Post on 08-Jun-2022
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An Empirical Study of Training and Development, Psychological Capital,
Employee Job Satisfaction and Organizational Commitment in a Public
Organization: Evidence from The Gambia Revenue Authority
By
Awa Sillah
A Thesis Submitted to the
Graduate Faculty in Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree of
MASTER OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION
Major: International Human Resource Development
Advisor: Wei-Wen Chang, Ph. D.
National Taiwan Normal University
Taipei, Taiwan
June, 2015
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
"At times, our own light goes out and is rekindled by a spark from another person.
Each of us has cause to think with deep gratitude of those who have lighted the flame
within us." Albert Schweitzer
It is with humble but grateful heart I gave thanks and praises to Allah SWT for
giving me the health, strength, perseverance, and determination to complete this
thesis and for blessing me with the support of exceptional individuals. There are
many individuals who all played significant roles in the development and ultimate
completion of this thesis.
First and foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my advisor,
mentor, and IHRD mom Professor Vera Wei-Wen Chang for the continuous support
of my study and related research, for her patience, motivation, love, and immense
knowledge. She provided me with the perfect balance of mentoring and coaching to
complete this journey. Her guidance helped me in all the time of research and
writing of this thesis. I could not have imagined having a better advisor and mentor
for my graduate study.
I am also profoundly grateful for the invaluable input of my committee
members. Each committee member has uniquely contributed to the success of this
research. I would like to thank Dr. Tsai and Dr Pai-po Lee for their direction in
helping me to understand human resource development in public organizations. I am
also grateful for their sustained encouragement, insightful discussions and excellent
guidance. I am particularly grateful to all IHRD professors, for the help they
provided through their expertise and constructive advice. My profound gratitude and
great appreciation to Dr. Tony Shih, Dr Rosa Yeh, Dr Jane Lin, Dr Steven Lai, and
Professor Larry Miller who were more than generous with their time, and gave me
useful knowledge and unwavering support throughout my IHRD life. Most of all, I
am deeply grateful for the tireless efforts of the IHRD staff and ICDF program
managers, Kate, Tracy and Jessica, thank you for the outstanding dedication to our
needs. I would like to thank International Corporation and Development Fund
(ICDF) for the scholarship; I could not have completed this journey without them.
I am also deeply appreciative of all the motivation and encouragement I received
from my parent, to my Father Baba Matarr Sillah, who have given me with world and
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now, I want to give back to the world. To my Mama, Adama Susso, who never said I
could not do or be someone. If I could be half of the woman she is today, I would be
ecstatic. Completing this education journey is a true blessing. This success has not
been achieved in isolation, and I am grateful to my late mother, Kumba Kanteh who
provided prayers, support, and contribution of time, resources and guidance during
my academic journey. She was one of the few people who have always been there for
me through everything, and I know she was so proud of me to reach this day. May her
beautiful soul rest in eternal peace.
Life is somehow meaningless if what one does goes without positive effects on
lives of others. Again, I am grateful to my phenomenal husband, Darling Illo Jallow,
and In-laws who knew the timely words of affirmation and motivation that kept me
moving forward. Their support throughout this journey was priceless and will always
be recalled. To my sisters and brothers words cannot describe how much I love and
appreciate them. My Gratitude goes to my amazing twin sister; Adama Sillah, my
Khadijahs, and friend Fatou Bittaye, for their unwavering support in this endeavor. I
would like to extend a warm appreciation to relatives and comrades who have been
encouraging along the way and I will always be indebted for their unconditional love
they have given me throughout my entire academic career.
I am also immensely thankful to my fellow ‗‗IHRDers‘‘ and Classmates for the
stimulating discussions, for the times we spent working together, and for all the fun
we have had in the last two years. They all made this journey remarkable. Special
thanks to my incredible Helene Konkobo, my Chang family members (Rosy, Julie and
Fryda), Jeanine, Mariam, Fatou, Yankuba and Saikou Sanneh for the love, support,
and peer reviews.
Finally, this journey was enhanced by the contributions of The Gambia Revenue
Authority (GRA). I would like to proudly acknowledge the support of the staff for
their willingness to participate in my research. I owe a special thank you to Mr Essa
Jallow, GRA Human Resource Department, and Tax Audit Department for their
support all through the journey.
May Allah bless you all!!
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DEDICATION
I want to dedicate this thesis to the loving memory of my dear mother Nanding
Kumba Kanteh who instilled the values of diligence, persistence, and the importance
of helping others improve their lives. I am also dedicating this thesis to my Professor,
Wei-Wen Chang, my Sillah, and Jallow family. I finally dedicate this success to GRA
and all Employers, who devote their energies toward the development of their Human
Resources in order to attained and achieved positive work behaviors and
organizational objectives.
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ABSTRACT
A well-organised human resource development programme is a critical strategy for
public organizations, as in the coming years human capital will increasingly play a significant
role in organizational development. Notwithstanding, the human resource commitment and
turnover is one of the biggest concerns of organizations especially in the 21st century. This
study was conducted in The Gambia to explore strategies that public organizations could
consider for increasing employees‘ commitment behavior in order to achieve national
development mandates. Thus, this study departing from the emphasis in prior behavioral
research developed a framework of organizational commitment that incorporates training and
development, employee job satisfaction and psychological capital. The analyses of the data
collected from 257 employees of The Gambia Revenue Authority indicated that training and
development and organizational commitment are associated positively, and that, employee
job satisfaction and psychological capital partially mediates the relationship. This research
used a quantitative research paradigm, and prior to the data collection, the study adopted
validated measurement instruments from previous researchers who have conducted studies on
these constructs. Thus, to confirm their suitability, the instruments have gone through the
process of face validity, pilot study and construct reliability. The data was analyzed using
SPSS 22 and Amos to compute descriptive statistics, confirmatory factor analysis,
correlations, linear and multiple regressions. Thus, this study may lead to a better
understanding as regards to how human resource development practitioners can design
policies that may enhance organizational commitment behaviors in public enterprises. Based
on the results of this study, practical and theoretical implications were discussed.
Keywords: training and development, psychological capital, employee job satisfaction,
organizational commitment, Human Resource Development, Gambia Revenue Authority
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT .......................................................................................................... I
TABLE OF CONTENTS ..................................................................................... II
LISTS OF TABLES ............................................................................................IV
LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................. V
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION .......................................................................... 1
Research Background ............................................................................................................. 1
Problem Statement ................................................................................................................. 4
Research Purposes .................................................................................................................. 6
Research Questions ................................................................................................................ 7
Research Significance ............................................................................................................ 7
Delimitations .......................................................................................................................... 9
Definitions of Terms .............................................................................................................. 9
CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW .......................................................... 11
Training and Development ................................................................................................... 11
Psychological Capital ........................................................................................................... 15
Organizational Commitment ................................................................................................ 17
Employee Job Satisfaction ................................................................................................... 22
Relationship between the Variables ..................................................................................... 26
Overview of Training and Development of the Gambia Revenue Authority ...................... 35
CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHODS ......................................................... 37
Research Framework ............................................................................................................ 37
Research Procedure .............................................................................................................. 38
Research Instrument ............................................................................................................. 41
Reliability and Validity of the Instrument............................................................................ 45
Sample for the Study: The Gambia Revenue Authority ...................................................... 46
Method of Data Analysis...................................................................................................... 48
Pilot Study ............................................................................................................................ 50
CHAPTER IV RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS ............................................ 53
Descriptive Statistics ............................................................................................................ 53
Confirmatory Factor Analysis Results ................................................................................. 63
Hypothesis Tests .................................................................................................................. 67
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The Relationship between the Variables .............................................................................. 71
Discussions of the Findings ................................................................................................. 80
Demographics Variables Relationship with Study Variables .............................................. 85
CHAPTER V CONLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS ................................... 87
Conclusions .......................................................................................................................... 87
Theoretical and Practical Implications ................................................................................. 89
Research Recommendations ................................................................................................ 99
Limitations and Future Research........................................................................................ 102
Final Considerations ........................................................................................................... 104
REFERENCE .................................................................................................... 105
APENDIX A: QUESTIONAIRE ...................................................................... 119
APPENDIX B: QUESTIONNAIRES ITEMS CODING ................................. 125
IV
LISTS OF TABLES
Table 2.1 Definitions of Organizational Commitment…………….……………………….18
Table 2.2 Organizational Commitment Model……………………….…………………….21
Table 2.3 Definitions of Job Satisfaction...……………………..……….…………………….23
Table 2.4 Five facet of Hackman job description model…………….………..…………….26
Table 3.1 Research Hypotheses……………………………………….…………………….38
Table 3.2 Established Reliability of Variables……………………….….……….………….44
Table 3.3 Reliability Methods for this Research……..……………………………………..45
Table 3.4 Validity Methods for this Research………..……………………………………..45
Table 3.5 Reliability of variables…...…………….…………………………………………52
Table 4.1 Demographics Characteristics of the Sample…………………………………….54
Table 4.2 Descriptive Statistics for Training and Development …………………….…....56
Table 4.3 Descriptive Statistics for Organizational Commitment…………………………......58
Table 4.4 Descriptive Statistics for Employee Job Satisfaction ……………………………60
Table 4.5 Descriptive Statistics for Psychological Capital…….……………..…………….62
Table 4.6 Criteria for Evaluating CFA Results.……………………………………………..63
Table 4.7 Confirmatory factor Analysis for Training and Development……………..…….64
Table 4.8 Confirmatory factor Analysis for Organizational Commitment………….…….. 64
Table 4.9 Confirmatory factor Analysis for Psychological Capital…….. ………….……...65
Table 4.10 Confirmatory factor Analysis for Employee Job Satisfaction ………….…….....66
Table 4.11 Correlation Table………………….……………………..…………………...….70
Table 4.12 Multiple Regressions Analysis summaries of Training and Development
and Employee Job Satisfaction……………………………………………………………....71
Table 4.13 Multiple Regressions Analysis summaries of Training and Development
and Psychological Capital ……………………….………….……………………………....73
Table 4.14 Linear Regression Analysis summaries of Training and Development
and Organizational Commitment ………………………………………………...………….74
Table 4.15 Results for Employee Job Satisfaction Mediation on Training and
Organisational Commitment Relationship……………..………………………….………....76
Table 4.16 Results for Psychological Capital Mediation on Training and
Organisational Commitment Relationship…………………………………………………...77
Table 4.17 Summary of Analysis Results…………………..……………………………….79
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1 Psychological Capital Model………………………………………………...…..17
Figure 2.2 Hackman and Olham‘s Job Satifaction characteristics model…………………...25
Figure 3.1 Research Framework….……………………………………………………........37
Figure 3.2 Research Procedure ………..…………………………………………………….40
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“Human resources are like natural resources; they're often buried deep...You
have to create the circumstances where they show themselves.”
― Ken Robinson
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CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
This chapter provide an overall motivation for conducting this research. It gives an insight
of the study background, purposes, the questions that frames the investigation and the
significances of the research. The theoretical framework upon which the researcher addresses
the research questions was discussed and thereafter, delimitations were also stated. Finally,
the key terms were defined in order to provide a comprehensive focus of this entire study.
Research Background
Organizations are known to exist and function in dynamic environments. This
circumstance compels organizations to adopt innovative measures to meet the changing needs
of the time and to bridge the gaps between actual and desired targets (Ozoya, 2009; Porras &
Silvers, 1991; Ndulue, 2012). Through this process, human resources play a significant role
in achieving organizational goals. Additionally, they have become the most significant asset,
as the public organizations shifted from traditional government focus to a new public service
oriented enterprise aims at the 3Es–economy, efficiency and effectiveness. In this transition,
the development of human capital becomes the core, as well as the differentiator for public
organizations (Camilli, 2004). As such, in public enterprises the critical resources are not
only the revenue provided to government, but also ‗‗the employees whom the organization
hires and must retain‘‘ (Barber & Strack, 2005, p.83). Therefore, the need for public
organizations to create conditions where employees would be highly committed is critical to
achieving its goals. In turn, this can increase employee commitment, reduces turnover
intention and actual turnover.
In recent years, there have been inexplicable turnovers in most public enterprises in Sub-
Saharan Africa, a trend which started around the 1960s, and it became more of a problem in
the 21st Century (Kiragu, 1998). However, with organizations witnessing remarkable changes
over time, many public enterprises in developing countries have come under pressure to
become more proactive in improving employees‘ skills, so as to provide high quality service
to the public, increase commitment and contribute immensely to national development. In
this regard, public enterprises are subjected to the introduction of programs for greater
organizational commitment in order to steer genuine development in their respective
communities and The Gambia is not an exception (Dahida, 2013)
In The Gambia, anecdotal evidences have shown that, the society expects public
enterprises to become more citizen focused, and to operate in a more business-like manner;
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forcing public sector organizations to increase accountability, quality, and effectiveness in
service delivery for greater public trust and confidence. This is coupled with other
expectations of meeting government and other stakeholders‘ performance targets. Many
public and private sectors around the world are faced with similar situations and the impact of
economic crisis and globalization (Haufler, 2013). Consequently, the concern of how to
increase employees‘ commitment in order to meet public demands, and maintain high
performance has emerged. Additionally, according to Crook,(2010) the key problems of some
African public services remain those of over or understaffing and lack of organizational
commitment. International Monetary Fund (IMF, 2015) recent report posits that that ‗‗times
are tough in most West Africa countries and many economies… Investors are pulling money
out of riskier spots and growth forecasts decline especially in The Gambia, that suffered from
all these trends, a harbinger of things to come (p.1)‘‘. If this trend continues it will affect
revenue collected from business for national growth. Hence, these situations reiterate the
need for a greater public service commitment to achieve organizational objectives. However,
many raise questions concerning how the public sector employees can survive such
transformation, whether they are professionally competent to work against the pressures in
order to deal with the increasing demands. With these questions into consideration, this study
found out some feasible recommendations and important strategies to increase organizational
commitment in public organizations in The Gambia
Moreover, organizational commitment is a construct that has been widely studied and
found to be an unswerving predictor of employee turnover and intention to leave (Meyer &
Allen, 1997). Thus, the need for factors that predict organizational commitment has become
critical and the demand for a greater understanding of this organizational phenomenon
increases daily. The major drive behind this continuous recognition of organizational
commitment among human resource researchers for over three decades is that it is often seen
as a key to‗‗organizational success‘‘(Benkhoff, 1997b). Against this backdrop, organizational
commitment has emerged as a promising area of research within the study of organizational
psychology and industries recently (Adebayo, 2006; Meyer & Allen, 1997). This is in part
due to the vast number of studies that have relationships with commitment, attitudes and
behaviours (Porter, Steers, Mowday, & Boulian, 1974). Existing theoretical studies showed
that commitment has direct implications on individuals and an overall on the organizations
(Allen & Meyer, 1990.). Ultimately, to achieve this, it is generally associated with motivation,
management support, and positive organizational climate. Thus, for public organizations,
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implementing strategies that increase employees‘ commitment could be helpful in reducing
the intention to leave.
Furthermore, many researchers posit that for firms to achieve organizational goals
investing in the human resource base is critical as it is fundamentally important to human
capital development (Wesley, 1999). In this regard, Saks (1996) reported that, the greater the
amount of development employees experience, the more they possessed ―positive job
attitudes, ability to cope, and... lower intentions to quit‖ (p.449). Thus, greater skills and
abilities were shown to lead to better performance and, in the process, leads to better attitudes
about the job (Miller & Jablin, 1991). Besides, ―employees may view an effective training
experience as an indication that the enterprise is willing to invest in them and cares about
their career development; thus training may enhance their commitment‖(Tannenbaum et al.,
1991, p.760). In addition, organizations strategies to minimise lack of commitment should
come with more proactive measures and initiatives to increase action oriented employees.
Thus without any interventions or programs for employee development, their mission for
contributing to national development might not be achieved.
Likewise, according to Laing (2009), factors determining employee organizational
commitment include the degree of change in macro environment, internal change, employee
job satisfaction, age, availability of knowledge, skills and extent to which the organization
sees training as a motivating factor for the development of both the employees and attainment
of the organizations‘ performance targets.
Therefore, to achieve desirable work behaviours, training the human resources in
consonance with immediate and remote operational environment is imperative. Most
important among the response options to environmental subtleties is the organization‘s focus
on developing and improving the human side of the enterprise. As training is considered an
indispensable human resource functions as it is the wire that improves the asset that moves
the organization to the direction of meeting its objectives (Ozoya, 2009). With regards to this,
the human capacity has become a critical index to both public and private enterprises; the
development of such capacities has become an important facet in designing the strategic
direction of organizations (Tim & Brinkerhoff, 2008). Training also ensures that
organizational members possess the knowledge and skills they need to perform their jobs
effectively, take on new responsibilities, and adapt to changing conditions. Studies found that
an organization developing the knowledge, skills and abilities of employees, is viewed as an
investment and can contribute to the formation of position trust. Considering training and
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development is believed to be discretionary and it is highly valued (Gavino, Wayne, &
Erdogan, 2012).
Furthermore, employee job satisfaction has been found to help clarify the relationship
between human resource management practices with organizational commitment. Research
by Allen , Shore, and Griffeth (2003) confirmed this result and found that human resource
practices were more strongly correlated with job satisfaction than with organizational
commitment, suggesting that human resource practices increase job satisfaction and that
―leads to affective attachment to the organization‖ (Allen et al., 2003, p.114).
Moreover, review of literatures also indicates that few researchers (Chambel & Sobral,
2011, Gavino et al., 2012) have looked at the mediating impact of job satisfaction on the
relationship between training and development and organizational commitment. Also,
according to the researcher‘s knowledge, no study investigated psychological capital (PsyCap)
as a mediator between the two variables in public organizations.
Problem Statement
This section explores and presented the problem found in research and in practice:
Problem of Research
Training and development impact on organizational commitment has been studied in
some industries in recent years and the outcomes of the researches have provided some
indication to suggest that training and development has effects on organizational commitment
(Ahmad & Bakar, 2003; Bartlett & Kang, 2004). However, empirical studies of the
relationship are in its primary phases and the exact nature of the relationship is still indistinct.
(Bartlett, 2001; Conway & Monks, 2009). In addition, Fornes, Rocco, and Wollard (2008)
posits that there is a need to conduct human resource development research in understanding
how to trigger employee commitment behaviour since there is a gap which little is known..
