Post on 09-Apr-2018
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ANATOMY ANDANATOMY AND
PHYSIOLOGYPHYSIOLOGYArni A. Magdamo, MD, MHA, FPCPArni A. Magdamo, MD, MHA, FPCP
University of the PhilippinesUniversity of the Philippines
College of MedicineCollege of Medicine
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INTRODUCTION
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Basic DefinitionsBasic Definitions
ANATOMYANATOMYis the dynamic scientific discipline thatis the dynamic scientific discipline that
investigates the bodys structure.investigates the bodys structure.
Systemic AnatomySystemic Anatomy is the study of the body by organis the study of the body by organsystems.systems.
Regional AnatomyRegional Anatomy is the study of the bodys organizationis the study of the bodys organization
by areas.by areas.
Surface AnatomySurface Anatomy is the study of the external features tois the study of the external features tolocate deeper structures.locate deeper structures.
PHYSIOLOGYPHYSIOLOGYis the scientific discipline that deals with theis the scientific discipline that deals with the
processes or functions of living things.processes or functions of living things.
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Structural and FunctionalStructural and Functional
OrganizationsOrganizations CHEMICALCHEMICAL level of organization involves interactionslevel of organization involves interactions
between atoms and their combinations into molecules and howbetween atoms and their combinations into molecules and how
they are intimately related.they are intimately related.
ORGANELLEORGANELLE level of organization deals with thelevel of organization deals with the
structures contained within a cell that performs one or morestructures contained within a cell that performs one or more
specific functions.specific functions.
CELLULARCELLULARlevel of organization deals with the basiclevel of organization deals with the basicliving units of the human body.living units of the human body.
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Structural and FunctionalStructural and Functional
OrganizationsOrganizations TISSUETISSUE level involves the organization of cells based onlevel involves the organization of cells based on
similarity in structure and functions.similarity in structure and functions.
ORGANORGAN level of organization studies the arrangement oflevel of organization studies the arrangement oftissues into structures that together perform one or moretissues into structures that together perform one or more
common functions.common functions.
ORGAN SYSTEMSORGAN SYSTEMS are groups of organs classified as aare groups of organs classified as a
unit because of a common function or set of functions.unit because of a common function or set of functions. ORGANISMORGANISM is a complex of mutually dependent organis a complex of mutually dependent organ
systems functioning in a coordinated manner.systems functioning in a coordinated manner.
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Organ SystemsOrgan Systems
ENDOCRINEENDOCRINE system participates in the regulation ofsystem participates in the regulation of
metabolism, reproduction and many other functions.metabolism, reproduction and many other functions.
CARDIOVASCULARCARDIOVASCULARsystem transports nutrients,system transports nutrients,waste products, gases, and hormones and plays a role in thewaste products, gases, and hormones and plays a role in the
immune response and the regulation of body temperature.immune response and the regulation of body temperature.
LYMPHATICLYMPHATIC system removes foreign substances from thesystem removes foreign substances from the
blood and lymph, combats disease, maintains tissue fluidblood and lymph, combats disease, maintains tissue fluidbalance, and absorbs fats.balance, and absorbs fats.
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Organ SystemsOrgan Systems
RESPIRATORYRESPIRATORYsystem exchanges gases between thesystem exchanges gases between the
blood and the air and regulates blood pH.blood and the air and regulates blood pH.
DIGESTIVEDIGESTIVE system performs the mechanical andsystem performs the mechanical andchemical processes of digestion, absorption of nutrients, andchemical processes of digestion, absorption of nutrients, and
elimination of wastes.elimination of wastes.
URINARYURINARYsystem removes waste products from thesystem removes waste products from the
circulatory system and regulates blood pH, ion balance andcirculatory system and regulates blood pH, ion balance andwater balance.water balance.
REPRODUCTIVEREPRODUCTIVE system performs the processes ofsystem performs the processes of
reproduction and controls sexual functions and behaviors.reproduction and controls sexual functions and behaviors.
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Negative FeedbackNegative Feedback
NegativeNegative feedback means that any deviation from afeedback means that any deviation from a
normal value is resisted or negated. Negativenormal value is resisted or negated. Negativefeedback does not prevent variation, but maintainsfeedback does not prevent variation, but maintains
that variation within a normal range.that variation within a normal range.
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Negative FeedbackNegative Feedback
BLOOD
PRESSURE
DECREASED HEART
RATE
INCREASED BLOOD
VESSEL DIAMETER
INCREASED HEART
RATE
DECREASED BLOOD
VESSEL DIAMETER
Receptors detect
increase in
blood pressure
Receptors detect
decrease in
blood pressure
Regulatory MechanismsIncrease
Decrease
Decrease
Increase
RETURN TO NORMAL STATE DEVIATION FROM NORMAL VALUE
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Positive FeedbackPositive Feedback
PositivePositive feedback implies that when a deviation fromfeedback implies that when a deviation from
a normal value occurs, the response of the system is toa normal value occurs, the response of the system is tomake the deviation larger.make the deviation larger.
Positive feedback usually creates avicious cycle leadingPositive feedback usually creates avicious cycle leading
away from homeostasis and, in some cases, resultingaway from homeostasis and, in some cases, resultingin death.in death.
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Positive FeedbackPositive Feedback
A fewA few positive feedbackpositive feedback mechanisms do operate in themechanisms do operate in the
body under normal conditions, but in all cases, theybody under normal conditions, but in all cases, theyare eventually limited in some way (e.g., labor andare eventually limited in some way (e.g., labor and
childbirth).childbirth).
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Positive FeedbackPositive Feedback
CONTRACTION
FORCE ANDFREQUENCY
The fetus is pushed
against the uterine
opening causing the
inferior uterus to
stretch.
Receptors
detect
increased
stretch.
Increased
contractions
Increased
stimulation
DEVIATION FROM NORMAL
VALUE
CONTINUED DEVIATION
FROM NORMAL VALUE
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Directional TermsDirectional Terms
INFERIORINFERIOR(L., lower)(L., lower) a structure lower than another.a structure lower than another.
SUPERIORSUPERIOR(L., higher)(L., higher) a structure higher thana structure higher thananother.another.
ANTERIORANTERIOR(L., to go before)(L., to go before) toward the front of thetoward the front of thebody.body.
POSTERIORPOSTERIOR(L., posterus, following)(L., posterus, following) toward the backtoward the backof the body.of the body.
DORSALDORSAL (L., dorsum, back)(L., dorsum, back) synonymous with posteriorsynonymous with posterior
VENTRALVENTRAL (L, ventrum, belly)(L, ventrum, belly) synonymous withsynonymous withanterior.anterior.
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Directional TermsDirectional Terms
PROXIMALPROXIMAL (L., proximus, nearest)(L., proximus, nearest) closer to the pointcloser to the point
of attachment to the body than another structure.of attachment to the body than another structure.
DISTALDISTAL (L., di+sto, to be distant)(L., di+sto, to be distant) farther from thefarther from thepoint of attachment to the body than another structure.point of attachment to the body than another structure.
LATERALLATERAL (L., latus, side)(L., latus, side) away from the midline ofaway from the midline of
the body.the body.
MEDIALMEDIAL (L., medialis, middle)(L., medialis, middle) toward the midline oftoward the midline ofthe body.the body.
SUPERFICIALSUPERFICIAL (L., superficialis)(L., superficialis) toward or on thetoward or on the
surface.surface.
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Directional TermsDirectional Terms
DEEPDEEP (Old English, deop, deep)(Old English, deop, deep) away from the surface,away from the surface,
internal.internal.
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PlanesPlanes
SAGITTALSAGITTAL ( flight of an arrow)( flight of an arrow) runs verticallyruns vertically
through the body and separates it into right and left portions.through the body and separates it into right and left portions.
MidsagittalMidsagittal divides the body into equal right and leftdivides the body into equal right and lefthalves.halves.
ParasagittalParasagittal towards the side of the midline, divides thetowards the side of the midline, divides the
body in unequal right and left portions.body in unequal right and left portions.
TRANSVERSETRANSVERSE (horizontal)(horizontal) runs parallel to theruns parallel to theground and divides the body into superior and inferior parts.ground and divides the body into superior and inferior parts.
