate self with relevant

authorities; relevant allusionsuse first-person plural pronouns

“we” “us” to establish a relationship

In Persuasive essay address issue in one of three ways:Defend, or agree with a positionChallenge, or disagree with a

positionQualify, or make the claim more

flexible by adding certain terms: almost, may, probably, in most cases, hardly, sometimes, might, frequently, usually, often et. al.

Rhetorical Devices

Repetition/Anaphora (deliberate use of any element of language more than once)

Allusion (reference to a mythological,

literary, or historical person place or thing)

Parallelism/Antithesis