Though, Human Resource Development (HRD) practices have been establish to be
correlated to organizational commitment (Conway & Monks, 2009; Kinicki, Carson, &
Bohlander, 1992), some scholars have recommended that the association is not direct.
Research conducted by Meyer and Smith (2000) found that employee job satisfaction played
an important role in mediating the link between human resource management (HRM)
practices and commitment. The researcher noted from a theoretical perspective that
understanding mediating mechanisms puts researchers ―in a better position to explain why
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known relations exist and to search more systematically for influencing factors in future
research‖ (Meyer et al., 2002, p.39).
However, a ―gap… exists in understanding which mediator play a role in the relationship
between HR practices and employee behaviours that benefit the organization‖ (Gavino et al.,
2012, p.667). In addition, there is limited research on PsyCap as a mediating variable and its
influence on the link between commitment and other factors.
Furthermore, despite the extensive studies and interest on PsyCap, training and
development and organizational commitment, there is still very little research done in
developing countries (Meyer et al., 2002). Given the growing significant of public enterprises
in facilitating economic advancement, there is a need to extend our understanding of the
factors that enhance commitment. However, in The Gambia, although there have been few
researches on capacity building, the mediating role of employee job satisfaction and PsyCap
on the relationship between training and organizational commitment was not looked at before.
This reiterates the fact that very little empirical research has been conducted and this gap
created the need for this empirical study to be conducted in The Gambia.
Problem of Practice
The environment of public organizations has undergone rapid transformation
especially through the structural adjustment program of the International Monetary Fund
(IMF, 2003), globalization and economic crises. In the centre of these changes, challenges
occur. This has created pressure on many public firms to come with proactive measures to
face these challenges, through the development of the human resource. Therefore, training for
all levels of public enterprise employees is critical to developing expertise, though the type of
skill-building needed (e.g., tax administration, public sector administration, public sector
reform programs etc.) may vary. Without continuous learning for public servants, the level of
professionalism needed for public satisfaction, economic growth and advancement could be
negatively impacted (Richard, & Daniel, 2001). According, to Hartz (2002), ―there is
absolutely nothing more important for the future well-being of employees and economic
growth than a highly developed, motivated and renewable intellectual capital base.‖ (p.6).
Thus, with this critical need for highly committed and skilled workers, taxpayers satisfaction
and employees retention can become a serious issue for public organizations to tackle when
business are closing and employee turnover keeps increasing (Kiragu, 1998).
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In addition, to the financial impacts of personnel loss, lack of organizational
commitment can also be disruptive to public organizations because, along with individuals
departing from the organization, the public might be dissatisfy with the work behaviour of
employees in the public enterprises. This when not address might leads to closure of some
businesses and affect economic growth of the country. Thus, one way the organizations can
boost performance is by increasing organizational commitment of employees as it positively
associated with desirable work behaviours (i.e., attendance, job performance) (Meyer &
Herscovitch, 2001). While investments in training and providing a supportive work
environment strengthen commitment, it also develop PsyCap, as it is regarded as an
expression of the organization‘s support to the employees (Eisenberger, Huntington,
Hutchinson, & Sowa, 1986).
Accordingly, significant positive revenue growth is forecasted for public organizations in
The Gambia (Gambia. Dept. of State for Finance, & Economic Affairs, 2007; IMF, 2013),
nonetheless, anecdotal evidences have shown that the commitment of public servant is a
critical concern. The problems of practice addressed in this study are: understanding factors
that contribute to creating a supportive work environment and organisational commitment in
public enterprises. Thus, this research identifies the contributions and impact of human
resource practices on commitment. These recommendations can be used by HRD
practitioners and policy makers to decide how to invest resources allocated to human
resources for a better performance.
Research Purposes
Based on the research background and motivation, this empirical study aims to
investigate the relationships between training and development, employee job satisfaction,
PsyCap and organizational commitment, and derived related theoretical and practical
implications. The underlying factors may empower The Gambia Revenue Authority‘s HR
unit and identify factors important for greater organizational commitment. The exploration of
current GRA employees‘ development initiatives might contribute towards an understanding
of how training improves desirable work behaviour. Thus, these relationships might provide
strong arguments for more and better HRD programs delivery in public organizations. In
addition, the evaluation might not only create a holistic view of the variables, but may also
assist in fostering a sense of obligation to stay commited among employees in public
organizations.
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The purpose of this research therefore, was to examine employees‘ perception of training
impact on organizational commitment in GRA.
Thus, these objectives are herein outlined as the purposes of the study:
Investigate the effect of training and development on employee job satisfaction and
psychological capital of the Gambia Revenue Authority.
Examine the mediating role of psychological capital and employee job satisfaction
on training and development – organizational commitment relationship of the Gambia
Revenue Authority
Examine the impact training and development have on employees organizational
commitment of the Gambia Revenue Authority
Research Questions
According to the research purposes derived from the background and motivation of the
study, three research questions needed to be answered and are formulated as follows;
1. Does training and development (training support from colleagues, management
training support, motivation of training, and training benefit) have a significant
relationship with employee job satisfaction and psychological capital in the Gambia
Revenue Authority?
2. Whether employee job satisfaction and psychological capital play a role as mediators
in the training and development and organizational commitment relationship in the
Gambia Revenue Authority?
3. Does training and development have a significant relationship with organizational
commitment in the Gambia Revenue Authority?
Research Significance
This study makes important contributions to training and development, employee job
satisfaction, PsyCap, and organizational commitment literatures in public organizations both
in theory and in practice. While research on training and organizational commitment has been
conducted in private organizations/corporations (Swerdlow, & Cummings, 2000;
Tannenbaum, Mathieu, Salas, & Cannon-Bowers, 1991), there is little information and
empirical studies found in public enterprises. Consequently, researchers like Camilleri (2006)
have called for additional studies of what can enhance commitment in public organizations.
Most studies of training are considered as a one-dimensional construct and outcomes to
public sectors training and development programs are rarely taken into account. Ismail, Md
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Nor, and Marjani (2009) pointed out that when addressing training and development, it is
fundamental to know how training leads to organizational development. Taking into account
training conducted by the organizations can boost organizational commitment which is
particularly important in achieving performance targets.
However, many of the studies conducted in public organizations to date are mainly
theoretical. This study extends on the training and organizational commitment literature as it
provides support for the type of desired behaviour and interventions that are essential for
public enterprise‘s success. Furthermore, the results of this study may be of interest to
organizations that seek to improve employee job satisfaction and PsyCap
Thus, employee job satisfaction has become crucial as it is often seen as a key construct
that influences behaviour for retention. Citing from Spector (1997),‗‗it is vital for
organizations to develop innovative capacities that increase employees‘ job satisfaction as
they allow employees to respond to the needs of the internal or external environment, and
respond swiftly to changing demographics‘‘ (p. 24). Likewise, training and development has
been claimed to be essential for PsyCap and some studies have provided substantial evidence
on these relationships. However, research with empirical evidence on PsyCap that is crucial
to organizational commitment is relatively scarce. Thus, an important contribution of this
research is represented by the role of PsyCap and employee job satisfaction on the
relationship between training and organizational commitment
Moreover, there is dearth of theoretical and empirical studies in public organizations in
The Gambia. Therefore, the implications of this study have the potential of unlocking
economic value from the GRA‘s training programs as it attempts to identify the contextual
factors that enhance employees‘ commitment behaviours. In addition, the management of
GRA may also find the results of this study of practical benefit, as it provides practical
recommendations for greater commitment, in order to successfully achieve organizational
goals. Given that organizations successes depends mainly on the ability to capitalize on the
value of employees. As a result, various organizations are developing and implementing
training and development programs to manage and leverage their human capital (Kankanhalli,
Tan, & Wei, 2005). ).
Thus, the outcomes of this study laid a foundation for future researchers interested in
understanding these variables in public organizations in Africa. Finally, the results may
contribute to raise awareness among public enterprises in The Gambia about the importance
of training and development, employee job Satisfaction, PsyCap to the employees and to the
organizations at large.
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Delimitations
The researcher places some delimitation in order to manage the scope of the study.
First, it is delimitated to The Gambia and to one public enterprise GRA. Furthermore, the
research is also delimitated to GRA employees, specifically, those who have undergone
training.
Drawing from the delimitations, since the study is delimited to Gambia this means that it
is culturally bound, therefore, the results cannot be generalized to other organizations. In
addition, the research participants consisted only of employees working full time. Since
people have different perceptions of the organizations they belong to and respond differently
to their organization‘s environment, the findings of this study can be context specific and
may not be applicable to members of other groups of organizations (i.e part-time employees,
Interns or experts from International Monetary Fund, etc.).
Definitions of Terms
In this section, the researcher provides both the theoretical and operational definitions
of the variables in this research. The operational definitions outline how the variables are
measured and theoretical definition outline the concept of the constructs. The four main
constructs investigated in this study include training and development, employee job
satisfaction, Psychological Capital, and organisational commitment as described below:
Training and Development
Training is defined as a learning activity directed towards the acquisition of specific
knowledge and skills for the purpose of an occupation or task (Cole, 2004). In other words, it
is the plan and systematic approach to employee learning leading to the acquisition of new
knowledge or skills for the purposes of personal growths (Aguinis & Kraiger, 2009). This
study looks at training and development as support and benefits employee received to
developed their knowledge, skills and ability that leads to job satisfaction, high PsyCap, and
organizational commitment. An 18 scale items is used to measure training and development
shown in table 4.2 of this text. This scale is formally adapted from Barlett (2011), but the
different dimensions scale are developed by (Tharenou & Conroy.,1994; Noe & Schmitt.,
1986; Noe & Wilk, 1993)
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Psychological Capital
Psychological Capital is defined as ‗‗the positive and developmental state of an
individual as characterized by high self-efficacy, optimism, hope and resiliency. It is
concerned with individuals‘ strength, perceptions, attitude towards work, and general outlook
of life‘‘ (Luthans, 2007 p.1). A 24-item scale from Luthans (2005) research is used to
measure PsyCap. This is shown in Table 4.5
Organizational Commitment
Organizational Commitment is referred to as the degree of commitment and loyalty
that employees exhibit toward employers. It is also known as the degree to which an
employee identifies with a particular organization and its goals and wishes to maintain
membership in the organization (Meyer & Allen, 1991). Organizational commitment
therefore, is assessed using the 24-item developed by Allen and Meyer (1990). This measure
includes three dimensions of organizational commitment– affective, continuance, and
normative commitment
Employee Job Satisfaction
Employee Job Satisfaction refers to the positive feelings employees have for their
work in relation to previous, current experiences or available alternatives (Balzer, 2000). The
researcher measured employee job satisfaction as a dependent and a mediating variable. The
Hackman 15 item job design instrument was adapted to measure employee job satisfaction
which includes satisfaction with skill variety, task significant, task identity, autonomy and
feedback of Results
11
CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW
The increasing importance of organization commitment in public organizations has
increased the need to identify factors that increase commitment and reduce turnover intention.
In this chapter, the researcher provides a review of previous literature relevant to this research
and the relationship between the variables. Training and development, PsyCap, employee job
satisfaction, and organizational commitment are conceptualized; their dimensions and
empirical studies also reviewed. The final phase provides an overview of The Gambia
Revenue Authority‘s training and development programs.
Training and Development
The disorder in current organizational environment has called for a responsive and
innovative workforce. One of the important ways of attaining organizational commitment is
the creation of conditions for the rapid acquisition of new knowledge and skills (Brown,
Boyle, & Boyle, 2002). Although this may be achieved in an ad hoc fashion with people
learning from each other or simply through experience, a key factor is the quality of planned,
training and development in organizations. Recently, training and development gain
prominence among researchers and many definitions and interpretations can be found within
the HRD literatures which are presented below.
Definitions of Training and Development
Training and development as suggested by Van Wart et al. (1993), is an application
driven that aims to impart skills that are useful immediately in particular situations. McLagan
(1989) defined training and development as identifying, assuring and helping to develop key
competencies that enable individuals to perform current or future jobs (cited in Wan, 2007).
Swanson and Holton (2001) posits that training and development are a process of
systematically developing ―work-related knowledge‖ and ―expertise‖ in employees for
improving job assignments. Moreover, Akdere (2003) defined training and development
practices as parameters for increasing the employees' level of self-awareness and skills to
fulfil their tasks well. Wexley and Latham (1991) put more emphasis on training and term it
as a planned endeavor to facilitate the learning of ―job-related behaviour‖ on the part of an
organization‘s employees. They defined job-related behaviour as any knowledge and
expertise acquired by an individual that can be related to organizational objectives. As a
result, training has been considered as a systematic process by different practitioners in order
to improve individual and organizational job performances
12
There is a common philosophy underlying Human Resource Development (HRD) which
contradicts with the organizational context in which training and development interventions
are applied. These common philosophies usually try to characterize the workplace in terms of
being like a "family". Therefore, at its simplest, management in a fatherly fashion look after
the workforce and know what's best for them. Like children in families, workers are expected
to display loyalty and a willingness to fall (Sinclair & Collins, 1992).
As job security for employees now a days becoming a challenge which always raises
question of employee commitment, alternatively, organizations may give opportunities for
internal rotation, gradual growth, improved skills and abilities, as well as individual and
professional development (employee or career development opportunities; this in return,
according to Tansky and Cohen (2001), organizations may expect certain employee attitudes,
including commitment which is the strength of an individual‘s identification with and
involvement in a particular organization (Mowday, Porter & Steers, 1982).
However, scholars have argued that organizational employee training and development
initiatives are necessary interventions to ensuring employee morale and satisfaction (Jackson
& Vitberg, 1987). Since individual employees put their career into consideration in an
organization, it is possible that their perceptions of career prospects in the organization for
example, continual growth through training and development opportunities will have an
effect on organizational commitment (Jans, 1989). In fact, the new psychological contract
indicates that the employees bring in a good performance while continuously learning and
adapting, which in exchange the organization gives developmental relationships, and good
rewards and other necessary compensation (Hall & Mirvis, 1996). The authors further argued
that greater understanding of how to provide work environments friendly to not only training
and development but also provide an atmosphere that encourages managers to care for their
employees.
The relationships involved in employee training and development transactions can be
considered exchanges. Blau (1964) categorized two types of exchanges: economic exchanges
and social exchanges. The latter (social exchange) is based on implicit obligations and trust.
Its value of the exchange is determined by the identities of the two parties involve. Both
parties have their expectations about the behavior of the other party which are not necessarily
based on timing or the specifics of what each party must render. If the benefit is ripped by
both parties, either of them will know whether the expectations of the other have been fully
met or not. Social exchanges involved reciprocity (Tansky & Cohen, 2001), and reciprocity
according to Gouldner (1960) is the norm of assumption that the recipient of benefit is
13
obliged to repay the donor in one way or the other. Training and development of employees
could be considered as a social exchange which is based on implicit obligations that needs
trust. It gives opportunities and benefits. In showing appreciation for these opportunities and
benefits, the employees may feel obliged to give back to the organization thus making them
more committed to the organization (Tansky & Cohen, 2001).
It is arguable that organizations need to attain flexibility and skill interchangeability from
a trainable, responsive workforce (Jarratt & Coates, 1995). How to acquire and maintain such
a workforce remains the question. The conventional psychological contract that gave
employees security in exchange for commitment is becoming a thing of the past. As
employees are increasingly getting aware that job security is no longer included in
employment contract, they may live in fear of being laid off. Why should these workers be
committed to the organization (Tansky & Cohen, 2001). Meanwhile, workers may remain
with the same company; they need to be trained and developed to move into new jobs
(Tansky & Cohen, 2001). Among human resource practices that may lead to employee
commitment is continuous training and development (London, 1989). London further
described employee training and development as a long-term personal and professional
growth of individuals; this fall within the domain of human resource development, which
refers to organized learning experiences provided by the employer to enhance performance
and personal growth of employees (Nadler & Nadler, 1989).
Some organizations refer to their employee training and development programs as career
development programs since they help employees to build skills that are necessary to move to
other jobs in the organization, thus leading to commitment. According to Gutteridge,
Leibowitz, and Shore (1993), organizational leaders believed that the following significant
results can be produced because of organizational development efforts: enhanced employee
commitment, enhanced employee skills and morale, employee empowerment, improved HR
planning and selection, and greater strategic advantage. Training and development are also
refers to as a set of systematic and planned activities designed by an organization to provide
its members with the opportunities to learn necessary skills to meet current and future job
demands (Gutteridge, Leibowitz, and Shore ,1993).
Theories of Training and Development
It should be noted that for effective leaning and development, in a learning environment,
motivation provides the incentive that propels trainees to devote to learning activities, and
14
intrinsic factors are critical success factor of learning. The self–determination theory proposes
that for one to be motivated and to function at optimal level, a set of psychological needs
must be met. These needs are relatedness, competence, and autonomy. Relatedness relates to
association and sense of belonging with others. This association and belonging provide the
required emotional security that individuals need to actively explore and effectively deal with
their worlds. The rationale behind the self-determination theory from a learning perspective is
that a strong sense of relatedness better positions trainees to take on challenges, set positive
goals, and establish high expectations that motivate them. Furthermore, relatedness needs
provide a motivating force for developing social regulations and adapting to interpersonal
circumstances (Andrew & Martin, 2009)
The theory of reasoned action argued those trainees‘ reactions to technology use tends to
affect performance of users. The theory was proposed by Fishbein and Ajzen in 1985. The
assumption is based on the rationale that a person‘s decision to engage in a specific behavior
is based on his or her own will, which is determined by organized thoughts. The theory
highlights that under a great extent an individual‘s behavior can be reasonably assessed from
his or her behavioral intention, which is decided by behavioral attitude and subjective norm.
A person‘s attitude towards behavior is determined by salient beliefs about consequences of
engaging in the behavior in addition to evaluating those consequences. In the same vein, if
employees willfully react favorably to training, their learning and transfer of transfer and
commitment will take place (Chi, 2011).