CORONALCORONAL (frontal)(frontal) -- runs vertically from right to leftruns vertically from right to left
and divides the body into anterior and posterior portions.and divides the body into anterior and posterior portions.
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SectionsSections
LONGITUDINALLONGITUDINAL a cut through the longitudinala cut through the longitudinal
axis of an organ.axis of an organ.
TRANSVERSETRANSVERSE a cut at a right angle to thea cut at a right angle to thelongitudinal axis.longitudinal axis.
OBLIQUEOBLIQUE a cut made across the longitudinal axis ata cut made across the longitudinal axis at
angle other than a right angle.angle other than a right angle.
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Body RegionsBody Regions
APPENDICULARAPPENDICULAR includes the limbs and their girdlesincludes the limbs and their girdles
Upper limbUpper limb arm, forearm, wrist, and hand; attached toarm, forearm, wrist, and hand; attached to
the body by the shoulder or pectoral girdle.the body by the shoulder or pectoral girdle. Lower limbLower limb thigh, leg, ankle, and foot; attached to thethigh, leg, ankle, and foot; attached to the
body by the hip or pelvic girdle.body by the hip or pelvic girdle.
AXIALAXIAL consists of the head, neck and trunk.consists of the head, neck and trunk.
TrunkTrunk divided into the trunk (chest), abdomen, anddivided into the trunk (chest), abdomen, and
pelvis.pelvis.
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Abdominal QuadrantsAbdominal Quadrants
RIGHT
UPPER
QUADRANT
LEFT
UPPER
QUADRANT
RIGHT
LOWER
QUADRANT
RIGHT
LOWER
QUADRANT
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Body CavitiesBody Cavities
THORACIC CAVITYTHORACIC CAVITY bounded by the ribs and thebounded by the ribs and the
diaphragm. The mediastinum divides the thoracic cavity intodiaphragm. The mediastinum divides the thoracic cavity into
two parts.two parts.
ABDOMINAL CAVITYABDOMINAL CAVITY bounded by the diaphragmbounded by the diaphragm
and the abdominal muscles.and the abdominal muscles.
PELVIC CAVITYPELVIC CAVITY surrounded by the pelvic bones.surrounded by the pelvic bones.
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Serous MembranesSerous Membranes
The trunk cavities are lined by serous membranes.The trunk cavities are lined by serous membranes.
PARIETAL MEMBRANEPARIETAL MEMBRANE lines the wall of the cavity.lines the wall of the cavity.
VISCERAL MEMBRANEVISCERAL MEMBRANE covers the internal organs.covers the internal organs.
TheThe parietalparietal andand visceralvisceral membranes are continuous with eachmembranes are continuous with each
other. Serous membranes secrete fluid that fills the spaceother. Serous membranes secrete fluid that fills the space
between the parietal and visceral membranes. The serousbetween the parietal and visceral membranes. The serous
membranes protect organs from friction.membranes protect organs from friction.
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Serous MembranesSerous Membranes
PLEURAPLEURAis the serous membrane that lines the organs andis the serous membrane that lines the organs andwalls of the thoracic cavity.walls of the thoracic cavity.
PERITONEUMPERITONEUM is the serous membrane that lines theis the serous membrane that lines the
organs and walls of the abdominal (peritoneal) cavity.organs and walls of the abdominal (peritoneal) cavity.
PERICARDIUMPERICARDIUM surrounds the heart and the pericardialsurrounds the heart and the pericardialcavity.cavity.
MESENTERIESMESENTERIES are parts of the peritoneum that holdare parts of the peritoneum that holdthe abdominal organs in place and provide a passageway forthe abdominal organs in place and provide a passageway forblood vessels and nerves to organs.blood vessels and nerves to organs.
OMENTAOMENTAconnect abdominal organs to the greater orconnect abdominal organs to the greater orlesser curvatures of the stomach.lesser curvatures of the stomach.
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CELL BIOLOGY
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Plasma MembranePlasma Membrane
TheThe cell membranecell membrane oror plasma membraneplasma membrane is the outermostis the outermost
component of the cell. It encloses the cytoplasm and forms acomponent of the cell. It encloses the cytoplasm and forms a
boundary between the intracellular and extracellularboundary between the intracellular and extracellular
compartments.compartments.
The major molecules that make up the cell membrane areThe major molecules that make up the cell membrane are
phospholipidsphospholipids andand proteinsproteins. In addition, the membrane. In addition, the membrane
contains other molecules such ascontains other molecules such as cholesterol, carbohydrates,cholesterol, carbohydrates,waterwater andand ionsions..
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Plasma MembranePlasma Membrane
PHOSPHATE GROUP (POLAR, HYDROPHILIC)
LIPID GROUP (NONPOLAR, LIPOPHILIC)
PROTEIN
CHOLESTEROL
FLUID MOSAIC MODEL
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Movement Through The PlasmaMovement Through The Plasma
MembraneMembraneThe plasma membrane isThe plasma membrane is selectively permeableselectively permeable, allowing some, allowing some
substances to pass through it but not others. Intracellularsubstances to pass through it but not others. Intracellular
material has a different composition from extracellularmaterial has a different composition from extracellular
material, and the survival of cells depends on maintaining thematerial, and the survival of cells depends on maintaining the
difference.difference.
Cellular transport provides for the movement of substances acrossCellular transport provides for the movement of substances acrossthe cell membrane and may be classified as otherthe cell membrane and may be classified as other passivepassive oror
activeactive transport.transport.
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Passive TransportPassive Transport
DIFFUSIONDIFFUSION
OSMOSISOSMOSIS
FILTRATIONFILTRATION FACILITATED DIFFUSIONFACILITATED DIFFUSION
Channel proteinChannel protein--mediatedmediated
Carrier proteinCarrier protein--mediatedmediated
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DiffusionDiffusion
DiffusionDiffusion is the movement of a substance from an area of highis the movement of a substance from an area of high
concentration to an area of low concentration, until there is aconcentration to an area of low concentration, until there is a
uniform distribution of molecules.uniform distribution of molecules.
For a given distance, a concentration gradient is equal to theFor a given distance, a concentration gradient is equal to the
higher concentration minus the lower concentration of a solutehigher concentration minus the lower concentration of a solute
in a solution.in a solution.
The rate of diffusion increases with an increase in theThe rate of diffusion increases with an increase in theconcentration gradient, an increase in temperature, or aconcentration gradient, an increase in temperature, or a
decrease in molecule size.decrease in molecule size.
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DiffusionDiffusion
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OsmosisOsmosis
OsmosisOsmosis is the diffusion of water (a solvent) across ais the diffusion of water (a solvent) across a selectivelyselectivelypermeable membranepermeable membrane, such as the cell membrane, from a, such as the cell membrane, from aregion of high concentration to a region of lower concentration.region of high concentration to a region of lower concentration.
AnAn isotonicisotonic solution is one which has the same concentrationsolution is one which has the same concentrationas that of the cytoplasm. No movement of water takes place.as that of the cytoplasm. No movement of water takes place.
AA hypertonichypertonic solution is more concentrated than plasma, andsolution is more concentrated than plasma, andwater moves towards the extracellular compartment.water moves towards the extracellular compartment.
AA hypotonichypotonic solution is less concentrated than plasma, andsolution is less concentrated than plasma, andwater moves towards the intracellular compartmentwater moves towards the intracellular compartment
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OsmosisOsmosis
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Filtration and FacilitatedFiltration and Facilitated
DiffusionDiffusion FiltrationFiltration is the passage of a solution through a membrane inis the passage of a solution through a membrane in
response to a mechanical pressure difference, such as bloodresponse to a mechanical pressure difference, such as blood
pressure, across a membrane.pressure, across a membrane.
Facilitated diffusionFacilitated diffusion is a mediated transport process thatis a mediated transport process that
moves substances into or out of cells from a high to a lowmoves substances into or out of cells from a high to a low
concentration by means of channel proteins or carrier proteins.concentration by means of channel proteins or carrier proteins.
CarriersCarriers are protein molecules which bind with materials to beare protein molecules which bind with materials to betransported, whiletransported, while channelschannels are proteins that span the width ofare proteins that span the width of
the plasma membrane and are equipped with small conduitsthe plasma membrane and are equipped with small conduits
at the center to allow passage of molecules.at the center to allow passage of molecules.
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Active TransportActive Transport
Active transportActive transport can move substances from a low to a highcan move substances from a low to a high
concentration, and requires adenosine triphosphate (ATP).concentration, and requires adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
AnAn exchange pumpexchange pump is an active transport mechanism thatis an active transport mechanism thatsimultaneously moves two substances in opposite directionssimultaneously moves two substances in opposite directions
across the cell membrane.across the cell membrane.
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Endocytosis and ExocytosisEndocytosis and Exocytosis
EndocytosisEndocytosis is the movement of materials into cells by theis the movement of materials into cells by the
formations of a vesicle.formations of a vesicle.
P
hagocytosisP
hagocytosis is the movement of solid material intois the movement of solid material intocells by the formation of a vesicle.cells by the formation of a vesicle.
PinocytosisPinocytosis is similar to phagocytosis, except that theis similar to phagocytosis, except that the
material ingested is much smaller and is in solution.material ingested is much smaller and is in solution.
ExocytosisExocytosis is the secretion of materials from cells by vesicleis the secretion of materials from cells by vesicleformation.formation.
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Organelles and Cell FunctionsOrganelles and Cell Functions
NUCLEUSNUCLEUS is surrounded by a nuclear envelope which isis surrounded by a nuclear envelope which is
bilayered and equipped with nuclear pores. DNA andbilayered and equipped with nuclear pores. DNA and
associated proteins are found inside the nucleus.associated proteins are found inside the nucleus.
NUCLEOLINUCLEOLI consist of RNA and proteins and are theconsist of RNA and proteins and are the
sites of ribosomal unit assembly. Ribosomes are the sites ofsites of ribosomal unit assembly. Ribosomes are the sites of
protein synthesisprotein synthesis
ROUGH ERROUGH ER is endoplasmic reticulum with ribosomesis endoplasmic reticulum with ribosomesattached. It is a major site of protein synthesis.attached. It is a major site of protein synthesis.
SMOOTH ERSMOOTH ER does not have ribosomes attached and is adoes not have ribosomes attached and is a
site for lipid synthesissite for lipid synthesis
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Organelles and Cell FunctionsOrganelles and Cell Functions
GOLGI APPARATUSGOLGI APPARATUS is a series of closely packedis a series of closely packedmembrane sacs that function to concentrate and package intomembrane sacs that function to concentrate and package intosecretory vesicles the lipids and proteins produced by the ER.secretory vesicles the lipids and proteins produced by the ER.
SECRETORY VESICLESSECRETORY VESICLES are membraneare membrane--bound sacsbound sacsthat carry substances from theGolgi apparatus to the plasmathat carry substances from theGolgi apparatus to the plasmamembrane, where the vesicle contents are released bymembrane, where the vesicle contents are released byexocytosis.exocytosis.
LYSOSOMESLYSOSOMES are membraneare membrane--bound sacs containingbound sacs containingenzymes for digestion of phagocytized material.enzymes for digestion of phagocytized material.
MITOCHONDRIAMITOCHONDRIA are the major sites of ATPare the major sites of ATPproduction.production.
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Organelles and Cell FunctionsOrganelles and Cell Functions
MICROTUBULESMICROTUBULES are hollow tubes that support theare hollow tubes that support the
cytoplasm and are components of cilia and flagella.cytoplasm and are components of cilia and flagella.
CILIACILIA move substances over the surface of cells.move substances over the surface of cells.
FLAGELLAFLAGELLA are much longer than cilia and propel cells toare much longer than cilia and propel cells to
allow for cellular locomotion.allow for cellular locomotion.
MICROVILLIMICROVILLI increase the surface area of cells and aid inincrease the surface area of cells and aid in
absorption. They are non motile cellular projections.absorption. They are non motile cellular projections.
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CELL DIVISIONCELL DIVISION
Cell division occurs byCell division occurs by MITOSISMITOSIS in all tissues except those thatin all tissues except those thatproduce reproductive cells; mitosis produces new cells forproduce reproductive cells; mitosis produces new cells forgrowth and tissue repair.growth and tissue repair.
DNA replicates duringDNA replicates during interphaseinterphase, the time between cell, the time between celldivisions.divisions.
Mitosis is divided into four stages:Mitosis is divided into four stages:
ProphaseProphase
MetaphaseMetaphase
AnaphaseAnaphase
TelophaseTelophase
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ProphaseProphase
DuringDuring prophaseprophase, each chromosome consists of two chromatids joined, each chromosome consists of two chromatids joined
at the centromere.at the centromere.
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MetaphaseMetaphase
AtAt metaphasemetaphase, the chromosomes align at the center of the cell as the, the chromosomes align at the center of the cell as the
nuclear membrane disintegrates and the spindle fibers begin tonuclear membrane disintegrates and the spindle fibers begin to
form.form.
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AnaphaseAnaphase
The chromatids separate at the centromere as the spindle fibers formThe chromatids separate at the centromere as the spindle fibers form
duringduring anaphaseanaphase. The chromatids start to migrate to the opposite. The chromatids start to migrate to the opposite
poles.poles.
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TelophaseTelophase
DuringDuring telophasetelophase, the two nuclei assume their normal structure and, the two nuclei assume their normal structure and
cell division is completed with the formation of the cleavage furrowcell division is completed with the formation of the cleavage furrow
as two new daughter cells are produced.as two new daughter cells are produced.
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CELL DIFFERENTIATIONCELL DIFFERENTIATION
DifferentiationDifferentiation, the process by which cells develop, the process by which cells develop
specialized structures and functions, results from thespecialized structures and functions, results from theselective activation and inactivation of the DNA.selective activation and inactivation of the DNA.
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HISTOLOGY
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TissuesTissues
AA tissuetissue is a group of cells with similar structure andis a group of cells with similar structure and
function, plus the extracellular substances located between thefunction, plus the extracellular substances located between the
cells.cells.
HistologyHistology is the study of tissues.is the study of tissues.
Tissues generally fall into one of four categories:Tissues generally fall into one of four categories:
EpithelialEpithelial
ConnectiveConnective
MuscularMuscular
NervousNervous
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Epithelial TissueEpithelial Tissue
EpithelialEpithelial tissues cover surfaces, usually have a basementtissues cover surfaces, usually have a basement
membrane, little extracellular material, and no blood vessels.membrane, little extracellular material, and no blood vessels.
Simple epitheliumSimple epithelium has one layer of cells and is involved withhas one layer of cells and is involved with
diffusion, secretion or absorption.diffusion, secretion or absorption.
Stratified epitheliumStratified epithelium has more than one layer of cells andhas more than one layer of cells and
serves a protective role.serves a protective role.
Pseudostratified epitheliumPseudostratified epithelium is simple epithelium that appearsis simple epithelium that appearsto have two or more cell layers.to have two or more cell layers.
TransitionalTransitional epitheliumepithelium is stratified epithelium that can beis stratified epithelium that can be
greatly stretched.greatly stretched.
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Epithelial TissueEpithelial Tissue
Squamous epitheliumSquamous epithelium is composed of flat cells.is composed of flat cells.
Cuboidal epitheliumCuboidal epithelium is composed of cubeis composed of cube--like cells which arelike cells which are
as tall as they are wide.as tall as they are wide.
Columnar epitheliumColumnar epithelium is composed of cells that are tall andis composed of cells that are tall and
thin.thin.
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Epithelial TissueEpithelial Tissue
TYPE FUNCTION LOCATION
Simple Squamous Diffusion, filtration, protection
against friction.
Lining of blood vessels,
heart, lymph vessels, and
serous membranes, alveoli
of lungs and kidney tubules.
Simple Cuboidal Secretion and absorption bycells of the kidney tubules;
secretion by cells of glands
and choroid plexus;
movement of mucus-
containing particles.
Kidney tubules, glands and
their ducts, choroid plexusof the brain, terminal
bronchioles of lungs, and
surface of the ovaries and
retina.