Kirkpatrick (1998), also mentioned that for the employees who are train to successfully
adopt what they learn in a training programme on to the job. It is significant to provide help,
encouragement, and rewards. He mention intrinsic (inwards feelings of satisfaction, pride and
happiness) and extrinsic (coming from the outside such as praise, freedom and recognition)
rewards as being very important for learning and commitment of employee being train. Also,
employee who enthusiasm and oriented towards learning are proposed to be more trainable
and will tend to be likely to stay in the organization. Training and development did not only
have significant impact on the employee only but also on the organization (Kraiger, Mclinder
& Casper, 2004).
In conclusion, there is a great deal of positive outcomes that can be deriving from training
and development both at the employee and organizational levels as indicated in the literature.
Thus, from the literature review the concept of organization training and development as
perceive by employee can be viewed in various dimension. This research adopts the
dimensions proposed by Bartlett (2001) on employee access to training and development (on-
15
the-job or formal training). Other variables that are assess and included in the study to
determine training are based on frequency of participation in training events (Tharenou &
Conroy, 1994). How much training they receive that enhance behavioural change and
increase organizational commitment, the perceived support of training from colleagues and
support from management ―Motivation to learn from training‖ developed by Noe and Schmitt
(1986), and other item adopted from Noe and Wilk, (1993) benefits of training scale.
Psychological Capital
The metaphor of the psychological capital has emerged in recent organizational
psychology literature. The motives for this sudden popularity are perhaps twofold. First, the
concept addressed the importance of ‗‗who you are‘‘ beyond the concept of economic capital
(what you have), human capital (what you know), and social (who you know). The other
reason is that the relationships people have with their employing organisations are
undergoing rapid, and sometimes far-reaching, changes. The PsyCap provides means of
examining how such changes are perceived by those most directly affected and gives some
indication of the effects such changes may have on their attitudes and behaviour. PsyCap is
derived from positive organization behaviour basis and criteria (Luthans & Youssef, 2007;
Luthans et al., 2004) as a way of examining and exploring the study and application of
positively oriented human resources strengths and psychological capacities that can be
ascertained by measuring, developed, and effectively managed for performance
improvement in today‘s workplace (Luthans, 2008).
According to Larson &Luthans (2006), PsyCap during the late 1990s emerged with a
renewed emphasis on what is right with people, rather than the almost total preoccupation
psychology has had over the years with what is wrong with people. The composite construct
of PsyCap has been defined as
―an individual‘s positive psychological state of development characterized by: (1) having
confidence (self-efficacy) to take on and put in the necessary effort to succeed at challenging
tasks; (2) making a positive attribution (optimism) about succeeding now and in the future; (3)
persevering toward goals and, when necessary, redirecting paths to goals (hope) in order to
succeed; and (4) when beset by problems and adversity, sustaining and bouncing back and
even beyond (resilience) to attain success‖ (Luthans, Youssef, & Avolio, 2007, p. 3).
As organizations seek ways to help employees navigate the ever-challenging work
environment, they increasingly are recognizing the importance of positivity and concentrating
16
on developing employee strengths, rather than dwelling on the negative and trying to fix
employee vulnerabilities and weaknesses.
Moreover, positive psychology has a great potential for influencing the efficiency and
performance of the human resource. Originally, Law Wong, and Mobley, (1998) proposed a
conceptual framework for establishing how PsyCap is a multidimensional approach; they
conclude that PsyCap is influenced by organizational environment and that influences several
positive and negative outcomes in the organization. Citing from Luthans (2001) different
organizational phenomena have impact on the employee, specifically on the characteristics
that assemble their PsyCap (See Figure 2.1). Accordingly, high PsyCap employees observe
and contribute to the organization, while low PsyCap employee absence from work vice versa.
According to Luthans (2008), PsyCap has developed mainly since 2005 and therefore all
findings should be considered as preliminary and need further research. Thus, PsyCap
indicates the state of employees ‗s positive expressive status during the process of
advancement in the organisation and it aids individual‘s to recognize their responsibility as
well as withstands positive insight of well-being. PsyCap is categorized by four topographies
and they are Hope, Resilience, optimism, and efficacy and they are elucidates as follows:
Hope draw from the work of positive psychology and was defined as ‗‗positive
motivational state that was based on an interactively derived sense of successful a) agency
(goal-oriented energy) and b) pathways (Planning to meet goals)‘‘ (Snyder, Irving, &
Anderson, 1991, p.287).
Resilience is another component of PsyCap and it is compose with three constituents,
including organisations principles that employees can deal with challenges in the
organisational environment, similarly, employees with high resilience capacity might not
only rebuild from the complications, but also accomplish tasks, and find significant value
during work (Luthans & Youssef, 2004). Moreover, Luthans and Youssef (2004), define
resilience as ‗‗the capacity to bounce back from adversity, uncertainty, failure, or even
positive but seemingly overwhelming changes‘‘ P.152).
Optimism is another very important dimension of PsyCap applied and its definition
derived from attribution theory in terms of employee‘s experiences of negative and positives
happenings (Seligman,1999). Thus, optimism helps employees to achived objectives of the
Organisation.
17
Self-Efficacy is defined as ‗‗one‘s convention about employees abilities to mobilize the
motivation, cognitive resources, and courses of action needed to successfully execute a
specific tasks within a given context‘‘ (Stajkovic & Luthans, 1998, p.66). Employees with
self- efficacy are prepared to be more committed on tasks and are likely to take demanding
tasks. Likewise, they generally continue to the end no matter how many hindrances they meet
in the work environment (Luthans &Youssef, 2004).
Figure 2.1.Pychological Capital Model. Adapted from ‘‘An Integrated Model of PsyCap in the
Workplace‘‘ by Luthans, F. (2008), Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology and Work.
Available at http://wpedia.goo.ne.jp/enwiki/Psychological_capital. Copyright 2008 by NTT
Resonant Inc.
Organizational Commitment
Commitment phenomena have been widely investigated because it affects individual
attitudes and behaviour towards the workplace (Dockel, 2003). Many definitions of
Hope
Optimism
Self-Efficacy Supportive
Organization
al Climate
PsyCap Positive
Organizational
Emotion Resiliency
Positive
Organizational
Outcomes Work Performance
Work Commitment
Work Satisfaction
Positive
organisational
change
Negative
Organizational
Outcomes Cynicism
Work Absenteeism
18
organization commitment exist due to the fact that many researchers define it their own way
to suit their investigation purposes. Kanter (1968) viewed commitment as the willingness of
social actor to give energy and loyalty to the organization. Sheldom (1998) too define it as
being positive evaluation of organization and the organizations goals.
Through the years Buchanan (1974), define commitment as being a bond between an
employee and an employer. Porter, steers, Mowday and Boulian (1974) discussed three major
components of commitment as being a strong belief in and acceptance of organization‘s goals,
willingness to exert considerable effort on behalf of the organization, and a definite desire to
maintain organizational membership. Bateman and Strasser (1984) stated that the reasons
of studying organizations commitment were generally related to employee behaviors and
performance, effectiveness, attitudinal, affective, and cognitive construct such as job
satisfaction, characteristics of employee such their age and the number years they spend in
the organizations. Bateman and Strasser (1984) further stated that organization commitment
had been operationally defined as multidimensional in nature, involving and employee‘s
loyalty to the organization, willingness to exert effort on behalf of the organization, degree of
goals and value congruency with the organization, and desire to maintain membership.
Furthermore organization commitments are a significant construct in predicting organization
performance and intention to quit (Mathieu & Zajac. 1990; Tett & Meyer, 1993). Summaries
of the definitions highlighted are taken from organizational commitments literature:
Table 2.1
Definitions of Organizational Commitment
Author Definitions
Organizational
Commitment
Kanter (1968) viewed commitment as the willingness of
social actor to give energy and loyalty to the
organization
Burchana (1974), commitment as being a bond between an
employee and an employer
Mowday and Boulian
(1974)
View commitment as being a strong belief in
and acceptance of organization‘s goals,
willingness to exert considerable effort on
behalf of the organization, and a definite
desire to maintain organizational membership
Allen& Meyer (1990) The employee psychological state that
attached him/her to the organizations
19
This research agreeing with Meyer & Herscovitch, (2001) and Dockel (2003) that
commitment influences attitude autonomously of other drives or behavior and, might lead to
the persistence in a course of action even in the face of conflicting interest and attitudes.
Therefore, it can results in employees exhibiting behaviors which might be in contrast with
their own interest. In this vain employees uphold the values and goals of the organization and
upon achievement; they receive reward which eventually transforms into certain type of
commitment. As Dockel (2003), puts it,‗‗ most social behavior is predicted on the individual
expectation that one‘s actions with respect to others will results in some kind of
commensurate return‘‘ (p.31). According to Robinson (1996), Employee constantly gauge
whether the organization has met the employees‘ perpetual belief of what they are entitle to
have in the organization. Additional Robinson noted that ‗‗when employees feel that their
employers have failed to fulfill their obligations, the employees tend to reduce their
obligation by showing withdrawal behavior…decreased level of commitment and turnover‘‘
(Dockel, 2003, p. 42)
Previous organizational commitment researchers have classified commitment into
different constructs. These examine the various perspectives studied and documented and
how they are expressed within the setting of the organization. Mowday, Porter, and steers
(1982) divided commitment into attitudinal commitment and behavioral commitment.
Attitudinal commitment specifically, represents the degree of loyalty an individual had for an
organization. This commitment emphasized an individual‘s identification and involvement in
the organization. However, behavioral commitment reflected the process which individuals
linked them to an organization and also it also focused on the actions of the individuals.
Other previous researcher like Etzioni (1961) examined commitment into three
perspectives Moral (which is the acceptance of organizational goals), calculative (employees
receiving inducements to match contributions) and Alienate (represents an affective
attachment to the organization.
This study looks at the organizational commitment from the perspective of Meyer and
Allen‘s (1991) three component model namely, affective commitment, continuance
commitment, and normative commitment. This model is widely adopted in most
organizational commitment studies and their measurement scale widely used. The three
component model are further explain below and their applications in previous studies
Affective Commitment
20
Affective commitment is defined as the emotional bond, identification, and involvement
that employees have with an organization (Meyer& Allen, 1993; O‘Reily & Chatman, 1986).
It is a state of mind that develops when an employee becomes involved in, recognizes the
value-relevance of his attachment with an organization or course of action. Earlier in 1990s,
Allen and Meyer (1993) had defined affective commitment as an employee‘s emotional
attachment to, identification with and involvement in the organization. They further reiterate
that individual retained their membership choice and this was their commitment to the
organization. According to Ahmad and Bakar, (2003) study findings on training and
commitment among white collar worker in Malaysia elucidates that support for training is
strongly correlated with affective commitment, motivation to learn, is found out to
significantly and positively correlated with affective commitment. The more motivation
given to employees to learn in training, the higher the affective commitment will be.
Continuance Commitment
Continuance commitment is the willingness to remain in an organization because of the
investment that an employee have with the ‗‗nontransferable‘‘ investments. Nontransferable
investments consisted of things such as retirement, relationships with other employees, or
things that are special to the organizations (Reichers, 1985). Continuance commitment also
included factors such as years of employment or benefits that the employee might receive that
were special to the organization (Reichers, 1985). According to Allen and Meyer (1990)
defined continuance commitment as commitment based on costs that employee associated
with leaving the organization. Employees who shared continuance commitment with their
employer often made it very difficult for an employee to quit.
Therefore, continuance commitment is related to the willingness to remain in the
organization. There were many studies used with continuance commitment to examine the
relationship between employees and their organizations. In the research of Ahmad and baker
(2003), support for training and motivation to learn had no association with the continuance
commitment.
However, training environment and the benefits of training had a positive and significant
relationship with continuance commitment. Therefore, employee will take into consideration
of the cost associated with leaving the organization
Normative Commitment
21
Meyer and Allen (1991) define normative commitment as being a feeling of obligation.
However, it was argued that normative commitment is natural and steps from an individual
background or society. According to Weiner (1982), normative commitments represent a
generalized value of loyalty and duty to the organization. Since normative commitment
represents an individual‘s obligation, many variables were found to be associated in
normative commitment
Table 2.2
Organizational Commitment Model
Model Description
Mowday, Porter, and steers
(1982)
Attitudinal commitment specifically, represents the
degree of loyalty an individual had for an organization.
This commitment emphasized an individual‘s
identification and involvement in the organization.
Behavioral commitment reflected the process which
individuals linked them to an organization and also it
also focused on the actions of the individuals.
Meyer and Allen‘s (1991)
three component mode
Affective commitment the emotional bond,
identification, and involvement that employees have
with an organization (Meyer& Allen, 1993; O‘Reily &
Chatman, 1986). ,
Continuance commitment, willingness to remain in
an organization because of the investment that an
employee have with ‗‗nontransferable‘‘ investments.
Normative commitment. feeling of obligation
Etzioni (1961) Moral (which is the acceptance of organizational
goals),
Calculative (employees receiving inducements to
match contributions)
Alienate (represents an affective attachment to the firm)
22
Employee Job Satisfaction
Employee job satisfaction is a concept that is widely study in organizational behavior
research, and it started as early as 1912 when F.W Taylor introduced the concept of scientific
management, and emphasizes the important of mechanical production system as the solutions
to increasing productivity and efficiency in the work place. Originally, the feelings and
attitudes of workers caught employers‘ attention, but people were still treated as a tool, not an
asset. Even though, the concept was in its early stages, Taylor found out that there is a
positive correlation between satisfaction and productivity. Since then, job satisfaction concept
has been widely research, and it is central variable in both research and theory of
organizational phenomenon (Spector, 1997). Thus, employee job satisfaction definitions
differ from one researcher to another (Khan & Riaz, 2011). To sum, Table 2.3 gives a
summary of some of the common definitions of job satisfaction
In addition, job satisfaction illustrates the degree of fulfillment and pleasure an employee
feels towards their engagement (Spector, 1997). It has been proven to be essential factor for
organizational performance, as Robbins, Millett, Cacioppe, and Waters- Marsh (2003) found
that presence of satisfaction with job offers significant outcomes like; reduced absenteeism,
increased effectiveness, and reduced turnover intention in the organization. It is also highly
agreed among researchers that employee job satisfaction offer higher returns, and help
organizations to achieve desired outcomes, because it has direct effects on organizational
commitment, motivation, absenteeism, deviant behavior, turnover, organization citizenship
behavior, and life satisfaction of the employees (Kreitner & Kinicki, 2006).
23
Table 2.3
Definitions of Job Satisfaction
Author (s) Definitions
Herzberg, Mausner &
Synderman, (1959)
Job Satisfaction is related with an employee‘s interest in
the work, pay, and the opportunity to gain achievement,
recognition, responsibility and /or advancement.
Locke & Henne, (1986)
Spector,( 1997)
It is pleasurable or positive emotional state that results
from the job experiences and job appraisal of the
employees at work
Job satisfaction is the extent to which people like or dislike
their jobs, or, with a global approach, as the employees‘
feelings and emotions towards their work experiences.
Schermerhorn, Hunt &
Osborn, (2004)
The degree to which individuals feel positively or
negatively about their work engagement
Mckenna , (2000) An individual‘s evaluation of how well the job meets the
personal expectations and needs
Employees‘ job satisfaction could also be explored within a facet approach as the attitude
of employees towards various aspects of their job. Taris and Feij (2001) illustrate two aspects
of standards in work: Intrinsic and extrinsic values. Extrinsic values refer to material work
aspects, such as salary and opportunity for promotion. While intrinsic values refer to
immaterial aspects of the job, such as job variety and independence.
Therefore, an organization human resources officer have huge potentials to increase
satisfaction of employee; however some poor strategies have the potentials to lead to job
dissatisfaction and subsequently intention to leave as certain employers deliberately lure job
seekers with expectation which they end up not meetings. Therefore, to avoid such situations
organizations need to satisfy employees‘ as a means to achieve the organizational goals.
According to Hassan et al, (2011), some employees contribute to their own success in
organization as they believe the achievement of organizational performance is part of
personal goals. Thus, employees tend to motivate themselves to meet their personal goals, in
order to achieve that, they put a lot of efforts to achieve the objectives of their organizations.
This further reiterated that organization employee development is positively related to job
24
satisfaction and commitment (Pati &Reilly, 1997). Thus one of the best ways to enhance job
engagement is to strengthen the shared goals of employees.
In public organizations, where employees play a major role to provide revenue due to
Government in a fair and transparent manner, the management and satisfaction of the human
resources is proving to be very imperative in achieving the organizational goals, as it will not
only boost performance of public enterprises employee but also affects the growth and
performance of the country economy at large.
With that significant benefit derive from employee job satisfaction, Bradley (2007)
highlighted some factors that affect and ensure satisfaction and retention of employees and
they are: employee work engagement, compensations, promotions, and overall job security.
The study conducted by Bartlett (2009) on health workers training and organization
commitment established that majority of the employees are satisfied with the job and willing
to stay if the organization invest on them. The study findings went on to elucidates that
employee training, positive working conditions, and rewards increase employee commitment
behavior. According to Colquitt et al, (2009) Hackman and Oldham‘s job characteristics
theory proposes that high motivation is related to experiencing three psychological states
whilst working and they are: meaningful of work, responsibility for outcomes, and knowledge
of results.
Many researchers measured employee job satisfaction in various dimensions. This
research looks at job satisfaction in the perspectives of Hackman, (1974). According to
Hackman and Oldham (1974), jobs that are likely to motivate performance and contribute to
employee satisfaction exhibit five core job characteristics: which are satisfaction with skill
variety, task identity, task significant, autonomy, and feedback.
The Job Diagnostics Survey (JDS) questionnaire by Hackman and Oldham (1974, 1975)
has been selected to measure employee job satisfaction, as it measures overall and specific
facets of job satisfaction as related to satisfaction with skills, task and results. The theory also
argues that job satisfaction is linked to an individual‘s perception of their job, indicating the
aspects of job they value (Colquitt et al., 2009). Accordingly, people assess their job
satisfaction according to specific facet of the job and it impacts on personal and work
outcomes, as highlighted in the figure below.