Simple Columnar Secretion by cells of thestomach, intestines, and
glands; absorption by cells of
the intestine; movement of
mucus by ciliated cells;
movement of egg through
fallopian tubes.
Stomach, intestines, glands,
some ducts, bronchioles of
lungs, auditory tubes,
uterus, and uterine tubes.
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Epithelial TissueEpithelial Tissue
TYPE FUNCTION LOCATION
Stratified
Squamous
Protection against abrasions
and infections.
Skin, mouth, throat,
esophagus, anus, vagina
and cornea.
Pseudostratified Movement of mucus (or fluid)
that contains foreignparticles.
Nasal cavity, paranasal
sinuses, auditory tubes,
pharynx, larynx, trachea andbronchi of the lungs.
Transitional Accomodation of fluid
fluctuations in an organ or
tube; protection against the
caustic effects of urine.
Urinary bladder, ureters and
superior urethra.
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Connective TissueConnective Tissue
ConnectiveConnective tissue holds cells and tissues together.tissue holds cells and tissues together.
General components of connective tissues includeGeneral components of connective tissues include cellscells andand
extracellular matrixextracellular matrix..
The extracellular matrix consists ofThe extracellular matrix consists of protein fibers, groundprotein fibers, ground
substancesubstance, and, and fluidfluid..
The cellular components of connective tissues are generallyThe cellular components of connective tissues are generally
classified asclassified as blast cellsblast cells (form the matrix),(form the matrix), cytescytes (maintain the(maintain thematrix), andmatrix), and clast cellsclast cells (break down the matrix).(break down the matrix).
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Connective Tissue ClassificationsConnective Tissue Classifications
Protein Fibers as thePrimary Feature of the ExtracellularProtein Fibers as thePrimary Feature of the Extracellular
MatrixMatrix
Dense connective tissueDense connective tissue
Loose connective tissueLoose connective tissue
Adipose tissueAdipose tissue
Protein Fibers andGround Substance as thePrimaryProtein Fibers andGround Substance as thePrimary
Features of the Extracellular MatrixFeatures of the Extracellular Matrix
CartilageCartilage
BoneBone
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Connective Tissue ClassificationsConnective Tissue Classifications
Fluid as the Extracellular MatrixFluid as the Extracellular Matrix
BloodBlood
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Connective TissueConnective Tissue
TYPE FUNCTION LOCATION
Dense Connective Able to withstand great
pulling forces in the direction
of fiber orientation.
Tendons (attach muscle to
bone), ligaments (attach
bone to bones), dermis of
the skin, and organ capsule.
Loose, or Areolar Loose packing, support, andnourishment for the
structures with which it is
associated.
Widely distributed
throughout the body, it is
the substance on which
most epithelial tissue rests.
It is the packing between
glands, muscles, and nerves
and attaches the skin
(dermis) to the underlying
tissues.
Adipose Tissue Energy storage, packingmaterial that provides
protection and heat insulator.
Under the skin, aroundorgans such as the heart
and kidneys, in the breasts
and in bones.
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Connective TissueConnective Tissue
TYPE FUNCTION LOCATION
Cartilage Hyaline cartilage forms
smooth surfaces in joints, a
site of bone growth, and the
embryonic skeleton.
Fibrocartilage can withstand
great pressure. Elastic
cartilage returns to original
shape when bent.
Hyaline cartilage is found in
the costal cartilages of ribs,
cartilage rings of the
respiratory tract, nasal
cartilages, covering the ends
of bones, epiphyseal plates
of bones, the the embryonic
skeleton. Fibrocartilage is
found in intervertebral disks,
symphysis pubis, and
articular disks (menisci of
knees). Elastic cartilage is
found in the external ear.
Bone Provides great strength and
support and protects internal
organs such as the brain.
Bones.
Blood Transports oxygen, carbon
dioxide, hormones, nutrients,
waste products and other
substances.
Within the blood vessels
and heart.
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MembranesMembranes
Mucous membranesMucous membranes line cavities that open to the outside of theline cavities that open to the outside of the
body (digestive, respiratory, excretory, and reproductive tracts).body (digestive, respiratory, excretory, and reproductive tracts).
They contain glands and secrete mucus.They contain glands and secrete mucus.
SerousSerous membranesmembranes link trunk cavities that do not open to thelink trunk cavities that do not open to the
outside of the body (pleural, pericardial and peritonealoutside of the body (pleural, pericardial and peritoneal
cavities). They do not contain glands, but do secrete serouscavities). They do not contain glands, but do secrete serous
fluid.fluid.
Other membranes include theOther membranes include the cutaneouscutaneous (skin),(skin), synovialsynovial
(joints), and(joints), and periosteumperiosteum (around bones).(around bones).
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Muscle TissueMuscle Tissue
MUSCLE
TYPE
STRIATED? VOLUNTARY? INTERCALATED
DISKS?
NUCLEUS
Skeletal
muscle
Yes Yes No Multi
Cardiac
muscle
Yes No Yes One
Smooth
muscle
No No No One
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Nervous TissueNervous Tissue
NervousNervous tissue forms the brain, spinal cord, and nerves. It istissue forms the brain, spinal cord, and nerves. It isresponsible for coordinating and controlling many of the bodysresponsible for coordinating and controlling many of the bodysactivities.activities.
Consists ofConsists of neuronsneurons, which are responsible for the action, which are responsible for the actionpotential conduction, and support cells.potential conduction, and support cells. NeurogliaNeuroglia are theare thesupport cells of the nervous system, and they function tosupport cells of the nervous system, and they function tonourish, protect, and insulate the neurons.nourish, protect, and insulate the neurons.
The neuron is composed of theThe neuron is composed of the cell bodycell body which is the site ofwhich is the site ofgeneral cell functions,general cell functions, dendritesdendrites which usually receive actionwhich usually receive actionpotentials, andpotentials, and axonsaxons which usually conducts action potentialswhich usually conducts action potentialsaway from the cell body.away from the cell body.
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InflammationInflammation
The function of the inflammatory response is toThe function of the inflammatory response is to isolate andisolate and
destroydestroy harmful agents.harmful agents.
The inflammatory response produces five symptoms:The inflammatory response produces five symptoms: ruborrubor
(redness),(redness), dolordolor (pain),(pain), calorcalor (heat),(heat), tumortumor (swelling), and(swelling), and
disturbance of functiondisturbance of function..
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Tissue RepairTissue Repair
Tissue repairTissue repair is the substitution of viable cells for dead cells.is the substitution of viable cells for dead cells.
Tissue repair occurs byTissue repair occurs by regenerationregeneration oror replacementreplacement..
LabileLabile cells divide throughout life and can undergocells divide throughout life and can undergo
regeneration.regeneration.
StableStable cells do not ordinarily divide but can regenerate ifcells do not ordinarily divide but can regenerate if
necessary.necessary.
PermanentPermanent cells do not divide, and if killed, repair is bycells do not divide, and if killed, repair is byreplacement.replacement.
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Tissue RepairTissue Repair
Repair byRepair by primary unionprimary union occurs when the edges of a woundoccurs when the edges of a wound
are close together. Healing is fast and is mostly accomplishedare close together. Healing is fast and is mostly accomplished
by the regeneration of dead or injured cells.by the regeneration of dead or injured cells.
Repair byRepair by secondary unionsecondary union occurs when the edges are fartheroccurs when the edges are farther
apart. Healing is usually slow and retarded and is mainlyapart. Healing is usually slow and retarded and is mainly
accomplished by a combination of regeneration andaccomplished by a combination of regeneration and
replacement. The resulting tissue is usually of a differentreplacement. The resulting tissue is usually of a different
structural appearance and of lesser stability compared to thestructural appearance and of lesser stability compared to the
original tissue.original tissue.
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THEINTEGUMENTARY
SYSTEM
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The HypodermisThe Hypodermis
TheThe hypodermishypodermis is loose connective tissue that contains aboutis loose connective tissue that contains about
half the bodys stored fat, although the amount and locationhalf the bodys stored fat, although the amount and location
vary with age, sex, and diet.vary with age, sex, and diet.
Fat in the hypodermis functions as padding and insulation,Fat in the hypodermis functions as padding and insulation,
and it is responsible for some of the structural differencesand it is responsible for some of the structural differences
between men and women.between men and women.
The hypodermis can be used to estimate total body fat. TheThe hypodermis can be used to estimate total body fat. Theskin and hypodermis are pinched at selected locations, and theskin and hypodermis are pinched at selected locations, and the
thickness of the fold is measured. Clinically, the hypodermisthickness of the fold is measured. Clinically, the hypodermis
is the site of subcutaneous injections.is the site of subcutaneous injections.
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The SkinThe Skin
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The EpidermisThe Epidermis
TheThe epidermisepidermis is stratified squamous epithelium separatedis stratified squamous epithelium separatedfrom the dermis by a basement membrane.from the dermis by a basement membrane.
Cells are produced in the deepest layers of the epidermis byCells are produced in the deepest layers of the epidermis by
mitosis. As new cells are formed, they push older cells to themitosis. As new cells are formed, they push older cells to thesurface where they slough or flake off.surface where they slough or flake off.
The outermost cells protect the cells underneath, and theThe outermost cells protect the cells underneath, and thedeeper replicating cells replace cells lost from the surface.deeper replicating cells replace cells lost from the surface.
During the movement, the cells undergoDuring the movement, the cells undergo keratinizationkeratinization, a, aprocess that changes the cells shape and chemical compositionprocess that changes the cells shape and chemical compositionand cells eventually die where they produce an outer layer thatand cells eventually die where they produce an outer layer thatresists abrasion and forms a permeability barrier.resists abrasion and forms a permeability barrier.
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The EpidermisThe Epidermis
TheThe stratum basalestratum basale is the deepest stratum consisting ofis the deepest stratum consisting of
columnar cells that undergo mitotic divisions approximatelycolumnar cells that undergo mitotic divisions approximately
every 10 days. One daughter call can divide again whileevery 10 days. One daughter call can divide again while
pushing the older cell toward the surface, a journey that takespushing the older cell toward the surface, a journey that takesabout 40 to 56 days.about 40 to 56 days.
TheThe stratum spinosumstratum spinosum lies one top of the basal cell layer andlies one top of the basal cell layer and
is composed of spindly shaped older cells.is composed of spindly shaped older cells.
TheThe stratum granulosumstratum granulosum has a granular cytoplasmhas a granular cytoplasm
corresponding to keratin proteins that initiate the process ofcorresponding to keratin proteins that initiate the process of
keratinization.keratinization.
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The EpidermisThe Epidermis
TheThe stratum lucidumstratum lucidum is a clear layer of cells that have begunis a clear layer of cells that have begun
to die.to die.
TheThe stratum corneumstratum corneum is the outermost layer that consists ofis the outermost layer that consists of
dead, squamous cornified cells that have undergonedead, squamous cornified cells that have undergone
keratinization. These cells are filled with the hard proteinkeratinization. These cells are filled with the hard protein
keratin, which gives the stratum corneum its structuralkeratin, which gives the stratum corneum its structural
strength. The cornified cells are also coated and surroundedstrength. The cornified cells are also coated and surrounded
by lipids that help prevent fluid loss through the skin.by lipids that help prevent fluid loss through the skin.
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The DermisThe Dermis
TheThe dermisdermis is dense connective tissue with fibroblasts, a fewis dense connective tissue with fibroblasts, a fewfat cells, and macrophages.fat cells, and macrophages.
It is divided into two indistinct layers: the deeperIt is divided into two indistinct layers: the deeper reticularreticular
layer, and the more superficiallayer, and the more superficial papillarypapillary layer.layer. TheThe reticularreticular is the main fibrous layer of the dermis andis the main fibrous layer of the dermis and
consists of collagen and elastic fibers and is responsible forconsists of collagen and elastic fibers and is responsible formost of the structural strength of the skin. It also producesmost of the structural strength of the skin. It also produces
thethe cleavagecleavage oror tensiontension lines, and the skin is most resistant tolines, and the skin is most resistant tostretch along the cleavage lines.stretch along the cleavage lines. StretchStretch marks are alsomarks are alsoproduced as a result of stretching of the dermis withproduced as a result of stretching of the dermis withrearrangement of the collagen and elastic fibers.rearrangement of the collagen and elastic fibers.
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The DermisThe Dermis
TheThe papillarypapillary layer derives its name from projections calledlayer derives its name from projections called
papillae that extend into the epidermis. The papillae of thepapillae that extend into the epidermis. The papillae of the
hands, the soles of the feet, the tips of the digits are in parallelhands, the soles of the feet, the tips of the digits are in parallel
curving ridges that shape the overlying epidermis intocurving ridges that shape the overlying epidermis intofingerprints and footprints. The ridges increase friction andfingerprints and footprints. The ridges increase friction and
improve the grip of the hands and feet.improve the grip of the hands and feet.
TheThe papillarypapillary layer contains many blood vessels that supplylayer contains many blood vessels that supply
the overlying avascular epidermis with nutrients, remove wastethe overlying avascular epidermis with nutrients, remove waste
products, and aid in regulating temperature.products, and aid in regulating temperature.
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Skin ColorSkin Color
Skin color is determined by: (1)Skin color is determined by: (1) pigmentspigments in the skin, (2)in the skin, (2)
bloodblood circulating through the skin, and (3)circulating through the skin, and (3) thicknessthickness of theof the
stratum corneum.stratum corneum.
MelaninMelanin is a brown to black pigment, responsible for mostis a brown to black pigment, responsible for most
skin color. It is produced byskin color. It is produced by melanocytesmelanocytes in the stratumin the stratum
basale.basale.
Melanin production is determined by: (1)Melanin production is determined by: (1) genetic factorsgenetic factors, (2), (2)hormoneshormones, and (3), and (3) exposure to lightexposure to light..
The location of pigments and other substances in the skin alsoThe location of pigments and other substances in the skin also
affects the color produced.affects the color produced.
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Skin ColorSkin Color
CaroteneCarotene is a yellow pigment found in plants such as squashis a yellow pigment found in plants such as squashand carrots. It is lipid soluble, and when consumed, itand carrots. It is lipid soluble, and when consumed, itaccumulates in the skin. This gives the skin a slight yellowishaccumulates in the skin. This gives the skin a slight yellowish
tint.tint. Blood flowing through the skin imparts a reddish hue, andBlood flowing through the skin imparts a reddish hue, and
when blood flow increases, the red color intensifies.when blood flow increases, the red color intensifies.
A decrease in blood flow can make the skin appear pale.A decrease in blood flow can make the skin appear pale.
CyanosisCyanosis is produced by decreased oxygen content in the blood.is produced by decreased oxygen content in the blood. BirthmarksBirthmarks are also variations in skin color produced by aare also variations in skin color produced by a
combination of any of the aforementioned factors.combination of any of the aforementioned factors.
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HairHair
HairsHairs are columns of dead, keratinized epithelial cells. Eachare columns of dead, keratinized epithelial cells. Each
hair consists of ahair consists of a shaftshaft (above the skin),(above the skin), rootroot (below the skin),(below the skin),
andand hair bulbhair bulb (site of hair cell formation).(site of hair cell formation).
Hairs have a growth phase and a resting phase which varyHairs have a growth phase and a resting phase which vary
depending on the location of the hair. Eyelashes have adepending on the location of the hair. Eyelashes have a
growth phase of 30 days and a resting phase of 105 days.growth phase of 30 days and a resting phase of 105 days.
Hairs in the scalp, on the other hand, have a growth phase ofHairs in the scalp, on the other hand, have a growth phase of
3 years and a resting phase of 1 to 2 years.3 years and a resting phase of 1 to 2 years.
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HairHair
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MusclesMuscles
Associated with each hair follicle are smooth muscle cells, theAssociated with each hair follicle are smooth muscle cells, the
arrector piliarrector pili..
Contraction of the arrector pili causes the hair to stand onContraction of the arrector pili causes the hair to stand on
end and also produces a raised area of skin calledgooseend and also produces a raised area of skin calledgoose
flesh orgoose bumps.flesh orgoose bumps.