25
Core Job Dimensions Critical Psychological States Personal and Work Outcomes
Figure 2.2. Hackman and Olham‘s Job Satisfaction characteristics model. Adapted from
Development of the job diagnostic survey by Hackman, & Oldham, G. R. (1970 p.78). Copy
right 1980 by Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Ltd
These dimessions established from the hackman theory emphasizes that employees gain
overall satisfaction when their job provides these five aspects. Abeit, researchers cannot reach
at a consession on which variable has the high correlation, weak, and moderate respectively
(Ironson et al. 1989). Below are the 5 dimensions explained in the table 2.4
Responsibility
for outcomes
Knowledge and
Results
Meaningful of
work
High intrinsic
motivation
High job
performance
Low Absenteeism
& Turnover
Autonomy
Feedback
Skill variety
Task Identity
Task Significant
Employee growth need
and development
26
Table 2.4
Brief Description of the FIVE Facets of Hackman Job Description Index Satisfaction
Facet Description
Meaningfulness of work
Skill variety
Task Identity
Task Significance
This implies that work must be experienced as meaningful to
the employees. Meaningfulness is derived from:
Employees gaining variety of their skills and talents, through
on-the- job training and formal training from the company.
Job satisfaction can be gain when the employees is being able
to identify with the work at hand , hence enabling more pride
to be taken in the outcome of that work
Satisfied with the ability to contribute to organization over
and beyond the self. For example, ‗‗the Hackman theory
suggests that employees will be more motivated and satisfied,
if they are contributing to the organization performance than
one self.
Responsibility
Autonomy
Responsibility is derived from autonomy, when the job
provides substantial freedom, independence and discretion to
the employees in scheduling the work and in determining the
procedures to be used in carrying out the job.
Knowledge of outcomes
Feedback
This is derived from satisfaction from feedback employees
receive. It implies an employee awareness of how effective is
converting effort into performance. This can be anything from
perfromance appraisal results through to the public
satisfaction scores. The point is that the feedback offers
information that once you know, you can use to do things
differently
Source: Adapted from Development of the Job Diagnostic by Hackman (1980)
Relationship between the Variables
This section explores the relationship between the variables under study based on prior
studies. The relationship between training and development and employee job satisfaction,
training and development and organizational commitment, training and PsyCap, and the
27
mediating role of PsyCap and employee job satisfaction on training and development –
organizational commitment relationships are also presented.
Training and Development and Employee Job Satisfaction
Numerous researchers relating to training and development suggest positive correlation
between training and employee job satisfaction (Lok, & Crawford, (1999); Bartlett, 2001).
As evidenced by the surveys regarding workplace learning opportunities Traut, Larson, and
Fiemer, (2000) noted that, those feelings are important enough for employees to carry them
into the workplace, important enough even to consider a career decisions. Researchers have
come to similar conclusions as Bartlett (2001) found a positive relationship between
workplace training and job satisfaction and recommended that ‗‗human resource development
professionals should adapt training and development in order to make an informed decision
and contributes to desired workplace attitudes‘‘.. (p. 349). Other training programs like on
the job training , a form of training in which longer-term workers introduce newer workers to
the organization and teach specific tasks, have been recommended to improve job satisfaction
in older workers (Traut, Larson, & Fiemer, 2000).
Similarly, train-the-trainer programs have been shown to have a positive effect on job
satisfaction (Hatcher, 1999). Other researchers like Oosterbeek, (1998); Pate and Martin,
(2000) have reported on the benefits of training, that trained employees are realising the
rewards of increased skill-sets, motivation, job satisfaction, higher productivity and
knowledge transfer to other organization members. In particular, job-related training
increases an employee's ability to perform job-related tasks (Acton and Golden, 2003).
Accordingly, organizations that provide training send a strong signal to employees regarding
management's commitment to their career development (Babakus et al., 2003). A study
by Burke (1995), found that participation in internal and external courses are beneficial for
the organisations and their employees. Staffs perceiving greater value in formal training
courses are relatively more satisfied with their jobs, which leads to them feeling better about
their organisation (Burke, 1995). Similarly, on this literature and in accordance with the
purposes of this study, a positive relationship between training and development and
employee is found. Stated formally:
Hypothesis 1: Training and development is positively related to employees job
satisfaction (Employees with a higher propensity to training and development are
more likely to exhibit stronger propensities of job satisfaction)
28
Training and Development and Psychological Capital
Few researchers relating to PsyCap investigate the relationship between training and
development and PsyCap (Luthans, Avey, & Patera, 2008; Luthans, et al., 2006). Training as
an antecedent of PsyCap has not been widely research. However, Luthans and Avolio (2003)
pointed out that, both PsyCap and training are needed for human resources to achieve
sustainable growth and commitment. Over the years, other organisational behaviour
researchers have taken different paths. Some have considered PsyCap as an individual
development equation, which includes a multiplicative combination of ability, support and
effort (Schermerhorn, Gardner, & Martin, 1990). That is, employees‘ commitment is the
product of their ability, the support received to adequately perform in their job, and the
motivation to perform at high levels.
Therefore, one key component of employees‘ PsyCap is the amount of training and
support they receive. Similarly, Rogg, Schmidt, Shull, and Schmitt (2001) found that career
development of employees was related to desired employee self-efficacy such as increase
PsyCap, and satisfaction. Although, Rogg et al. (2001) study was conducted at many
organizational levels rather than at the individual level of analysis as examined in this
research, their results offered the initial foundation for follow up studies to examine the
impact of a supportive organizational initiative such as training on other desirable outcomes
such as positive PsyCap
Citing from, Eisenberger and Armeli (2001), examined training in terms of the amount of
perceived organizational support that one believes is present. Similarly, some theoretical
models assert that the values of training support reinforced within an organization, influence
employee PsyCap level. Drawing from previous research, perceived employees support from
their immediate co-worker, and supervisor can help them to successfully perform work duties
which increase PsyCap level.
A conceptual linkage between training support and PsyCap can be drawn from Renn and
Vandenberg (1995), research, their study examined Hackman and Oldham‘s (1980) job
characteristics model. Specifically, they examined the mediating role that the critical
psychological states (CPS; such as experienced meaningfulness, experienced responsibility
for outcomes of the work, and knowledge of the results of one‘s work) has between the core
job dimensions. However, if someone does not have the ability and individual capacity to
perform a mission, the support possible would not necessarily generate a consistent level of
success.
29
Therefore, though the relationship between training and development and PsyCap has
some evidence, the results have not been consistent and the process needs further
investigation for better understanding and prediction. Research by, Gardner & Schermerhorn,
(2004) concludes that employee training, develop and influence employee PsyCap Level.
This research concluded that training and development relates to desired behaviour outcomes
and influence employee PsyCap.
Accordingly, this study posits that employees that receive training support from work are
more likely to exhibit positive work behaviour propensity. Stated formally:
Hypothesis 2: There is positive relationship between training and development
and psychological capital. (Employees with higher orientation to training are more
likely to exhibit stronger propensities of positive psychological capital)
Training and Development and Organizational Commitment
Training as an antecedent of organizational commitment has been studied in recent years.
Although findings of studies have provided some evidence to suggest that organization
training and development influences organizational commitment (Al-Emadi & Marquardt,
2007), the investigation of the relationship is in its early stages and the exact nature is not
clear
Notwithstanding, the benefit of training in the organization is numerous and can influence
organizational commitment behavior. According to Noe and Wilk (1993), that there are three
significant of training benefits employees receive from an organization training, including;
personal benefits, career benefits, and job–related benefits, that encourage positive work
behaviors.
This assertion, is supported by Barlett (2001), the benefits of training is significantly
related to affective commitment, continuance commitment, and normative commitment. Thus,
the more support and benefits employees receive for training, the higher organizational
commitment attained. Moreover, the research of Ahmad and Barkar (2003) in Malaysia
concludes that training significantly and positively correlated with affective commitment,
continuance commitment, and normative commitment. The results of these researchers‘
despites in a different cultural and organizational background are consistent with Barlett
(2001) study.
In addition, Noe and Wilk‘s (1993) classification of the important of training, was apply
in the research of Al-Emadi & Marqurdt (2007). The results elucidates that there is a
30
significant positive relationship between affective commitment, personal benefits and career
benefits of training. Therefore, employees who acquired more personal and career benefits of
training incline to be more engaged in the organization. Furthermore, the training and career
benefits of training both had a positive relationship with normative commitment. Employees
acquired more personal and career benefits from training, they inclined to have an obligation
to remain in the organization. Consequently, employees acquired these benefits they have no
intention to quit the organizations. From the above discussions the hypothesis proposed in
this study was empirically tested and found to be positively significant. Stated formally
H3: Training and development is positively related to organizational
commitment (Employees with a higher orientation to training and development are
more likely to exhibit stronger propensity of organisational commitment behaviour)
Employee Job Satisfaction and Organizational Commitment
Many researches relating to organizational commitment suggest a positive correlation
between job satisfaction and organizational commitment (Becker, 1992); Mosadeghrad,
Ferlie, & Rosenberg, 2008a; Mowday, et al., 1982; Williams & Hazer, 1986). Empirical
evidence shows the employee job satisfaction is highly correlated with affective commitment,
emphasizing that when employees are satisfied with their jobs, they are most likely to stay
with the organization (Cooper-Hakim&Viswesvaran, 2005; Harrison et al., 2006; Herscovitch,
& Topolnytsky, 2002).
In addition, other authors found out that employees job satisfaction is strongly correlated
with normative commitment as satisfied employees feel more obliged to stay with the
organization as well as feel the need to ‗‗repay the organization for whatever it is that makes
them so satisfied, whether good pay, interesting job tasks, or effective supervision‘‘ (Colquit
et al‘., 2009, p 128). However, the authors highlighted that job satisfaction is not correlated to
continuance commitment although they emphasized that when taken together, job satisfaction
does have a strong correlation with organizational commitment. This argument has been
supported by Vandenberg and Lance (1992). Who studied the casual relationship between job
satisfaction and organizational commitment, and found that employee job satisfaction leads to
organizational commitment. This was reiterated by Chen (2008) who stated that employees
with higher levels of job satisfaction exhibit higher levels of organizational commitment.
31
Psychological Capital and Organizational Commitment
As mentioned earlier, the relationship between PsyCap and organizational commitment is
not widely research as job satisfaction and organizational commitment. However, according
to Abraham (2000), social relationships within the organization increase employee loyalty
commitment and PsyCap, this is related to having, economic capital, human and social capital
of individuals/ employees. Possession of these capitals and the abilities embedded in high
PsyCap will help employees build strong relationships with the organization which in turn
may influence their commitment to the organization. In line with this, employee with
negative/ low PsyCap is less likely to exhibit organizational commitment behavior, as
Luthans (2009) point out. Also employees with high PsyCap have high performance at work.
In Avey, Luthans and Jensen (2009) study, positive correlations were found between
PsyCap, commitment and lower intentions to quit. Similarly, these researchers stated that,
self-efficacy, hope, and resiliency are a key factor increasing the commitment of employees.
In another study on PsyCap and management of stress by Luthans (2009), the researcher
concludes that understanding todays employees need to draw from heretofore unrecognized
and largely untapped positive resources, such as PsyCap, to help them combat the
dysfunctional effect of stress, such as turnover and commitment issues. Supporting this
impact, the study findings also indicate that employees‘ PsyCap has a significant negative
relationship with both their intentions to quit and commitment behaviors. They reiterate the
important of human resource training and development efforts that recognize and enhance the
underemphasized positive resources of efficacy, hope, optimism, and resilience and core
constructs of PsyCap may help employee to be more commitment and reduce the intention of
leaving.
In addition, Tannenbaum, Mathieu, Salas, and Cannon-Bowers, (1991) studied the
relationship between self-efficacy and commitment and found that relationship exists
between self-efficacy, work attitudes, and organizational commitment. In support Luthans.
Norman, Avolio, & Avey (2008) after first providing the background and theory of Psycap,
they reports a study of manufacturing employees (N = 74) that found a ‗‗significant
relationship between PsyCap and job satisfaction (r=.373) and organizational commitment
(r=.313)‘‘ (p.227). Importantly, the employees' PsyCap had a significant added impact over
human and social capital on work attitudes. An employee who possess positive PsyCap as
Luthans et al, (2008) noted will not hold the organization accountable for some negative
feelings of frustration as the employees is capable of placing him or herself in a positive
32
affective state and be able to experience negative affective states that have insignificant
destructive consequences.
However, hope, resilience, optimism and self-efficacy are indispensable part of an
employee that should not be ignored. Interestingly, very few researchers have look at the role
of PsyCap in workplace and specifically, PsyCap as an antecedents of organizational
commitment especially in public organizations (Gardner, 2003). Thus, PsyCap is significant
particularly to employees in the public sector who are faced with rendering services on behalf
government to all citizens; meetings target set by government. Thus, based on this literature
review and in accordance with the purpose of this study, positive relationship between
psychological capital and organizational commitment is found.
The Mediating role of Employee Job Satisfaction on Training and
Development and Organizational Commitment Relationships
Job satisfaction remains one of the most studied work-related variables (Spector, 1997),
and is frequently defined as an individual‘s satisfaction or behaviour toward his or her job
(Moorhead & Griffin, 1997). The association between job satisfaction, training and
development and organizational commitment is strong, although conflicting data exist on the
causal direction of the relationships. Williams and Hazer, (1986), studies on organisational
commitment have concluded that job satisfaction is an antecedent of organizational
commitment and some studies have supported the idea that commitment increases job
satisfaction vice versa (Vandenberg and lance, 1992). Researcher like Barlett (2001) and
Brief (1998) have concluded that training and development cannot do it alone, training
influence job satisfaction, while job satisfaction increases commitment. Barlett, further
suggests that more research is required to unmask the nature of the job satisfaction –training
and organisation commitment relationship.
More agreement is found for job satisfaction having potential effects on organizational
commitment Becker, (1992), Mosadeghrad, Ferlie, & Rosenberg, (2008), Mowday, et al.,
(1982), Williams & Hazer, (1986), absence (Steers and Rhodes, 1978), and turnover (Mobley,
Griffeth, Hand, and Meglino, 1979). In addition, research has shown that job satisfaction has
significant moderating relationships with many important construct, including extra- role
performance (Organ and Konovsky. 1989, Turnover (Blau, 1993), and physical health and
psychological wellbeing (Spector, 1997). However the relationship between training and
development and commitment is still not clear (Al-Emadi & Marquardt, 2007; Ehrhardt,
33
Miller, Freeman, & Hom, 2011). As researchers‘ ague that training and development cannot
do it alone without employee being satisfied with their job, that will boost commitment to the
organization.
To sum up, it is clear from the review of the literature that researchers have been
attempting to identify leading edge indicators of commitment. Lack of organizational
commitment tends to be higher in organizations where employees feel they are taken
advantage of, where they feel undervalued or ignored, and where they feel they feel helpless
or unimportant going by the bulk of existing literature on the subject. It is also clear that
many employees look for the type of jobs in which they could enjoy career development.
Fewer employees are willing to work on excessive period of hours, cope with unusual
working conditions, or tolerate highly demanding situations. They time for more involvement
in and therefore, seek for organisations that provide the appropriate training program.
Although this relationship still applies in many situations satisfied employees leave for a
variety of reason; satisfaction data alone are not necessarily a valid leading –edge indicator.
There exist positive factors that make people not to be commitment. At times people select
those actions or activities that they feel they are capable of doing best (Deci & Ryan, 2000).
For the purpose of this study, the researcher concludes that if a relation between training and
organizational commitment does exist, it is mediate by employee job satisfaction.
H4. Employee Job satisfaction positively mediates the relationship between training
and development and organizational commitment. (On average, when employees
perceive a higher degree of training, the extent to which employees‟ job satisfaction
contributes to their propensities of organisational commitment is more likely
stronger).
The Mediating role of Psychological Capital on Training and Development
and Organizational Commitment Relationships
In relation to influencing organizational commitment, Lifeng (2007) found out that
PsyCap provides an opportunity for security, autonomy as well as self-worth. In support
employee in possession of PsyCap has also been found to result in facilitating the updating of
skills, increasing professionalism and increasing organizational commitment as organizations
seek ways to help employees navigate the ever-changing work environment (Bushardt &
Fretwell, 1994; Cotton &Tuttle, 1986).
34
Hoverer, the relationship PsyCap have on training and commitment has not been
consistently demonstrated in the past, prior research has shown a direct relationship between
psychological capital and other desirable individual and organizational outcomes. For
example, the research previously mentioned by Luthans and colleagues (Luthans et al., 2001)
verified the importance of training in developing PsyCap. Eisenberger et al. (1990) found a
relationship between perceived training support and measures of employee diligence,
commitment, and innovation. Barlett (2001) reported a relationship between organizational
training and commitment to the organization but it still need further investigation. However,
this research also proposes that training and development create the positive conditions
necessary for PsyCap to flourish.
Thus when employees feel supported, they are more likely to use the pathway generation
characteristic of hope to try unproven or new methods to accomplish tasks within the
organizational context. Likewise, when a setback occurs due to an employee mistake, those in
a supportive organisation are more likely to experience higher levels of resiliency as they
would not be in fear of reprisal due to their mistake. They can remain focused on the task at
hand, putting the setback behind them and effectively responding in a positive way following
a setback. Training also contributes to individual levels of PsyCap in terms of optimistic
attributions. For instance, if employees are supported, they will continue to feel supported in
terms of their abilities allowing them to attribute failures to external circumstances versus
low personal knowledge, skills and abilities.
Likewise, training couple with PsyCap can enhance organizational commitment
behaviour. By the same token, there is also empirical evidence of convergent validity among
them (Luthans, et al., 2007; Youssef & Luthans, 2007). A proposed benefit of combining
these similar, yet distinct capacities is that they likely share an underlying component or
psychological resource that allows for individuals that possess higher levels of these resource
capacities to perform at consistently higher levels and higher levels of organisational
commitment can be attained (Luthans, Avolio, et al., 2007).
Furthermore, training and PsyCap construct reflect unique cognitive and behavioural
manifestations. For example, following Ajzens‘s (1991) theory of planned behaviour, lack of
commitment or intention to quit (behavioural intentions), can be as a results of lack of self-
efficacy, hope and resilient. Whereas employee‘s behaviour reflects actual behaviour
contributing towards intention quit. Given the week relation often found between
behavioural intentions and actual behaviour, both outcomes were deemed unique and
appropriate. Employee with higher levels of PsyCap may be more likely to be committed
35
than to quit (Luthans &Jensen, 2005).Moreover, few links among training and development
and PsyCap have been demonstrated in a number of studies (Coomber & Barriball, 2007;
Luthans 2007), and the connection with organizational commitment behaviour.