This is a vestigial structure in humans and serves noThis is a vestigial structure in humans and serves no
significant function.significant function.
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MusclesMuscles
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GlandsGlands
The major glands of the skin are theThe major glands of the skin are the sebaceous glandssebaceous glands and theand the
sweat glandssweat glands..
MostMost sebaceous glandssebaceous glands are connected by a duct to the upperare connected by a duct to the upper
part of a hair follicle. They produce sebum, an oily, whitepart of a hair follicle. They produce sebum, an oily, white
substance rich in liquids which lubricate the hair and thesubstance rich in liquids which lubricate the hair and the
surface of the skin and prevent drying and protect againstsurface of the skin and prevent drying and protect against
some bacteria.some bacteria.
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GlandsGlands
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GlandsGlands
There are two kinds ofThere are two kinds of sweat glandssweat glands..
MerocrineMerocrine sweat glands are located in almost every part of thesweat glands are located in almost every part of theskin, most numerous in the palms and soles, produce askin, most numerous in the palms and soles, produce a
secretion that is mostly water with a few salts, and have asecretion that is mostly water with a few salts, and have aduct that opens onto the surface of the skin through sweatduct that opens onto the surface of the skin through sweatpores.pores.
ApocrineApocrine sweat glands produce thick secretion rich in organicsweat glands produce thick secretion rich in organic
substances, open into hair follicles in the axillae and genitalia,substances, open into hair follicles in the axillae and genitalia,become active at puberty under the influence of sex hormones,become active at puberty under the influence of sex hormones,and with secretions that are broken down by bacteria, thusand with secretions that are broken down by bacteria, thusproducing the typical body odor.producing the typical body odor.
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GlandsGlands
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NailsNails
TheThe nailsnails are evolutionary equivalents of the avian talons,are evolutionary equivalents of the avian talons,
mammalian claws, and equine hooves.mammalian claws, and equine hooves.
They are extension of the skin and are similar in nature toThey are extension of the skin and are similar in nature to
the hairs.the hairs.
The nail consists of the nail body and nail root.The nail consists of the nail body and nail root.
The nail matrix produces the nail, which is stratum corneumThe nail matrix produces the nail, which is stratum corneum
containing hard keratin.containing hard keratin.
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Functions of the SkinFunctions of the Skin
PROTECTIONPROTECTION
Prevents the entry of microorganismsPrevents the entry of microorganisms
Acts as a permeability barrierActs as a permeability barrier
Provides protection against abrasion and ultraviolet light.Provides protection against abrasion and ultraviolet light.
TEMPERATURE REGULATIONTEMPERATURE REGULATION
Dilation and constriction of blood vesselsDilation and constriction of blood vessels
Evaporation of sweat glandsEvaporation of sweat glands VITAMIND PRODUCTIONVITAMIND PRODUCTION
SENSATIONSENSATION
EXCRETIONEXCRETION
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Functions of the SkinFunctions of the Skin
DIAGNOSTIC AIDDIAGNOSTIC AID
The integumentary system is easily observed and oftenThe integumentary system is easily observed and often
reflects events occurring in other parts of the body (forreflects events occurring in other parts of the body (for
example, cyanosis, jaundice, rashes).example, cyanosis, jaundice, rashes).
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Effects of Aging on the SkinEffects of Aging on the Skin
Blood flow to the skin is reduced, making the skin thinnerBlood flow to the skin is reduced, making the skin thinner
and more transparent.and more transparent.
Skin is more easily damaged and repairs more slowly becauseSkin is more easily damaged and repairs more slowly because
of decreased amounts of collagen in the dermis.of decreased amounts of collagen in the dermis.
Loss of elastic fibers and fat from the hypodermis cause theLoss of elastic fibers and fat from the hypodermis cause the
skin to sag and wrinkle.skin to sag and wrinkle.
Skin becomes dry because of the decreased activity of sebaceousSkin becomes dry because of the decreased activity of sebaceousand sweat glands.and sweat glands.
The number of melanocytes generally decreases, but in someThe number of melanocytes generally decreases, but in some
areas, the number increases producing age spots.areas, the number increases producing age spots.
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THE SKELETALSYSTEM
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The Skeletal SystemThe Skeletal System
TheThe skeletal systemskeletal system consists of bones and their associatedconsists of bones and their associatedconnective tissues, including cartilage, tendons and ligaments.connective tissues, including cartilage, tendons and ligaments.
It helps maintain the shape of the body, protects, organs, andIt helps maintain the shape of the body, protects, organs, and
provides a system of levers upon which muscles act to produceprovides a system of levers upon which muscles act to producebody movements.body movements.
Bone also functions as a site for mineral storage and blood cellBone also functions as a site for mineral storage and blood cellformation.formation.
CartilageCartilage is rigid but more flexible than bone and isis rigid but more flexible than bone and isabundant in the embryo and fetus where it provides a modelabundant in the embryo and fetus where it provides a modelfor most of the adult bones and a major site for skeletalfor most of the adult bones and a major site for skeletalgrowth in the embryo.growth in the embryo.
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The Skeletal SystemThe Skeletal System
Cartilage also provides a firm yet flexible support withinCartilage also provides a firm yet flexible support within
certain structures such as the nose, external ear, ribs andcertain structures such as the nose, external ear, ribs and
trachea.trachea.
TendonsTendons andand ligamentsligaments are strong bands of fibrous connectiveare strong bands of fibrous connective
tissue: tendons attach muscles to bones, and ligaments attachtissue: tendons attach muscles to bones, and ligaments attach
bones to bones.bones to bones.
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Bone Connective TissueBone Connective Tissue
Bone connective tissue consists of cells separated from eachBone connective tissue consists of cells separated from eachother by an extracellular matrix.other by an extracellular matrix.
OsteoblastsOsteoblasts (bone) and(bone) and chondroblastschondroblasts (cartilage) produce the(cartilage) produce the
matrix,matrix, osteocytesosteocytes (bone) and(bone) and chondrocyteschondrocytes (cartilage)(cartilage)maintain the matrix, andmaintain the matrix, and osteoclastsosteoclasts (bone) and(bone) and chondroclastschondroclasts(cartilage) destroy and remodel and matrix.(cartilage) destroy and remodel and matrix.
Bone matrix is mineralized and reinforced by calcium andBone matrix is mineralized and reinforced by calcium and
phosphate deposits. Cartilage matrix, on the other hand isphosphate deposits. Cartilage matrix, on the other hand isnot mineralized but is rich in collagen fibers that lend flexiblenot mineralized but is rich in collagen fibers that lend flexiblestrength to the matrix.strength to the matrix.
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General Features ofBonesGeneral Features ofBones
There are four types of bones, described by their shape asThere are four types of bones, described by their shape as long,long,short, flatshort, flat andand irregularirregular..
Each long bone consists of a shaft called theEach long bone consists of a shaft called the diaphysisdiaphysis, and an, and an
epiphysisepiphysis at each end of the bone. During growth of a longat each end of the bone. During growth of a longbone, a cartilaginousbone, a cartilaginous epiphyseal plateepiphyseal plate or growth plate is theor growth plate is thesite of growth in length. When bone growth stops, thesite of growth in length. When bone growth stops, theepiphyseal plate is replaced by bone and is called theepiphyseal plate is replaced by bone and is called the
epiphyseal lineepiphyseal line.. Bones contain cavities such as the largeBones contain cavities such as the large medullary cavitymedullary cavity inin
the diaphysis, and the smaller cavities in the epiphyses of longthe diaphysis, and the smaller cavities in the epiphyses of longbones and in the interior of other bones.bones and in the interior of other bones.
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General Features ofBonesGeneral Features ofBones
The medullary cavities of bones are filled with eitherThe medullary cavities of bones are filled with either yellowyellow ororred marrowred marrow..
The outer surface of bone is covered by a connective tissue layerThe outer surface of bone is covered by a connective tissue layer
called thecalled the periosteumperiosteum which contains blood vessels and nerves.which contains blood vessels and nerves. The surface of the medullary cavity is lined with a thinnerThe surface of the medullary cavity is lined with a thinner
connective tissue membrane, theconnective tissue membrane, the endosteumendosteum..
There are two major types of bones:There are two major types of bones: compact bonecompact bone which iswhich is
mostly solid matrix and cells with few spaces, andmostly solid matrix and cells with few spaces, and cancellouscancellousbonebone which has many spaces within a lacy network of bone.which has many spaces within a lacy network of bone.
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General Features ofBonesGeneral Features ofBones
Compact boneCompact bone tissue consists of Haversian systems which aretissue consists of Haversian systems which are
actually osteocytes organized into lamellae surroundingactually osteocytes organized into lamellae surrounding
Haversian canals.Haversian canals.
Cancellous boneCancellous bone tissue consists of trabeculae withouttissue consists of trabeculae without
Haversian canals.Haversian canals.
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Bone OssificationBone Ossification
INTRAMEMBRANOUSINTRAMEMBRANOUS
This is bone formation that occurs within connectiveThis is bone formation that occurs within connectivetissue membranes. It occurs when osteoblasts begin to producetissue membranes. It occurs when osteoblasts begin to produce
bone on the surface of connective tissue fibers and deposit bonebone on the surface of connective tissue fibers and deposit bonematrix to form trabeculae. This occurs primarily in the bonesmatrix to form trabeculae. This occurs primarily in the bonesof the skull.of the skull.
ENDOCHONRALENDOCHONRAL
This is bone formation that occurs within cartilage and isThis is bone formation that occurs within cartilage and isobserved in the base of the skull and most of the remainingobserved in the base of the skull and most of the remainingskeletal system. Cartilage cells proliferate, enlarge and dieskeletal system. Cartilage cells proliferate, enlarge and diewhile osteoblasts invade the spaces left by the dying cartilages.while osteoblasts invade the spaces left by the dying cartilages.
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Bone GrowthBone Growth
APPOSITIONALAPPOSITIONAL
This is growth of new bone on the surface of existingThis is growth of new bone on the surface of existing
bone. It results as the osteoblasts deposit bone matrix on thebone. It results as the osteoblasts deposit bone matrix on the
surface of bones between the periosteum and the existing bone.surface of bones between the periosteum and the existing bone.
ENDOCHONDRALENDOCHONDRAL
This occurs in the epiphyseal plate. Cartilage cellsThis occurs in the epiphyseal plate. Cartilage cells
proliferate in the epiphyseal plate, line up in columns parallelproliferate in the epiphyseal plate, line up in columns parallelto the long axis of the bone, causing elongation of the bone,to the long axis of the bone, causing elongation of the bone,
and then enlarge and die. The dying cartilage is replaced byand then enlarge and die. The dying cartilage is replaced by
osteoblasts, which start forming bone.osteoblasts, which start forming bone.
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Bone RemodelingBone Remodeling
Bone remodelingBone remodeling involves the removal of old bone by cellsinvolves the removal of old bone by cells
called thecalled the osteoclastsosteoclasts and the deposition of new bone byand the deposition of new bone by
osteoblastsosteoblasts..
Bone is the major storage site for calcium in the body. BloodBone is the major storage site for calcium in the body. Bloodcalcium levels depend on the release or storage of the mineralcalcium levels depend on the release or storage of the mineral
within the bone matrix.within the bone matrix.
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Bone RepairBone Repair
BONE INJURY
Blood vessels
bleed with
formation ofclot
Cells produce a
fibrous network
between the
broken bones
Cartilage is
produced within
the fibrous
network
Osteoblasts
enter the callus
and form
cancellous bone
Cancellous
bone is
replaced by
compact bone
BONE REPAIR
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Bone FracturesBone Fractures
BASED ON INTACTNESS OF SKINBASED ON INTACTNESS OF SKIN
Open (bone protrudes through an open wound)Open (bone protrudes through an open wound)
Closed (intact skin)Closed (intact skin)
BASED ONTRANSECTIONOFBONEBASED ONTRANSECTIONOFBONE
Complete (fracture complete separates the fragments)Complete (fracture complete separates the fragments)
Incomplete (fracture does not completely separate the bone)Incomplete (fracture does not completely separate the bone)
Hairline (fracture occurs within the substance of bone)Hairline (fracture occurs within the substance of bone) BASED ONNUMBER OF FRAGMENTSBASED ONNUMBER OF FRAGMENTS
Simple (bone separates cleanly in two fragments)Simple (bone separates cleanly in two fragments)
Comminuted (shattered fragments)Comminuted (shattered fragments)
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Bone FracturesBone Fractures
BASED ONSHAPE OF FRACTUREBASED ONSHAPE OF FRACTURE
Linear (parallel to the long axis)Linear (parallel to the long axis)
Transverse (at right angles to the long axisTransverse (at right angles to the long axis
Oblique (at an angle other than a right angle to the longOblique (at an angle other than a right angle to the long
axis)axis)
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Bone AnatomyBone Anatomy
There areThere are 206206 bones, which can be classified by shape and location.bones, which can be classified by shape and location.
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Bone AnatomyBone Anatomy
AXIAL SKELETONAXIAL SKELETON
SkullSkull
Vertebral columnVertebral column
Thoracic cageThoracic cage
APPENDICULAR SKELETONAPPENDICULAR SKELETON
Pectoral girdlePectoral girdle
Upper limbUpper limb
Pelvic girdlePelvic girdle
Lower limbLower limb
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Bone AnatomyBone Anatomy
ARTICULATIONSARTICULATIONS
Fibrous jointsFibrous joints
Cartilaginous jointsCartilaginous joints
Synovial jointsSynovial joints
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SkullSkull
TheThe skullskull consists of 22 bones, divided between the cranialconsists of 22 bones, divided between the cranial
vault and face.vault and face.
From a lateral view, the parietal, temporal, and sphenoidFrom a lateral view, the parietal, temporal, and sphenoid
bones can be seen.bones can be seen.
From a coronal view, the orbits, nasal cavity can be seen, asFrom a coronal view, the orbits, nasal cavity can be seen, as
well as associated bones and structures, such as the frontalwell as associated bones and structures, such as the frontal
bone, zygomatic bone, maxilla, and mandible.bone, zygomatic bone, maxilla, and mandible.
The interior of the cranial vault contains fossae.The interior of the cranial vault contains fossae.
From below, the base reveals numerous foramina andFrom below, the base reveals numerous foramina and
processes for muscle attachment.processes for muscle attachment.
Sk llSk ll (L l )(L l )
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SkullSkull (Lateral view)(Lateral view)
Mandible
Temporal
bone
Occipitalbone
Frontal
bone
Sphenoidbone
Zygomatic
bone
Zygomatic
arch
Parietal
bone
Sk llSk ll (F l i )(F l i )
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SkullSkull (Frontal view)(Frontal view)
Frontal
bone
Nasal
bone
Nasal
septum
Zygomatic
bone
Orbit
Lacrimal
bone
Maxilla
Mandible
V b l C lV b l C l
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Vertebral ColumnVertebral Column
TheThe vertebral columnvertebral column containscontains 7 cervical, 12 thoracic,7 cervical, 12 thoracic, andand 55
lumbarlumbar vertebrae, plusvertebrae, plus 1 sacral1 sacral andand 1 coccygeal1 coccygeal bone.bone.
Each vertebra consists of a body and an arch.Each vertebra consists of a body and an arch.
V b l C lV b l C l
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Vertebral ColumnVertebral Column
Cervical vertebraeCervical vertebrae have transverse foramina. With thehave transverse foramina. With the
exception of one vertebra, all cervical vertebrae have a body.exception of one vertebra, all cervical vertebrae have a body.
V b l C lV b l C l
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Vertebral ColumnVertebral Column
Thoracic vertebraeThoracic vertebrae have long spinous processes and attachmenthave long spinous processes and attachment
sites for ribs.sites for ribs.
V b l C lV b l C l
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Vertebral ColumnVertebral Column
Lumbar vertebraeLumbar vertebrae have square transverse processes andhave square transverse processes and
spinous processes.spinous processes.
V b l C lV b l C l
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Vertebral ColumnVertebral Column
TheThe sacrumsacrum is a single fused bone,is a single fused bone, while thewhile the coccyxcoccyx is theis the
vestigial tail bone in humans.vestigial tail bone in humans.