Finally, Renn and Vandenberg,(1995) findings generally supported the mediating role of
CPS and may provide some support for our proposed mediating role that PsyCap plays
between training and organisational commitment. Renn and Vandenberg (1995) study on
PsyCap conclude that the amount of support that individuals receive from their organization
will increase PsyCap and PsyCap can directly lead to higher commitment since training
cannot do it alone. Some research has indeed shown a direct relationship between these
variables (Lifeng, 2007) .For the purpose of this study, this research assume that if a relation
between training and organizational commitment does exist, it is likely to be mediate by
PsyCap
H5: Psychological capital mediates the relationship between training and development
and organizational commitment.( on average, when employees perceive a higher
degree of psychological capital, the extent to which employees training and
development contribute to organisational commitment is more likely stronger)
Overview of Training and Development of the Gambia Revenue Authority
This research is focus on the Gambia Revenue Authority in the Gambia. The Gambia is a
small independent republic in West Africa and its population stands at 1.78 million. It is
composed of a narrow strip of land on both sides of The Gambia River and is almost
surrounded by Senegal. The capital city is Banjul and its official language is English.
Recently, the Gambia Pubic Sector has been growing and out of the public institutions, GRA
has been mandated to collect revenue/ tax due to Government, since, the Gambia is a tax
based economy (PSRICD, 2009).
With this responsibility, GRA laid emphasis on training and development of employees,
and capacity building of employees. The organisation does conduct training especially
orientation program for new employees instructed by senior officers while formal trainings
are normally organized outsides the organization. For short term training and on job training,
employees are selected to participate; the HR units in consultations with department heads
select employees for training programs. In addition, GRA has been sponsoring diploma
programs based on employee‘s request and in return employees sign surety bond to ensure
that they come back to work for the organisation after the training or course.
36
Furthermore, GRA has trained employees in the domain of tax administration, audit
manual, structural adjustment program, and financial management among others. These
priorities have been rationalized on the basic of clear- cut needs of Authority to compliment
the aims and objectives each department. The rationale behind all these training and
development activities has been to provide the needed resources for employees‘ personal
development to carry out their job effectively and to enhance socio economic development
and sound economic management strategies.
GRA‘s formulation and implementation of training and development policy shows its
commitment to ensure that sufficient resources are allocated to the development of employees
for the ultimate purpose of creating a strong workforce capable of performing effectively and
efficiently. The challenge now is to put in place mechanisms to ensure that training and
development is well-planned and implemented, and to be empirically analysed in order to
ascertain its maximum benefits. GRA also exploits opportunities offered by multi- sectorial
and bilateral donor agencies such as International Monetary Fund (IMF). The projects
training are aim to strengthen the capacity of public service employees in order to formulate
policies, allocate resources to implement those policies for effective public service delivery
(World Bank Report, 2010) .
However, with GRA investing in training, there is need for empirical research to
determine the training and development activities and how it foster greater commitment
among employees of GRA. Adequate analysis of training and development programmes is
crucial for the decisions that must be made about HRD interventions, (Werner &DeSimone,
2009). This will also help in the decision of how to improve, sustain or discontinue the
particular training programmes (Steensma & Groeneveid, 2010).
.
37
CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHODS
This study used a quantitative research paradigm to measure the effects of the
independent variables towards the dependent variable. Pilot study and expert review were
performed to confirm the factorial validity, face validity and construct reliability of the
constructs. This chapter includes six sections, specifically research framework, research
procedure, data collection technique, instrumentation, and data analysis technique.
Furthermore, it describes the different constructs that were use and their associated reliability
estimates, showing that they meet the requirement for academic purpose.
Research Framework
Relying on the review of literature, research purposes and questions, the research
framework for the study was developed (see Figure 3.1, p.37). This research analysed the role
of psychological capital and employee job satisfaction on the relationship between training
and development and organizational commitment.
Firgure 3.1. Reseach framework
H2
H3
H4
H1
H5
Training and
Development
Psychological capital
Organizational
Commitment
Employee Job
Satisfaction
38
Research Hypotheses
Based on the framework above and to answer the research questions, the following
hypotheses were formulated:
Table 3.1
The Research Hypotheses
Hypothesis content
H1: Training and development is positively related to employee job satisfaction.
(Employees with a higher orientation to training and development are more likely to
exhibit stronger propensities of job satisfaction)
H2: Training and development is positively related to psychological capital. (Employees
with a higher orientation to training and development are more likely to possess
higher psychological capital).
H3: Training and development is positively related to organizational commitment.
(Employees with a higher orientation to training and development are more likely to
exhibit stronger propensity of organisational commitment behaviour)
H4: Employee Job satisfaction positively mediates the relationship between training and
development and organizational commitment.(on average, when employees perceive
a higher degree of job satisfaction, the extent to which employees training and
development contribute to organisational commitment is more likely stronger)
H5: Psychological capital mediates the relationship between training and development and
organizational commitment. (On average, when employees have a high
psychological capital, the extent to which employees training and development
contribute to organisational commitment is more likely stronger)
Research Procedure
In carrying out this research, the process was done in three majors path, identification,
execution and completion. The research procedure path is illustrated in Figure 3.2 and
described in detail as follows:
Identification of Research Topic and Research Population
The research topic was identified based on the literature review conducted and was
carried out on the basis of the researcher‘s interest which is centered on public organizations
39
and on various key topics which included training and development, organizational
commitment, employee job satisfaction and psychological capital. Given that the topic is not
well researched in public enterprises in the Gambia, all the constructs were identified and
described. Moreover, the relationships among the constructs was also addressed so as to form
a clear idea about the research objectives and the questions to have a comprehensive research
framework.
The research population/ sample was selected on the basis of limited literature on the
population. The researcher use convenience and purposive sampling to select participants.
Convenience sampling were used as the researcher was unable to reach all the employees in
all branches of GRA, thus samples were selected based on accessibility and willingness to
participate in the survey. Purposive sampling was adopted given the fact that the targeted
participants for the study have important information which can answer the research
questions.
Data Collection, Research Questionnaire and Data Analysis
Once the research population and sampling was identified, a survey methodology was use
as it is an effective tool for data collection. In order to ease the burden of the survey
participants and maintain their interest while completing the survey, considerable attention
was paid to the design of the survey. The measurement for all research constructs were
extracted solely from the work of previous researchers that have carried satisfactory
reliability and validity analyzes on the selected constructs.
Once the survey questionnaire was collected, participants‘ answered was input in excel
and analyzed in SPSS 22.0. The current study used a two-stage process for analyzing data.
First, the adequacy of the measurement instrument was assessed and in the second stage, the
descriptive statistics for each construct and the relationships among constructs was examined.
Research Results , Discussions and Conclusion
Finally after analyzing the data and assessing the implications, the researcher draw the
conclusions for the research and provide some recommendations for GRA and future
researchers. After the results was then used to make appropriate conclusions that answer the
40
reseach questions posed in the study and put forward recommendations drawn from the
conclusions. The Simplied research procedure is shown below
Figure 3.2 Research Procedures
Research Design
This research employed a quantitative approach that followed a self-reported survey
methodology to gather the data and examined the relationship among the variables. A case
study method was used to enable the researcher to closely examine the data within a specific
context which is, in this case, a public organization in The Gambia. In addition, the strength
Identification of
Research Population and
Literature Review
Research Results and
Discussions
Data Collection for
Analysis and
Interpretation
Transform Data for Analysis and
Interpretation
Analyze the Data and Assess
their Interpretation
Draw Conclusion and Provide
Recommendations
Research Topic
Identification
41
of a quantitative case study is found in its capacity to describe, illustrate, and explore a given
phenomenon (Yin, 2003). Survey was employed for several reasons. First, a major advantage
is that they are readily analyze and interpreted, as they are structured around key items and
topics. Second, they ensured confidentiality for the respondents who may be more inclined to
provide honest feedback if their identity remains undisclosed. Third, the quantitative results
can also be compared across the periods and group (Debowski, 2006, p.278). Fourth, they are
efficient data collection method when the researcher has a precise idea of what is required
and how to measure the variables (Sekaran, 2003). Since the researcher is interested in
determining the relationship between training and development and organizational
commitment, PsyCap and employee job satisfaction, self-reported measures was used as it
allow respondents to record their own perceptions of reality. Finally, the method represents
the most suitable methodology for the study of individuals‘ behaviour (Howard, 1994;
Spector 1994).
Lending support to this design is the fact that previous studies highlighted in the literature
review chapter used the same research design. This quantitative study, focus on a single case
public organization in The Gambia. Whist case studies lead to results that cannot necessarily
be generalized, but can be a basis of developing a relationship between variables (Colorado
State University, 2011)
Research Instrument
The research instrument used consists of a self-reported survey questionnaire to collect
the required data and to test the established hypotheses. The research instrument adopted was
developed by applying good practices and design principles as follow:
I. A cover letter was used to introduce the study and its purposes are clearly stated.
II. The questions are grouped into sections on the basis of their relevance and relationship.
III. Simple instructions were provided at the beginning of the questionnaire and at each
section.
IV. The questions are free from subjective tones in order to prevent bias.
The questions are applicable and answerable by participants.
V. Items were mixed together to reduced common bias methods
On the basis of the research purposes, the questionnaire consists of four sections: A)
training and development; B) organizational commitment; C) employee job satisfaction and
42
D) psychological capital. The participant background section was added as a fifth section in
order to provide a descriptive analysis of the survey respondents. This section contains
demographic information such as participants‘ age, gender, tenure, education and formal and
informal training receive. Given that this section was included merely for informative
purpose, the related questions are located at the end of the research instrument. This allowed
the researcher to begin the questionnaire with items which are the primary focus of the
research.
This survey questionnaire were measured using a 5–point Likert scale questionnaire over
the 6–point due to the following reason. Survey respondent might truly feel neutral about a
particular topic, presenting to these respondents a scale without a neutral midpoint can
introduce a bias as they are forced to choose a more positive or negative response. Some
researchers point out that in many cases, respondents accentuate the negative in an
experience (Gwinner, 2010). With a 5 point Likert scale is important for a legitimate opinion
that exists among respondents, and finally the scale has a midpoint which indicates neutrality
or mixed opinion. When calculating the mean weighted average, there is a standard point of
comparison. One will know that an average rating of 3.4 is above neural and a 2.8 is below
(Gwinner, 2010).
Measures
Table 3.2 gives the items that were used to measure the variables in this study. Each item
was given a code that is used in the statistical analysis of the data. The operational measures
of each construct are presented in (p.44). The texts of items for all scales are provided in
Appendix A.
Training and Development
Training and Development is the independent variable and divided into four sub variables
to reflect the complex role and influences on HRD practice. A scale were adapted from
Bartlett (2001) all variables included in the study are selected from well-established and
validated scales. These include four items to determine training motivation ((a=.76)
(Tharenou & Conroy, 1994), a shortened three–item scale from the perceived support of
training from colleagues scale (a=.83) and the six–item management training support scale
43
(a=.87) developed by Noe and Schmitt (1986,), and the five–item ―Training Benefits‖ scale
(a=.82) (Noe & Wilk, 1993).
Organizational Commitment
The study measured organizational commitment variable using Allen and Meyer‘s (1990)
questionnaire. The instrument was developed to measure organizational commitment as a
multidimensional concept which includes affective commitment, normative commitment and
continuous commitment (Meyer & Allen, 1997). This questionnaire comprises 24 structured
questions with 8 items in each dimension. The researchers established the reliability estimates
(internal consistencies) for this instrument as follows: .85 for affective, .79 for continuance
and .73 for normative, and its validity and reliability is evidenced in international samples
(Coleman, Irving, & Cooper. 2000; Yousef, 2000). Employees were instructed to rate , on the
basis of their personal observation, the extent to which their organisational commitment
regarding the described conditions on a 5 point Likert –type scale with scale anchors ranging
from ‗‘strongly agree to strongly disagree.
Psychological Capital
To measure psychological capital, the researcher adopts the measurement scale developed
by Harms and Luthans (2013). There are 24 items which includes three reverse-coded items
divided into four dimensions which are hope, resilience, optimism, and efficacy. Employees
were instructed to rate, on the basis of their psychological capital regarding the described
condition on 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).
The high score of scale indicates that people have higher level of psychological capital
(PsyCap). The Cronbach‘s alpha reliability of the PsyCap instrument is 0.87.
Employee Job Satisfaction
In measuring employee job satisfaction, attitude surveys are often used as they have
proven to be more effective and accurate since they provide a picture of how satisfied
employees are as well as explore the effectiveness of major job changes in attitude (Colquitt,
2010). Employee job satisfaction is used as a dependent and mediating variable in this study.
It was measured using the 15-item shortened version of the Job Diagnostic Survey (JDS)
(Hackman & Oldham, 1976). The JDS was originally developed for the social service sector
but it was shown to be adequate to use in other sectors as well (Roelen, Koopmans, &
44
Groothoff, 2008). The scale consists of five facets with three items in each facet. A 5-point
Likert type response was use and this format ranged from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly
agree). According to Loher, Noe, Moeller., & Fitzgerald, (1985), JDS is among the job
satisfaction measures that meet the quality criteria for reliability and validity. This is also
evident from the internal consistencies or coefficient alphas drawn from a sample of 3,067
individuals who completed the JDS. The coefficient alphas ranged from satisfaction of skill
variety to feedback of results subscale to 0.91 for the total scale (Hackman 1974).
Table 3.2.
Established Reliability of Variables
Dimension Factor Cronbach’s α Source
Training and
Development
Motivation of training .76 Tharenou and Conroy (1994)
Management Training
Support
.87 Noe and Schmitt (1986)
Training Benefits .82 Noe and Wilk, (1993)
Training support from
colleagues
.83 Noe and Schmitt (1986)
Organizational
Commitment
Affective .85
Meyer & Allen (1997) Continuance .79
Normative .73
Psychological
Capital
Efficacy
.87
Harms and Luthans (2013) Hope
Optimism
Resilience
Job Satisfaction Skills Variety
Task Identity
Task Significant
Autonomy
Feedback from Results
.
91
Hackman & Oldham, 1975
45
Reliability and Validity of the Instrument
This research adopted the same validity standard as the previous researchers on the
subject under study. The cultural setting in which the research is conducted also led this
researcher to adopt additional validity standards. The standard reliability methods adopted for
this research are given in Table 3.3, while validity methods are shown in Table 3.4.
Table 3.3.
Reliability Methods for this Research
Reliability Type Meaning How the Study Achieve Reliability
Reliability Test Refers to the probability that
an item will consistently
perform a required function
without failure under stated
conditions (Field, 2006)
Cronbach‘s alpha was computed for
each of the set of variables to provide
evidence for reliability. According to
Nunnally (1959) above 0.70 is generally
considered acceptable which both the
pilot and formal study attained. .
Table 3.4.
Validity Methods for this Research
Validity Type Meaning How the study achieves validity
Content and Face
Validity
Content validity is based on expert
judgments about the relevance of
the test content of a particular
behavioural domain of interest and
about the representativeness with
which item (Messick, 1990).
The instrument was examined by
two subject matter expert
Observational
Meaningfulness
The relationship between
theoretical constructs and their
operationalization (Bagozzi, 1980)
Previously validated measures are
used
46
Data Collection
Sampling
A target population is the group of people, objects, or events that the researcher wishes to
study (Cavana et al., 2001). The data collected from the Gambia Revenue Authority was
based on convenience sampling. The present study adopts the sampling strategy because the
researcher anticipated that theoretical and empirical linkages between, training and
development, employee job satisfaction, PsyCap, and organisational commitment would
remain robust, although in the case, considering the factor and organization type.
In addition, convenience sampling was used in order to retrieve a larger number of
completed responses quickly and efficiently as convenience sampling is a non-probability
method. This means that respondents are chosen in a non-random manner, and some
members of the population have no chance of being included. When time or cost is a factor,
convenience sampling becomes a useful sampling method (Kahl, 2010),
Numerous studies regarding organisational commitment conducted in a context of
various industries but this research is limited to The Gambia Revenue Authority and the
study was not conducted before. Against this backdrop, The Gambia is a suitable choice for
this research because of limited study conducted on these variables in public organizations.
Another reason is the remarkable changes public institutions are faced with. Thus, there is a
great need to identify and elucidates how organizations can handle the different processes
that occur within them.
Sample for the Study: The Gambia Revenue Authority
Specifically this research target one case organization, the Gambia Revenue Authority
(GRA). GRA is a semi-autonomous body corporate with a partial 'de jure' and de factor'
autonomy, providing its legal mandate to perform its inherent responsibilities, as a national
agency for the assessment, collection and enforcement of revenue collection due to
government in a fair and transparent manner. By and large, GRA was created by an Act of
the National Assembly called the Gambia Revenue Authority Act 2004. Distinctively, this
national institution is a combination of two renowned and distinct revenue departments, i.e.
the Customs and Excise Department (CED) and the Domestic Taxes Department (DTD),
formerly Central Revenue Department (CRD) - Income Tax Division, who are merged
47
together under one unified platform with a common purpose geared towards enhancing, and
channelizing effective domestic revenue mobilisation for a sustainable economic growth and
development. The GRA, as of 2014, the office has 615 employees on its payroll. GRA has a
training section under the HR unit and has been functional since 2007. This organization,
because of its accessibility and size, is a suitable representation of the target population.
Sample Size and Criteria Selection
The population for this study consist of full-time employees working at GRA for the
following reasons. Employees are the most important source of organization knowledge
because they possess the expertise necessary for managing organization successfully. The
sample size targeted for this study was 300 employees. To be eligible for this research the
sample had to meet general criteria for sampling which are;
I. Respondents must be fully employed within GRA. This means that part-time
employees and interns are not included in sample population.
II. Secondly, respondents must have at least one (I) year experience and receive
training (formal or on-the-job training).
These criteria are chosen because work experience is a good predictor of job knowledge
(Longoria, 1997).
Data Collection Procedure
The data used to conduct pilot and formal study were collected using various stages
through hand deliver and email survey. The researcher provided gift (pen, notebook and
headscarf) to enhance response rate. Data collection was carried out in various stages. In the
first stage, the researcher sends a letter to the participants explaining the purpose of the study
and requesting permission to be interview. In the second stage, after acceptance to conduct
the survey, paper-based surveys was hand-delivered to the case organization by the
researcher. The researcher was able to count with the assistance of a Human Resource
employee designated by the organization in helping with the distribution of the questionnaire.