Th i CTh i C
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Thoracic CageThoracic Cage
TheThe thoracic cagethoracic cage consists of thoracic vertebrae, ribs, andconsists of thoracic vertebrae, ribs, and
sternum. There are 12sternum. There are 12 ribsribs: 7 true and 5 false ribs.: 7 true and 5 false ribs.
Th STh S
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The SternumThe Sternum
TheThe sternumsternum consists of theconsists of the manubrium, bodymanubrium, body andand xiphoidxiphoid
processprocess..
Th A di l Sk l tTh A di l Sk l t
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The Appendicular SkeletonThe Appendicular Skeleton
TheThe appendicularappendicular skeleton consists of the bones of theskeleton consists of the bones of the upperupper
andand lowerlower limbs, and theirlimbs, and their girdles.girdles.
TheThe pectoral girdlepectoral girdle includes theincludes the scapulascapula and theand the clavicleclavicle..
TheThe upper limbupper limb contains thecontains the humerushumerus, the, the radioradio--ulnaulna, the, the
carpal bonescarpal bones, the, the metacarpalsmetacarpals, and the, and the phalangesphalanges..
TheThe pelvic girdlepelvic girdle is made up of theis made up of the sacrumsacrum, and the, and the coxaecoxae
(ischium, ilium, pubis)(ischium, ilium, pubis)..
Th A di l Sk l tTh A di l Sk l t
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The Appendicular SkeletonThe Appendicular Skeleton
TheThe lower limblower limb includes theincludes the femurfemur, the, the tibiotibio--fibulafibula, the, the
tarsalstarsals, the, the metatarsalsmetatarsals, and the, and the phalangesphalanges..
A ti l tiA ti l ti
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ArticulationsArticulations
AnAn articulationarticulation oror jointjoint is a place where two bones comeis a place where two bones come
together. A joint is usually considered movable, but that istogether. A joint is usually considered movable, but that is
not always the case. Many joints exhibit limited movement,not always the case. Many joints exhibit limited movement,
and others are completely, or almost completely immovable.and others are completely, or almost completely immovable. Joints are classified according to the major connective tissueJoints are classified according to the major connective tissue
type that binds the bones together and whether there is a fluidtype that binds the bones together and whether there is a fluid--
filled joint capsule.filled joint capsule.
The three major classes of joints areThe three major classes of joints are fibrous, cartilaginousfibrous, cartilaginous,,
andand synovialsynovial..
Fibr J intFibr J int
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Fibrous JointsFibrous Joints
Fibrous jointsFibrous joints consist of bones united by cartilage, and theyconsist of bones united by cartilage, and they
exhibit slight movement.exhibit slight movement.
SuturesSutures are fibrous joints between the bones of the skull.are fibrous joints between the bones of the skull.
SyndesmosesSyndesmoses are fibrous joints where the bones are separatedare fibrous joints where the bones are separated
by some distance and are held together by ligaments.by some distance and are held together by ligaments.
GomphosesGomphoses consist of pegs fitted into sockets and held in placeconsist of pegs fitted into sockets and held in place
by ligaments.by ligaments.
C rtil ino s JointsC rtil ino s Joints
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Cartilaginous JointsCartilaginous Joints
Cartilaginous jointsCartilaginous joints unite two bones by means of cartilage.unite two bones by means of cartilage.
Only slight movement can occur at these joints. The cartilagesOnly slight movement can occur at these joints. The cartilages
between the ribs and sternum are examples.between the ribs and sternum are examples.
Synovial JointsSynovial Joints
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Synovial JointsSynovial Joints
Synovial jointsSynovial joints are freely movable joints that containare freely movable joints that contain synovialsynovial
fluidfluid in a cavity surrounding the ends of articulating bones.in a cavity surrounding the ends of articulating bones.
The articular surfaces of bones within synovial joints areThe articular surfaces of bones within synovial joints are
covered with a thin layer ofcovered with a thin layer of articular cartilagearticular cartilage,which provides,which providesa smooth surface where the bones meet.a smooth surface where the bones meet.
TheThe joint cavityjoint cavity is filled with synovial fluid.is filled with synovial fluid.
The cavity is enclosed by aThe cavity is enclosed by a joint capsulejoint capsule which helps to holdwhich helps to holdthe bones together and, at the same time, allows for movement.the bones together and, at the same time, allows for movement.
Synovial JointsSynovial Joints
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Synovial JointsSynovial Joints
AA synovial membranesynovial membrane lines the joint cartilage everywherelines the joint cartilage everywhere
except over the articular cartilage. The membrane producesexcept over the articular cartilage. The membrane produces
the synovial fluid which is a complex mixture ofthe synovial fluid which is a complex mixture of
polysaccharides, proteins, fats, and cells.polysaccharides, proteins, fats, and cells. In certain synovial joints, the synovial membrane may extendIn certain synovial joints, the synovial membrane may extend
as a pocket or sac, called aas a pocket or sac, called a bursabursa which functions to reducewhich functions to reduce
friction in areas where structures rub together, such as where afriction in areas where structures rub together, such as where a
tendon crosses a bone.tendon crosses a bone.
Synovial JointsSynovial Joints
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Synovial JointsSynovial Joints
PlanePlane oror glidinggliding joints consist of two opposed flat surfaces thatjoints consist of two opposed flat surfaces that
glide over each other (intervertebral joints).glide over each other (intervertebral joints).
Synovial JointsSynovial Joints
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Synovial JointsSynovial Joints
HingeHinge joints permit movement in one plane only. They consistjoints permit movement in one plane only. They consist
of a convex cylinder of one bone applied to a correspondingof a convex cylinder of one bone applied to a corresponding
concavity on the other bone (knee and elbow).concavity on the other bone (knee and elbow).
Synovial JointsSynovial Joints
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Synovial JointsSynovial Joints
SaddleSaddle joints consist of two saddlejoints consist of two saddle--shaped articulating surfacesshaped articulating surfaces
oriented at right angles to one another. Movement can occuroriented at right angles to one another. Movement can occur
in two planes (base of the thumb).in two planes (base of the thumb).
Synovial JointsSynovial Joints
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Synovial JointsSynovial Joints
PivotPivot joints restrict movement to rotation around a singlejoints restrict movement to rotation around a single
axis. Each pivot joint consists of a cylindrical bony processaxis. Each pivot joint consists of a cylindrical bony process
that rotates within a ring composed partly of bone and partlythat rotates within a ring composed partly of bone and partly
ligament (atlas and axis).ligament (atlas and axis).
Synovial JointsSynovial Joints
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Synovial JointsSynovial Joints
BallBall--andand--socketsocket joints consist of a ball (head) at the end ofjoints consist of a ball (head) at the end of
one bone, and a socket in an adjacent bone into which aone bone, and a socket in an adjacent bone into which a
portion of the ball fits. This allows for a wide range of motionportion of the ball fits. This allows for a wide range of motion
in almost any direction (shoulder and hip joints).in almost any direction (shoulder and hip joints).
Types of MovementTypes of Movement
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Types of MovementTypes of Movement
FlexionFlexion means to bend a joint.means to bend a joint.
ExtensionExtension refers to straightening of a joint.refers to straightening of a joint.
AbductionAbduction of most joints if movement away from the midline.of most joints if movement away from the midline.
AdductionAdduction is movement toward the midline.is movement toward the midline.
PronationPronation is rotation of the forearm so that the palm facesis rotation of the forearm so that the palm faces
posteriorly.posteriorly.
SupinationSupination is rotation of the forearm so that the palm facesis rotation of the forearm so that the palm facesanteriorly.anteriorly.
Types of MovementTypes of Movement
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Types of MovementTypes of Movement
RotationRotation is the turning of a structure around its long axis.is the turning of a structure around its long axis.
CircumductionCircumduction occurs at freely movable joints such as theoccurs at freely movable joints such as the
shoulder. In circumduction, the arm moves so that it describesshoulder. In circumduction, the arm moves so that it describes
a cone with the shoulder joint at the apex.a cone with the shoulder joint at the apex.