In addition in order to facilitate access to all employees, the survey was also email to the
employees during the formal study
48
The email first assured confidentially of the information, followed by instruction of how
to participate in the survey. The next phase, participants were asked to complete the
questionnaire items for assessing training and development (TD), followed by psychological
capital (PsyCap), employee job satisfaction (JS), organizational commitment (OC) and
demographic characteristics by underlining or highlighting the response chosen.
The pilot study data was first collected from July through August and the formal study
data collected follow after establishing the instrument suitability.
Method of Data Analysis
The data analyses were carried out by using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS)
version 22.0 based on the following steps:
Descriptive Statistics
The primary function of descriptive statistics is to present research results clearly and
concisely (Healey, 2008). Thus, the researcher conducted descriptive statistics in order to
organize the data into a more presentable and interpretable form by summarizing sets of
numbers such as the means and standard deviation of the data. Furthermore, the descriptive
statistics assisted to demonstrate the relevance and the importance of the study
Confirmatory Factor Analysis.
The method of SPSS was used to perform confirmatory factors analysis (CFA) for testing
the factorial validity of the variables. The CFA conducted using Amos 2.2 was, based on the
covariance structure analysis, were one item per construct was fixed at 1 .0 and a simple
structure maintained. The validity was confirmed by showing that the fit indexes fell within
an acceptable range. The criteria are explained in p.63.
Correlation Analysis
Correlation analysis was conducted to examine the relationship between the independent,
mediator and dependent variables respectively. It was also carried out because it is the
primary test procedure required by Baron and Kenny (1986) in handling hierarchical
regression analysis. Based on their guidelines, the correlations among the independent
49
variables (i.e. training and development) should be significantly associated to the mediator
variables (i.e. psychological capital and employee job satisfaction).
Regressions Analysis
In order to analyze the mediating role of psychological capital and job satisfaction on the
relationship between training and development and organizational commitment, a
hierarchical regression approach was adopted. The hierarchical regression approach is a
three-step process as described by Baron and Kenny (1986). In the first step, the mediating
variables are regressed on the independent variables; second, the dependent variables are
regressed on the independent variables; and then the dependent variables are simultaneously
regressed on both the independent and mediator variables. On this basis, psychological
capital and job satisfaction should be considered as significant mediators when the following
conditions are met:
I. The independent variables (i.e. training and development) are significantly related to the
mediating variables (psychological capital and job satisfaction) in the first test;
II. The independent variables are significantly related to the dependent variables (i.e.
organizational commitment) in the second test;
III. The mediating variables (i.e. psychological capital and job satisfaction) are significantly
related to the dependent variables (i.e. organizational commitment).
Full mediation applies when an independent variable becomes insignificant
In the final test. Partial mediation exists when an independent variable is still significant in
the final test for mediation procedure. Multiple regressions were used to analyze the data for
the following reasons.
1. Multiple regressions extend analysis to encompass two or more Xs (predictor or cause)
variables. This capability helps analysts to both predict Y values, by explaining a larger
fraction of Y‘s variance.
2. It helps to study the relationship between Y and X while adjusting or controlling for the
effects of other X variables (Cohen et. al, 1983). Furthermore, multiple regressions are
especially an attractive procedure as the researcher is interested in investigating relationships.
Consequently, they are deemed to be the most suited methodology to carry out the research
purposes.
50
Pilot Study
A pilot study, also called a pilot experiment, is highly recommended for a researcher to
conduct before proceeding with a formal study. The pilot experiment can reveal deficiencies
in the design of a proposed research procedure, and these can then be addressed before the
large scale studies (Cohen et al., 2013). In case of this research, the pilot study was conducted
using convenience sampling to collect the data, in order to access the understand-ability,
language accuracy of the questions, and the time to complete the questionnaire. In addition it
was use to establish the validity and reliability of the survey instrument to show that it is
adequate for use in the formal study. The questionnaire went through the process of face
validity. It was then given to participants manually to fill. Construct validity was then
established after the questionnaire were collected from participant of the study and reliability
of the scales was also computed. The detailed process is formally stated below.
Face Validity
Face validity is a technique which verifies that the instrument measures what it is
supposed to, and whether the instrument ‗‗looks valid‘‘ to those who use it (Schiavetti et al.,
2011). The willingness of the respondents to complete the instrument is related to their
perception that the instrument measures the content they agreed to provide. Verifying the
understand-ability of the instrument is not an end in itself but it is generally seen as the means
to ensure items equivalence (Holden &Ronald 2010). Subject Matter Experts in the field of
human resource management and a management lecturer review the questionnaire on the
20th July 2014 to gauge whether the questionnaire measures the working environment. One
of those consulted had management expertise of more than eight (8) years with extended
knowledge of HR and research; the second expert had an extensive knowledge of research,
Language, and Management. The expert suggested the questionnaire of 122 items is a lot for
the study and might affect the reliability. The comments and feedback obtained from the
expert was use to refined the questionnaire.
As a result of the feedback obtained, the approximate time stated for completing the
questionnaire was adjusted to 30 minutes. Training and development and organisational
commitment construct were reduced to 21 and 23 respectively since the expert argue that
there a similar items in the training construct which they suggest should be deleted. Later the
final version was send to the respondents. From the proposal defence the committee
51
recommended Hackman and Oldham job satisfaction questionnaire and that was used to
replace the Job Satisfaction Survey (JSS) instrument by Spector, (1985)
Pilot Study Participants
The pilot study participants were 40 employees from three department domestic tax,
custom and excise duty and finance. 36 participants filled out the questionnaire and returned
to the researcher. Using this data , the results of the reliability test for the 4 constructs,
namely training and development (21 items), organizational commitment (23items),
psychological capital(24 items), and employee job satisfaction (15 items) indicates the
internal consistency of the constructs ranging from .70 and .92 was acceptable. Thus, the
reliability of the construct of one dimension on training (assess to training) (3 items)
indicated a reliability of .238 which was not acceptable. This low Cronbach‘s alpha value
may be explained by the possibility that that the questions were not appropriate thus resulting
to divergent internal consistency. Also some respondent know they have access to training
but the organization do not provide a clear career path for the employees. Therefore, the
assess to training was dropped from further analysis.
Construct Reliability
Now, the researcher established the construct reliability to justify the use of the survey
instrument and modify the scales. Table 3.5 gives the reliability of the scales as found by
analysis of pilot study data. Except for access to training, each dimensions reliabilities is
more than 0 .7 and therefore it is generally acceptable and suitable for the formal study
52
Table 3.5
Reliability of Variables
Dimension Factor No.of Items Cronbach’s α
Training and
Development
1)Training Support from college
2)Management Training support
3)Motivation of Training
4)Benefit of Training
5)Assess to Training1
3
6
4
5
3
0.772
0.903
0.891
0.812
0.238
Psychological
capital
1).Self-Efficacy
2) Hope
3) Resilience
4) Optimism
6
6
6
6
0.882
0.789
0.919
0.922
Job Satisfaction
1)Skills Variety
2)Task Identity
3)Task Significant
4) Autonomy
5)Feedback from Result
3
3
3
3
3
0.817
0.868
0.841
0.765
0.748
Organisational
Commitment
1) Affective commitment
2) Continuance Commitment
3)Normative Continuance
8
8
7
0.917
0.838
0.894
In summary, this phase outlined the methodology and sampling of the pilot study. It also
outlined the validity and reliability of the survey instrument before and after the pilot study
and thus justified the use of this instrument for the main study. Therefore with this
satisfactory statistical base, the researcher now proceeds to conduct the main study
1 The grey colour indicates it below the minimum acceptable reliability standard and was dropped from further analysis.
53
CHAPTER IV RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
This chapter presents the finding of this study, descriptive statistics about the sample, and the
psychometric characteristics of the measures. It then proceeds to present statistical methods for
confirmatory factor analysis to increase the accuracy of the analysis presented. The third part
illustrates the statistical analysis of the data collected, specifically bivariate correlation analysis,
linear and multiple regression analysis. Finally, the chapter presents a summary of the research
findings and discussions of the results.
Descriptive Statistics
Sample Characteristics
After modifying the instrument through reliability and validity procedures in the research
methods part, the formal study was conducted by distributing 300 questionnaires with in The
Gambia Revenue Authority. Out of the number of questionnaires received, 257 are valid and 6
invalid. This led to a response rate of 85.6%. The sampling characteristics of the variable are given
in Table 4.1. The 257 data collected, 132 respondents were completed by male (51.4%) and female
116(45.1%). As indicated, most respondents are between the ages of 20 to 30 years (42%) and have
at least diploma / advance diploma (42%). This indicates that GRA have a young population
compare to older population. Almost all the respondent received some type of informal training and
formal training, at least 117 (45.5%) of respondent receive training once or twice, while 145 (56.4%)
received some formal training. from the Authority at least once. Though there are some percentages
that do not receive training (7.4%), there is an indication that the Authority does organized formal
training to employees.
The percentages in the sample do not add up to 100%, because there are some invalid responses
in the demographic questions. This could simply be because respondents missed the question, did
not give a valid response or choose not to answer the question. Table 4.1 indicated the
demographics variables of the sample and the valid and invalid responses for each category.
54
Table 4.1
Demographic Characteristics of the Sample
Variable Category Frequency Percentage%
D1-Gender Male
Female
Invalid
132
116
9
51.4
45.1
3.5
D2-Age Less than 20 years
20-- 30 years
31—40 years
41-50
Above 50 years
Invalid /Missing
0
109
82
37
6
23
0
42.4
31.9
14.4
2.3
8.9
D3-Education Certificate
Diploma
Bachelors
Masters
PhD
Missing/Invalid
72
115
53
4
0
13
28.0
44.7
20.6
1.6
0
14
D4-Work Experience Less than 1 year
1year to 5years
6 to 10years
11 to 15years
More than 15years
Missing
0
113
97
38
3
6
0
44.0
37.7
14.8
1.2
2.3
D5-Informal Training 0
1-2 times
3-4 times
5-6times
7-8 times
More than 8 times
Missing
0
117
103
19
11
0
7
0
45.5
40.1
7.4
4.3
0
2.7
D6- Formal Training no formal training -0
1-2 times
3-4 times
5-6times
7-8 times
Missing
19
145
71
13
0
9
7.4
56.4
27.6
5.1
0
3.5
55
Psychometric Characteristics of the Measures
This section describes the mean scores and standard deviation of the each dimension in the
study. During the data inputting there are some reversed coded items which have been positively
coded and interpreted before the analyses were conducted. Most researchers generally accepted that
the higher the mean value, the more likely employees viewed the related attribute important in
affecting the constructs. While a high standard deviation means that there was a lot of variation in
the answers (Bland & Altman, 1996).
In addition, this study conducted a confirmatory factor analysis to examine and confirm the
appropriateness of the factor loadings for the questionnaire items and the factorial validity of the
measures. The CFA was conducted base on covariance structure analyses, where the first observed
variable of a latent variable was fixed at 1 and a simple structure maintained. The factorial validity
was confirmed by showing that the goodness-of fit indexes fell within an acceptable range. The
analysis of the mean scores, standard deviations and confirmatory factor analysis of variables were
illustrated as follows.
Descriptive Statistics of Training and Development
Training and development was measured using 18 item of 5-point Likert scale ranging from
strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5). Table 4.2 gives the descriptive analysis of training and
development. From the table, the highest mean score was found to be ‗‗TD-PMT13: I am willing
to invest effort to improve skills and competencies in order to have career progression (M= 4.05).
This means that on average participants agree that they are willing to improve their skills. The
lowest mean score was found with ‗‗TD-BT17: training will result in more opportunities to pursue
different career paths (3.29). This indicates that on average participants were fairly ‗‗neutral‘‘ on
this items. The items for perception of training and development ranged from neutral (3)‘‘to agree
(4). Respondents were more consistent in answering items ‗‗TD-PMT10: I try to learn as much as I
can from training programs‘‘, since it had the lowest standard deviation (SD=0.638). Employees
were also least consistent in answering item ‗‗TD-BT17: training will result in more opportunities
to pursue different career paths (SD=1.066).
Finally, motivation of training had the highest mean score (M=3.96) indicating that personal
motivation of training had the highest rating among the four dimensions of training and
development.
56
Table 4.2
Descriptive Statistics for Training and Development
Construct Code Questionnaire Items Mean Std. Dev
Training support from colleagues 3.65 .926
TD-TSC1 I can count on my co-workers to provide me with help and
services needed to complete my job assignments. 3.69 .920
TD-TSC2* My co-workers tend to resist my efforts to apply new
knowledge or skills on the job 3.56 .887
TD-TSC3* More experienced co-workers are usually reluctant to give
me guidance 3.72 .968
Management Training Support 3.59 .868
TD-TSS4 I feel comfortable discussing my skill weaknesses with my
manager. 3.46 .925
TD-TSS5 My manager is supportive of my efforts to acquire new
knowledge and skills 3.53 .717
TD-TSS6 My employer values development of new skills or
acquisition of new knowledge. 3.92 .774
TD-TSS7 When I make a mistake, my manager usually treats it as a
learning experience that can prevent failure and improve
performance in the future.
3.54 .956
TD-TSS8 My manager shares information with me about problems or
trends in the company that can influence my career plans. 3.63 .918
TD-TSS9 My manager makes sure I get the training needed to remain
in the organization and be effective in my job. 3.51 .919
Motivation of Training 3.96 .764
TD-PMT10 I try to learn as much as I can from training programs. 3.89 .638
TD-PMT11 I am usually motivated to learn the skills emphasized in
training programs. 3.90 .669
TD-PMT12 I am willing to invest effort to improve skills and
competencies related to my current job.
4.02
1.04
Continued
57
Table 4.4 (Continued)
Construct Code Questionnaire Items Mean Std. Dev
TD-PMT13 I am willing to invest effort to improve skills and
competencies in order to have career progression 4.05 .708
Training Benefits 3.58 .872
TD-BT14 Participating in training programs help my personal
developing 3.44 .864
TD-BT15 increase my chances of performing better 3.57 .778
TD-BT16 result in having to do extra work that would add value 3.97 .681
TD-BT17 Result in more opportunities to pursue different career path 3.29 1.066
TD-BT18 Help me stay up-to-date on new processes and products or
procedures related to my job.
3.65 .974
Note: 1. N=257
2. TSC= Training Support from Colleague; MTS= Management Training Support; PMT=
Personal Motivation of Training; TB=Training Benefits
3. The 5-pont Likert-type scale is used (lowest scores indicate strongly disagree (1) and
high scores means strongly agree (5) to each statement)
4.*represent training and development reverse coded items
Descriptive Statistics for Organisational Commitment Scale
Table 4.3 illustrated for the organisational commitment measure, most of the respondents
showed a high agreement with affective and normative commitment than continuance commitment.
However the respondents agree with item OC-N20 (Mean 4.04), implying that they feel one of the
major reasons they continue to work in this organization imply they believe loyalty is important and
therefore feel a sense of moral obligation to remain. The lowest mean score was found to be a
continuance commitment item ‗‗OC-C 13: Right now, staying with my organization is a matter of
necessity as much as desire‘‘ (M=3.39). This indicates that on average participants were fairly
‗‗neutral‘‘ on this items. All responses to organisational commitment items therefore ranged from
neutral (3) to agree (4)
The respondents were more consistent in answering item ‗‗OC-A8: I do not feel a strong sense
of belonging to my organization‘‘ since it had the lowest standard deviation (SD= 0.726). Persons
58
were also the least consistent in answering items ‗‗OC-13: Right now, staying with my organization
is a matter of necessity as much as desire‘ (SD=1.204 follow by ‗‗OC-C11: Too much in my life
would be disrupted if I decided to leave my organization now‘‘ (SD=1.148
Finally, normative commitment had a higher mean score (M=3.78) indicating that it could
possibility be the more dominant reason for organisational commitment of employees.
Table 4.3
Descriptive Statistics for Organisational Commitment
Construct Code Questionnaire Items Mean Std. Dev
Affective Commitment (OC-A) 3.69 .898
OC-A1 I would be very happy to spend the rest of my career in this
organization 3.43 .977
OC-A2 I enjoy discussing about my organization with people outside it 3.81 .838
OC-A3 I really feel as if this organization‘s problems are my own 3.48 .866
OC-A4* I think that that I could easily become as attached to another
organisation as I am to this one 3.67 .904
OC-A5* I do not feel like ―part of the family‖ at my organization 3.86 .962
OC-A6 I do not feel ―emotionally attached‖ to this organization. 3.71 1.064
OC-A7 This organization has a great deal meaning for me.5 3.87 .854
OC-A8* I do not feel a strong sense of belonging to my organization. 3.73 .726
Continuance Commitment 3.53 1.038
OC-C9* I am not afraid of what might happen if I quit my job without having
another one lined up. 3.61 1.040
OC-C10 It would be very hard for me to leave my organization right now,
even if I wanted 3.80 .950
OC-C11 Too much in my life would be disrupted if I decided to leave my
organization now 3.45 1.148
OCC12* It wouldn‘t be too costly for me to leave my organization now. 3.56 1.110
OC-C13 Right now, staying with my organization is a matter of necessity as
much as desire. 3.19 1.204
OC-C14 I feel that I have very few options to consider leaving this
organization. 3.51 .932
59
continued
Table 4.3(Continued)
Construct Code Questionnaire Items Mean Std. Dev
OC-C15 One of the few serious consequences of leaving this organization
would be the scarcity of available alternatives 3.65 1.005
OC-C16 One of the major reasons I continue to work for this organization is
that leaving would require considerable personal sacrifice—another
organization may not match the overall benefits I have here.
3.54 .915
Normative Commitment 3.78 .884
OC-N17 I think that people these days move from company to company
too often 3.95 .905
OCN18* I do not believe that a person must always be loyal to his or her
organization 3.84 .927
OCN19* Jumping from organization to organization does not seem at all
unethical to me 4.05 .813
OC-N20 One of the major reasons I continue to work in this organization is
that I believe loyalty is important and therefore feel a sense of moral
obligation to remain
3.79 .802
OC-N21 If I got another offer for a better job elsewhere I would not feel it was
right to leave my organization 3.59 1.067
OC-N22 I was taught to believe in the value of remaining loyal to one
organization. 3.67 .891
OC-N23 Things were better in the days when people stayed in one
organization for most of their careers 3.61 .783
Note: 1. N=257
2. TOC-A= Affective Commitment; TOC-C= continuance commitment; TOC-N= normative
Commitment
3. The 5-pont Likert-type scale is used (lowest scores indicate strongly disagree (1) and
high scores means strongly agree (5) to each statement))
4 *represent organisational commitment reverse coded items
60
Descriptive Statistics for Employee Job Satisfaction
Regarding employee job satisfaction measure indicated in Table 4.4, that most of the
respondents showed a high agreement to ‗‗JS-TI 4 :I feel satisfied with my job as it allows me with
the opportunity to complete the work I start‘‘ indicates that employees feel a sense of pride as they
are allow to complete task they started. The Lowest score ‗‗JS-TS7: The work is arranged so that I
have a chance to do things for other people (M=3.38).
The respondents were more consistent in answering item ‗‗JS-FR14: My job provides me with
the opportunity to find out how well I am doing (job evaluation)‘‘ since it had the lowest standard
deviation (SD= 0.734). Employees were also the least consistent in answering items ‗‗JS-FR13: I
am Satisfy with feedback provided on how well I am performing at work‘‘ (SD=1.007), follow by
‗‗JS-TI5: My job is arranged so that I have a chance to do the job from one stage to the other‘‘
(SD=0.964)
Table 4.4
Descriptive Statistics for Employee Job Satisfaction
Code Question Items Mean S.D
JS-SV1 I am satisfy with my job as it provide me with opportunity that
improve my skills 3.68 .866
JS-SV2 It provide me with a variety of work 3.79 .818
JS-SV3 Give me an opportunity to do different tasks 3.63 .862
JS-TI 4 I feel satisfied with my job as it allows me with the opportunity to
complete the work I start 3.93 . 800
JS-TI 5 My job is arranged so that I have a chance to do the job from one
stage to the other 3.57 .964
JS-TI6 The task is arranged so that I may see work assignment through to
their final completion 3.74 .839
JS-TS 7 The work is arranged so that I have a chance to do things for other
people. 3.38 .907
JS-TS 8 The task is relatively significant in the organization 3.83 .806
JS-TS9 The task is very significant in the broader scheme of things 3.47 .817
JS-A 10 I am Satisfied with the autonomy to do my own work 3.65 .889
Continued
61
Table 4.4(continued)
Code Question Items Mean SD
JS-A 11 Provides the opportunity for independent thought and action 3.56 .827
JS-A12 My job gives me considerable opportunity for independence and
freedom in how I do my work 3.61 .908
JS-FR13 I am Satisfy with feedback provided on how well I am performing
as I am working 3.66 1.007
JS-FR14 My job provides me with the opportunity to find out how well I am
doing (job evaluation) 3.78 .734
JS-FR 15 Provides me with feeling that I know whether I am performing
well or poorly (performance appraisal 3.60 .905
Note: 1. N=257
2. Employees Job Satisfaction (JS-SV= Skill Variety; JS-TI=Task Identity; JS-TS=Task
Significant; JS-A= Autonomy; JS-FR= Feedback of Results
3. The 5-pont Likert-type scale is used (low scores indicate strongly dissatisfy (1) and high
scores means very satisfied (5) to each statement)
Descriptive Statistic for Psychological Capital
In relation to psychological capital, ‗‗PC-SE1, I feel confident analysing a long-term problem to
find a solution (M=3.89‘‘ and ‗‗PC-SE 5: I feel confident contributing to discussions about the
company's strategy‘‘ (M=3.89). These showed GRA employees agree that they have confident in
contributing to the organization and will participate to find a solution to long-term problem of the
authority. However, PC-R 17 ‗‗I feel that I can handle many things at a time at this job‘‘ gathered
the lowest mean (M=3.28). This suggests that employees are rather neutral towards handling many
tasks at the same time. All response to PsyCap ranged from neutral (3) to agree (4)
From the table 4.5, employees were more consistent in answering items ‗‗PC-SE1: I feel
confident analysing a long-term problem to find a solution‘‘ since it had the lowest standard
Deviation (SD=O.691). The respondents were also the least consistent in answering ‗
‗‗PC-O23: In this job, things never work out the way I want them to‘‘ (SD=1.047. Overall self-
efficacy had highest average mean score (M=3.815) indicating that it could possibly be the more
dominant factor in psychological capital.
62
Table 4.5
Descriptive Statistics for Psychological Capital
Code Question Items Mean SD
PC-SE1 I feel confident analysing a long-term problem to find a solution 3.89 .691
PC-SE2 I feel confident in representing my work area in meetings with
management. 3.75 .804
PC-SE3 I feel confident helping to set targets / goals in my work area 3.83 .800
PC-SE4 I feel confident contacting people outside the organisation (e.g
suppliers, customers) to discuss problems 3.74 .883
PC-SE5 I feel confident contributing to discussions about the company's
strategy 3.89 .810
PC-SE6 I feel confident presenting information to a group of colleagues 3.77 .817
PC-H7 If I should find myself in a jam at work, I could think of many
ways to get out of it. 3.67 .899
PC-H8 At present time, I am energetically pursuing my work goals. 3.78 .843
PC-H9 There is a lots of ways around any problem 3.85 .803
PC-H10 Right now I see myself as being pretty successful at work. 3.76 .816
PC-H11 I can think of many ways to reach my current work goals 3.51 1.020
PC-H12 At this time, I am meeting the work goals that I have set for
myself. 3.68 .923
PC-R13* When I have set back at work, I have trouble recovering from it ,
moving on 3.66 .905
PC-R14 I usually take stressful things at work in stride. 3.61 1.002
PC-R15 I can be ―on my own‖ so to speak at work if I have to. 3.76 .941
PC-R16 I can get through difficult times at work because I've experienced
difficulty before. 3.68 .932
PC-R17 I feel that I can handle many things at a time at this job 3.48 .985
PC-R18 I usually manage difficulties one way or another at work 3.74 .927
PC-O19 When things are uncertain for me at work, I usually expect the
best 3.74 .860
Continued
63
Table 4.5 (continued)
Code Questionnaire Items Mean Std. Dev
PC-020* If something can go wrong for me work-wise, it will 3.70 .892
PC-O21 I always look on the bright side of things regarding my job. 3.76 .832
PC-O22 I‘m optimistic about what will happen to me in the future as it
pertains to work. 3.61 .916
PC-O23* In this job, things never work out the way I want them to 3.62 1.047
PC-O24 I approach this job as if ‗‗ every cloud has a silver lining‘‘ 3.69 .941
Note: 1. N=257
2. Psychological Capital (PC-SE= Self efficacy; PC-H= Hope; PC-R= Resilience; PC-Optimism
3. The 5-pont Likert-type scale is used (lowest scores indicate strongly disagree (1) and
high scores means strongly agree (5) to each statement)
4. *represent Psychological capital reverse coded items
Confirmatory Factor Analysis Results
The Method of SPSS Amos was used to compute the confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) in
order to test the factorial validity of the constructs. Generally, models with lower Chi/DF, RMSEA
(Root mean square error of appropriation) and χ 2 are better values while higher IFI (Incremental Fix
index), CFI (Comparative fix index), NFI (normed fit index), and TLI (Tucker Lewis Index-Non
normed fit index) values are better models. χ 2 /df values between 0 <2 or 3 and GFI (Goodness Fit
Index) 90 and above are said to be the best fitting models for a given data. In addition, good models
have an RMSEA of 0.5 or less (Kenny, 2010). IFI, CFI and TLI greater than 90, in some instances
80 are acceptable and are indicated as a good fit. However, the closer they are to 1 the better the
variables fit. This study base the analysis on the criteria shown in table 4.6. There after the CFA for
the different variables are presented:
64
Table 4.6
Criteria for Evaluating CFA Results
Evaluating Results: Which Fit indices & What Values
Decision
Goodness of Fit
χ 2/df CFI
Badness of fit
RMSEA SRMR
Good >.5 >. 95 < .05 <.06
Acceptable >.5 >.90 <.08 <.08
Marginal >.01 .85-89 <.10
Reject <.01 <.85 >.10 >.08
Source: Good fit criteria Adapted from Fan, and Sivo, (2007). Multivariate Behavioral
Research, 42(3), 509-529. Copyright 2007 by Taylor & Francis.
Training and Development
The analysis results of sampling adequacy for training and development data (n=257) results
showed the suitability of the data for analysis. The table 4.7 presents the CFA results for the
training and developments scale. The factor loading χ 2/ /df values were explained and reported. The
training and development factor loadings for the four variables range between .34 and .87 (p <.001).
Although, the reliability of individuals subscales should be further enhanced, such as MTS =0. 34.
Overall, the quality of the factor loading was acceptable (R2
> .5) (Tabachnick &Fidell, 2007). The
chi-squared value (χ 2/df = 2.4), goodness-fit indices (NFI=.823, IFI=889, GFI= 882, RMSEA=073)
indicated that the variables items need to be further enhanced but it can be acceptable in the criteria
of Hu & Bentler (1999). The Cronbach‘s coefficient alpha of the 4 sub scale were 0 .85(TSC), .768
(MTS), 0 .796 (PMT), 0 .845(TB), and that overall Training and development scale was 0.81,
indicating acceptable internal consistency.
Table 4.7
Confirmatory Factor Analysis Results for Training and Development
Factor Item noa. λ α χ 2/df RMSEA CFI NFI IFI TLI GFI
TSCb
3 .87 .851
MTSc
6 .34 768 2.4 .073 .887 .823 .889 .866 .889
PMTd
4 .57 796
TBe
5 .65 845
Note. a = number of question items on the scale;
b =Training Support from Colleagues; c
=Management Training Support; d
= Motivation of Training; e = Training Benefit; λ=Standardized
Factor Loadings; n=257; α=Cronbach‘s Alpha
65
Organizational Commitment
This variables (affective, continuance, normative), aims to access the extent of employees
commitment in GRA. As shown in the table 4.8, the results of the confirmatory factor analysis
(CFA) for the organizational commitment scales indicated that all parameter of the dimension
estimates of the factor loadings ranging between .61 and 82 were significant (P< .001). The
χ 2/df=1.21 and the goodness-of –fit indices and alternative indices (GFI= 0.91, NFI= 0.90, RMSEA
= 0.037) indicated that the data was acceptable
The Cronbach‘s Alpha as for the 3 subscales was 0.829 (Affective), 0.713 (Continuance), 0.89
(Normative) and that for an overall OC scale was 0.80, Indicating satisfactory internal consistency.
Table 4.8
Confirmatory factor Analysis for Organisational Commitment Scale
Factor Item noa. λ α χ 2/df RMSEA CFI NFI IFI TLI GFI
ACb
8 .78 0.829
CCc
8 .61 0.713 1.21 .037 .917 .891 .917 .901 .91
NCd
7 .82 0.89
Note. a = number of question items on the scale;
b =Affective Commitment; c =continuance
Commitment; d
= Normative Commitment; λ=Standardized Factor Loadings; n=257;
α=Cronbach‘s Alpha
Psychological Capital
This variable aims to assess the extent of employee‘s psychological capital. As shown in the
table 4.9, the results of the confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) for the PsyCap scales indicated that
all parameter of the dimension estimates of the factor loadings ranging between .32 and 79 were
partly significant (P<.001). The Chi- square test was 288.732 p < .001) and the χ 2/df 2.46. The
goodness-of –fit indices are alternative indices (GFI=0.836, NFI=758, RMSEA =0.08) indicated
that the data can be acceptable
The Cronbach‘s coefficient Alpha as for the 4 subscales was, 0 .829 (self-efficacy), 0. 765
(hope), 0.701 (optimism), 0.788 (resilience), and for the overall PsyCap scale were 0. 78. Indicating
satisfactory internal consistency
66
Table 4.9
Confirmatory factor Analysis for Psychological Capital
Factor Item noa. λ α χ 2/df RMSEA CFI NFI IFI TLI GFI
SEb
6 .79 .829
Hc
6 .47 .765 2.46 .082 .845 .758 .849 .814 .836
Rd
6 .32 .701
0e 6 .68 .788
Note. a = number of question items on the scale;
b =Self-Efficacy;
c =Hope ;
d =Resilience;
e =
Optimism; λ=Standardized Factor Loadings; n=257; α=Cronbach‘s Alpha
Employee Job Satisfaction
This variable aimed to access the extent of employee‘s satisfaction at the GRA and as shown in
the table 4.10, the results of the confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) for Job satisfaction scale
indicated the parameter of the variable estimate of the factor loadings is 0.79 was significant (P
<.001). The Chi- square test was (χ 2=131.450). The goodness-of –fit indices are alternative indices
(GFI=0.952, NFI=0.97, RMSEA =0.013) indicated that the data is acceptable
The Cronbach‘s Alpha coefficients for employee job satisfaction was 0.907, indicating
satisfactory internal consistency.
Table 4.10
Confirmatory Factor Analysis for Employee Job Satisfaction
Factor Item noa. λ Α χ 2/df RMSEA CFI NFI IFI TLI GFI
EJSb
15 .79 0.907 1.21 .013 .945 .931 .97 .946 .952
Note. a = number of question items on the scale;
b=Employee Job Satisfaction; λ=Standardized
Factor Loadings; n=257; α=Cronbach‘s Alpha
In addition, CFA was tested to gauge the internal consistency and accuracy of the data in order
to improve the validity and quality of the data under study. However, before the formal study, the
researcher adopt additional validity standards, to reduce the potential threat of Common Method
Variance (CMV) which leads to Type 1 and Type 11 errors (Spector & Brannick, 2010), which
might happen as a result of self-report, because all variables were measured using the same Likert-
type scale. CMV happens when measures of two or more variables are collected from the same
67
respondents and are assessed with the same method. This study follows some strategies to reduce
the treats of CMV (Podsakoff & Organ 1986) and they are;
I. The question items scale were mixed in random order
II. The names of the variables were not shown in the questionnaire and the questionnaire was
filled anonymously.
III. The researcher used a common language to determine information required from the
respondents
Hypothesis Tests
This section presents the information of the analysis results of the bivariate correlations,
followed by the multiple and linear regression establishment and the results of the hypothesis
verification. Further details are provided in the following paragraph.
Correlation among the Variables
Correlation analysis was conducted to examine the relationship between the independent
variables, dependent variable and demographics variables respectively. These relationships between
all variables in the current study were investigated by using Pearson coefficients (see Table 4, 11).
Citing from Kenny‘s (1986) data analysis guidelines, this research considered correlations
between .10/ -.10 and .29/-.29 as low correlation; .30/-.30 and .49/.-49 as moderate correlations
between .50/-.50 to 1.00/-1.00 as high.
According to Table 4.11, there is a significant correlation between informal training and work
experience (r= .504, p< 0.01). This might be due to the fact that GRA train employees on the job
especially, those that are confirm after six months. In addition, work experience is positively
correlated with age(r= .178, p < 0.05). This might indicate that middle age employees have more
work experience in the authority
Formal training was found to be positively correlated with work experience (r= .246, p<0.05).
This might indicate that the number of years in the organization can determine the likelihood of
experiencing formal training. Moreover, formal training was found to be negatively correlated with
informal training (r= -.096, p < 0.01). This might indicate that the number of times an employee
received informal training does not determine participation in informal training. Training support
from colleagues has a negative relationship with work experience (r= -.009, p<0.1), and has high
positive correlation with informal training (r= .546, p <0.1), and a negative correlation with formal
68
training (r=.-0.22, p<0.01). From these relationships, it can be assumed that training supports from
colleagues have a positive relationship with work experience and informal training.
In addition, training support from colleagues indicate a low positive significant correlations
with Job satisfaction (r= .255, p < 0.05), PsyCap (r= .181, p < 0.05), and affective commitment
(r= .215, p < 0.01). It also has moderate correlation with continuance commitment (r= .457, p <
0.01) and high positive correlation with normative (r= .72, p < 0.01). From these relationships, it
can be assumed that training supports is positively related with the organisational commitment
variables, job satisfaction, and PsyCap.
Management training support also shows a negative correlations with age (r= -.028, p < 0.01),
whereas it has it low positive significant correlation with work experience (r= .212, p < < 0.05) and
PsyCap (r= .228, p<0.05). In addition, the results indicate that management training support has
positive significant correlations with training support from colleagues (r=.369, p < 0.01), job
satisfaction (r= .57, p<0.01), affective commitment (r=.472, p < 0.01), Normative commitment
(r= .266, p <0.01) and continuance commitment (r= .380, p<0.01). Therefore, it can be concluded
that management training support is positively associated with years of experience, training support
from colleagues, Job satisfaction, PsyCap and organisational commitment variables
Personal motivation of training shows a low positive significant relationship with employee job
satisfaction (r=.225, p < 0.01), and PsyCap (r=.145, p <0.01). The results also found a moderate
positive significant relationship with affective commitment (r=.361, p < 0.01), continuance
commitment (r= .378, p < 0.01), and a high significant positive relationship with normative
commitment (r=.592, p< 0.01). Based on these results, personal motivation training is positively
related with organisational commitment variables, employee job satisfaction and PsyCap.
Training benefits shows a low positive significant relationship with PsyCap (r=.294, p < 0.01),
continuance commitment (r=.247, p <0.05). Furthermore, training benefits has a moderate positive
correlation with normative commitment (r=.485, p < 0.01), employee job satisfaction(r=.468, p <
0.01), and a high positive correlation with affective commitment (r=.504, p< 0.01). Therefore, one
can conclude that training benefits is positively related with organisational commitment, job
satisfaction and PsyCap.
Finally, employee job satisfaction shows a moderate positive association with normative
(r=.464, p ≤ 0.01), and continuance commitment (r=.316, p < 0.01). A high positive correlation
with affective (r=.523, p<0.01) and PsyCap (r=.625, p<0.01). In addition, PsyCap shows a low
positive significant relationship with affective (r=.208, p < 0.05), continuance (r=.186, p < 0.01),
69
and normative (r=.236, p < 0.05). At last, the correlations among certain independent variables are
relatively high as for example, the correlation (r=.72, p < 0.01) between training support from
colleagues and normative commitment is acceptable on the basis of Kennedy (1979) which stated
that for hypothesis testing, multicollinearity is not considered problematic until correlations reach
0.75. In addition, in order to rule out the possibility that significant multicollinearity might exist
between these two variables, the tolerance and variance inflation factor (VIF) values were
examined for evidence of collinearity. As a rule of thumb tolerance values less than 0.3 and VIF
values greater than 4.0 are indicative of multicollinearity problems (Hair et al., 2006). The
Tolerance value for training support from colleagues and normative commitment was below this
cut-off criterion since it was .72. With respect to the variance inflation factor (VIF), the respective
VIF value was 1.947 and since it was lower than 4, it can be concluded that multicollinearity is not
an issue for the study. The findings from the correlations are pertinent to provide significant
findings of the study. Therefore table 4.11 Present correlation analyses of the variables;
70
Table 4.11
Correlations Analysis
Measures a 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
1 AGE
2. W.E .178*
3. INF T .162* .502**
4. F.T .056 .246* -.096
5.TSC -.166* -.009 .546** .022 .
6.MTS -.028* -.212
* .020 .003 .468
**
7.PMT -.052 .110 .022 -.059 .369**
.414**
. .
8 .TD-TB -.086 -.075 -.008 .026 .274* .358
** .413
** . .
9. 0C-A -.046 -.095 .226* -.068 .215
* .472
** .361
** .504
**
10. OC-C -.022 -.104 .029 -.055 .457**
.380**
.378**
.247**
.402**
11. TOC-N -.124 -.080 -.017 .007 .723**
.266* .592
** .485
** .444
** .329
**
12. TTPC .025 -.031 -.007 .050 .181* .228
** .145* -.232
** .208
** .186
* .237
*
13. TEJS -.097 -.126* -.030 .136* .255**
.571**
.225* .468
** .523
** .316
** .464
** .625
**
Note. a WE= work experience; INF.T=Informal Training; FT= formal training; TSC= Training Support from Colleague; 6. MTS= Management Training Support;
PMT= Personal Motivation of Training; TB=Training Benefits; TOC-A= Affective Commitment; TOC-C= continuance commitment; TOC-N= normative
Commitment; PC=Psychological Capital; EJS= Employee Job Satisfaction. n= 257. ** p <.01; * p < .05Two tailed test
71
The Relationship between the Variables
The Pearson product moment correlation analysis supports a significant relationship
between the variables under this study, thus since correlation does not simply imply causation
and the study are concern with the relationships between the variables. The researchers
conduct a linear and multiple regressions to find the influence training and development, job
satisfaction, PsyCap on organisational commitment and the mediating effect of job
satisfaction and PsyCap on training and organisational commitment relationship are explored.
The researchers examined this hypothesis below;
Training and Development and Employee Job Satisfaction
The first hypothesis of this study tested whether the relationship between training and
development and employee job satisfaction exists and if it is positive. To examine this
relationship, job satisfaction was set as the dependent variable with training and development
variables as the independent variable. Based on the results, the overall fit of the model is R2=
0.247 meaning the training construct explained approximately 25% of the variation in the
employee job satisfaction variable. Furthermore, the F value of 13.80 (p <.001), indicates that
the relationship between training and development and employee job satisfaction are
positively significant
Table 4.12
Multiple Regression Analysis Summaries of Training and Development dimensions and job
satisfaction
Model
Unstandardized Coefficients
Standardized
Coefficients
T Β Std. Error Β
1 (Constant) 2.380 .220 10.807
TTD-TSC .035 .046 060* .755
TTD-MTS 1.04 .172 .724*** 5.68
TTD-PMT .133 .053 .211* 2.488
TTD-BT .237 .048 .393** 4.989
Adjusted R2= .
247
F 13.809***
Note: 1. Predictors: (Constant), training and development dimensions (TSC= Training
Support from Colleague;. MTS= Management Training Support; PMT=
personal Motivation of Training; TB=Training Benefits)
2. Dependent Variable: Employee job satisfaction
3. *p< .05, **p< .01, ***P <.001
72
Additionally, the results indicate the probability of the t-value (.75) for the Beta
coefficient (p<.05) for this relationship between training support from colleagues and job
satisfaction is positively significant. Therefore the hypothesis that there is a positive
relationship between training support from colleagues and job satisfaction is supported. This
results is similar to the findings by Mowday, et al (1979), Becker (1992), who highlighted a
positive correlations that exists between co-worker support and job satisfactions
Furthermore, testing management training support is positively related to job satisfaction,
the statistics indicate that the probability of the t-value (5.68) for the β coefficient (p<.001)
has a positive and significant relationship with job satisfaction and the β coefficient (.72) is
also positive. This supports the hypothesis that management training support is positively
related to job satisfaction and thus the hypothesis is supported. This is consistent with the
findings of Aurthus,(1994) and Baron,(2000) that the employees who receive support from
work are more likely to be satisfy with their jobs.
In addition the employees personal motivation to training indicate the probability of the t-
value (2.48) for the β coefficient (p < .01) for this relationship between employees whose
personal drive to training and job satisfaction is positively significant. Therefore the
hypothesis that there is a positive relationship between; personal motivation of training and
job satisfaction is supported. This result is similar to the findings by, Becker (1992).
Finally, training benefits is also positively correlated with job satisfaction. As the results
indicate the probability of the t-value (4.98) for the β coefficient (p<.001) for this relationship
between benefits employee receive from training and job satisfaction is positively significant.
The overall training and development dimensions have indicated the probability of the t-
value (2.42) for the β coefficient (p <.01). Therefore is positively related.
Training and Development and Psychological Capital
The relationship between training and PsyCap was tested by regression analysis of
training dimensions to PsyCap. The results are shown in table 4.13 and indicated training
explained 4.5% of the variance in PsyCap which is positively significant, also indicated by
an F value of (F= .4.550; p < .001) and adjusted R2
of .083. This means that 8.3 % of variance
in PsyCap might be explained by training and development of employees working at GRA. A
summary of the analysis is presented in below:
73
Table 4.13
Multiple Regression Analysis Summaries of Training and Development Dimension and
Psychological Capital
Model
Unstandardized Coefficients
Standardized
Coefficients
T B Std. Error β
1 (Constant) 2.988 .184 16.243
TTD-TSC .028 .039 .064* .732
TTD-MTS .057 .045 .120** 1.284
TTD-PMT .111 .040 .242** 2.786
TTD-BT -.009 .037 -.022* -.242
Adjusted R2 =
.083
F = 4.5**
Note: 1. Predictors: (Constant), training and development dimensions (TSC= Training
Support from Colleague; MTS= Management Training Support; PMT=
personal Motivation of Training; TB=Training Benefits)
2. Dependent Variable: Psychological Capital
3. *p <.05, **p < .01, ***p< .001
Hence, an inspection of the individual predictors revealed that the training and
development variables are significant predictors of PsyCap. Thus, testing management
training support is positively related to psychological capital, the statistics indicate that the
probability of the t-value (1.28) for the β coefficient (p<.01) has a positive and significant
relationship with PsyCap and the β coefficient (.12) is also positive.
In addition the employees‘ personal motivation to training indicated the probability of the
t-value (2.786) for the β coefficient (p <.01) for this relationship between personal motivation
of training and PsyCap is positively significant.
Finally, as indicated training benefits is negatively significant with PsyCap. As the results
indicate the probability of the t-value (-.242) for the β coefficient (p < .01) for this
relationship between benefits employee received from training and PsyCap is negatively
significant. However, the overall training and development dimension have indicated the
74
probability of the t-value (3.52) for the β coefficient (p < .01). Therefore, the study concluded
that training and development relationship with PsyCap is positively significant
Training and Development and Organizational Commitment
The third hypothesis (H3) of this study tested whether the relationship between training
and development and organisational commitment exists and if it is positive. To examine the
relationship between these two variables, the organizational commitment was set as the
dependent variable and the training and development as the independent variable. Based on
the results, the overall fit of the model is adjusted R2= 0.159, meaning the training construct
explained approximately 16% in the organizational commitment variable. In addition as
indicated by F value of 30.53 (p < .001), there is a positive significant relationship between
the two variables
Table 4.14
Linear relationship between Training and Organizational Commitment
Model
Unstandardized
Coefficients Standardized
coefficients
t
B Std. Error β
Adjusted R2
F
1 (Constant)
2.270 .308 7.375
.
.159
30.53***
TTD .429 .078 .406** 5.525
Note: 1. Predictors: (Constant), Training and development
2. Dependent Variable: Organizational Commitment
3. *p< .05, **p<.01,*** p< .001
Additionally, the results indicate the probability of the t-value (5.525) for the β
coefficient (p < .001) for this relationship is highly significant. Moreover, the Beta
coefficient (.406) is positive thus implying a direct relationship, wherein training and
development results in higher organizational commitment of employees. Therefore the
hypothesis that there is a positive relationship between training and development and
organizational commitment is supported. This results is substantiated by Mowday, et al
(1979), Barlett (2001) who highlighted that employees who are supported with training are
less likely to leave there jobs and are more committed to jobs
75
Multiple Regression Analysis of the Variables
Base on the guidelines provided by Baron and Kenny (1986) on mediation analysis, the
meditational model for this study was judge to be valid due to the following reasons. The first
condition is when there is significant relationship between the independent variable (s) and
the dependent variables. In the case of this study, this requirement was met through
hypothesis 3, training and development positively related to organizational commitment.
The second condition is met when the independent variables significantly related with the
mediator. These criteria‘s was met since hypothesis 1 and 2 are positively, significant.
Training and development had a positive relationship with employee job satisfaction and
psychological capital. Thirdly, when the criteria of mediating variables affect the dependent
variable in a regression of both the independent variables (s) and the mediating variable on
the dependent variables are met.
In hypotheses 4 and 5, on a regression of individual factors, training and development,
employee job satisfaction, PsyCap and organizational commitment, it was found that
employee job satisfaction and PsyCap have a partial positive impact on organizational
commitment, as the beta scores for training and development decreased on the third equation
in model 3 as shown in Table 4.15 and 4.16. The following elucidates the results of the
analysis.
Analysis for Hypothesis 4
In analysing the above association and to ascertained the mediating role of employee job
satisfaction, multiple regression was adopted and the analysis was done in three separate
stages. In the first model, training and development was entered as the independent variables
and organizational commitment dependent variable. The first model explained 16.5% of the
variance in organizational commitment which is significant as indicated in table 4.15 all
values were found to be significant and had gradually increased in the second model and
decrease in level 3. In addition, the results showed that the values of R2 increased in model 1
and decrease in level 3. This can be an indicative of the explaining power of a mediator in a
model. R 2 value of model 3 was lower than those in model 1. In the third model, the F value
was (F=22.592, P<.001) and the adjusted R2
(Adj R2=.209, p<.05).
76
Moreover the beta weight for training and development in model 1 (β=409; p<.01)
decrease in model 3 (β=.328; P<.01), however it remained significant. This decrease in beta
score can be attributed to the mediating effect of employee job satisfaction which was added
in model 3 together with training and development and organisational commitment. The beta
weight for employee job satisfaction in model 3 is significant (β=.256; p<.05). From these
results, it can be concluded that employee job satisfaction partially and positively mediates
the relationship between training and development variables and organisational commitment.
Therefore hypothesis 4 was partially supported.
Table 4.15
Results for Job Satisfaction Mediation on Training and Organisational Commitment
relationship
OCa (Y) J S
b (Y) OC (Y)
Model 1 Model 2 Model 3
Independent variables
Training and development .406** .439** .328**
Mediator
Job satisfaction . .256*
R .406 .516 .468
R2 .165 .267 .219
R2adj .159 .247 .209
F 30.531*** 13.809*** 21.592***
N 257 257 257
Note a OC= organizational Commitment
b EJS Employee Job Satisfaction
*** P<.001, ** p<.01, *p <.05
Analysis for Hypothesis 5
In analysing the mediating role of PsyCap, multiple regressions were conducted and
the analysis was done in three separate stages. In the first model, training and development
and organizational commitment were analysed. The first model explained 16.5% of the
variance in organisational commitment which is significant as indicated in table 4.15. All
values were found to be significant; however, the findings showed that the R2
value gradually
decrease in the second model and further decrease in third model. In addition, indicative of
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the explaining power of the mediator in model 3 as the R2 value of model 3 were lower than
those in model 1, as elucidates in the third model, the F value (F=15.831, P<.001) and the R2
(R2=.167, p<.05) respectively.
Moreover the beta weight for training and development in model 1 (β=406; p<.01
decrease in model 3 (β=.294; P<.01) remained significant. This decrease in beta score can be
attributed to the mediating effect of PsyCap which was added in model 3 together with
training and development on organisational commitment. The beta weight for PsyCap in
model 3 is significant (β=.113; p< .05). From these results, it can be concluded that PsyCap
partially mediates the relationship between training and development variables and
organisational commitment. Thus, hypothesis 5 was partially supported.
Table 4.16
Results for Psychological Capital Mediation on Training and Organisational Commitment
Relationship
OCa (Y) PsyCap (Y) OC (Y)
Variables Model 1 Model 2 Model 3
Independent variables
Training and development .406** .357** .294**
Mediator
PsyCap . .113*
R .406 .327 .409
R2 .165 .107 .167
R2adj .159 .083 .156
F 30.531*** 4.55 15.431***
N 257 257 257
Note: Y=Dependent Variable; a OC= organizational Commitment
; b PsyCap = Psychological
Capital
*** P<.001, ** p<.01, *p <.05
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Summary of the Analysis Results
Table 4.17 presents the summary of the analysis results for hypothesis verification. The
results of the research indicated training and development is significantly correlated with
employee job satisfaction, psychological capital and organizational commitment (Hypothesis
1, 2, and 3, respectively). The results of Hypotheses 4 and 5 elucidates partial mediation
employee job satisfaction and PsyCap have on training and organizational commitment
relationship. In sum, all the hypotheses are accepted. Next section conducts the discussion of
the results.
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Table 4.17
Summary of Analysis Results
Relationships a
Models Results
Accepted Rejected
H1: Training and development is positively related to
employee job satisfaction.
XTD YEJS
x
Supported
H2: Training and development is positively related to
psychological capital
XTD YPsyCap
x
Supported
H3: Training and development is positively related to
organizational commitment.
XTD YOC
X
Supported
H4: Employee Job satisfaction positively mediates the
relationship between training and
Development and organizational commitment
XTD, MEJS YOC
X
Partially
Supported
H5 Psychological capital mediates the relationship
between training and development and
organizational commitment.
XTD, M psyCap YOC
X
Partially
Supported
Note: the hierarchical regression analysis for hypotheses H4, H5 is a partial mediation
Note. a; TD=Training & Development ; OC = Organizational Commitment; PsyCap=Psychological Capital ; EJS= Employee Job
Satisfaction.
n= 257.
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Discussions of the Findings
Results from the statistical analyses confirmed the formulated hypotheses for the research.
The findings showed the following:
Training and Employee Job Satisfaction
Hypothesis 1 is corroborated in this study as the entire dimension on training and
development are associated positively with employee job satisfaction propensity. More
specifically, employees with a higher orientation to training are more likely to exhibit
stronger satisfaction propensities. The results could be interpreted based on Amabile,(1993)
theory of work motivation which elucidates that support and benefit employee received (such
as training) are considered part of their orientation to organisational citizenship, that will
reflect in employee primary satisfaction with job, and can be used to explain and predict their
behaviours.
Similarly, the same theory applies to the positive relationship between training and
employee job satisfaction, namely, when employees are motivated and satisfied with their job,
they consider the job as instruments for obtaining desired rewards to match their satisfaction
orientation. Therefore, if an organization supports and invest in employees, the employees
will perceive it as recognition, as a result of the investment. In this case, employees are more
likely to exhibit desirable work behaviour such as organizational commitment and
satisfaction.
In addition, according to findings by Stevens, Beyer and Trice (1978), training support
and benefits can reduce the inclination of employees to feel dissatisfied. Support for this is
also found with the social identity theory which holds the view that by increasing the
satisfaction of employees, it can increase their self-worth and in turn benefits the
organizations.
In sum, the results are consistent with the interactionist framework of job behaviour
and task identification (Woodman et al. 1993), where the model illustrate that support and
benefit of training may influence employee job satisfaction. The theory of motivational
synergy (Amabile, 1993) also elucidates that certain types of management and colleagues
support can be perceived as synergistically stimulus, such as informal training, mentoring,
feedback receive about job performance, and task significant may results to higher job
satisfaction
In addition, Bartlett (2001) found a positive relationship between workplace training and
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job satisfaction and recommended that human resource development professionals can
ascertained employee job satisfaction through training and development programs. That
finding is compatible with this research finding, even though it is conducted in a different
organizational settings and country.
Training and Development and Psychological Capital
Hypothesis 2: the result shows that training and development correlated positively with
PsyCap2. More specifically, employees with more training support and benefits are likely to
exhibit stronger PsyCap. The theoretical foundations that elucidates the association between
the two could be based on the Luthans PsyCap model (Luthans et al., 2001), who proposes
that training and development create the positive conditions necessary for PsyCap to flourish.
Thus, when employees feel supported, they are more likely to use the pathway generation
characteristic of hope to try unproven or new methods to accomplish tasks within the
organizational context. Likewise, given that resiliency is defined in terms of assets and
resources, therefore, a supportive management will likely act as a contextual resource for
individuals to quickly ‗‗bounce back‘‘ after setbacks. Training support can help employee
remain focused on the task at hand. Contributing to individual levels of PsyCap can be
understood in terms of optimistic attributions. This emphasizes that, when employees are
supported and benefitted through training, it would allow them to attribute failures to external
circumstances versus low personal knowledge, skills and abilities.
This result is consistent with the theoretical foundation for PsyCap, compatible with the
psychological resource theories, from the positive psychologist Fredrickson‘s (1998, 2001)
broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. She has found that, basic research on
positivity builds out not only intellectual (e.g., problem solving and creativity) but also
physical conditions (e.g., coordination, coping with stress). Thus, training and PsyCap
construct reflect unique cognitive and behavioural manifestations. Following Ajzens‘s (1991)
theory of planned behaviour, lacking PsyCap (behavioural intentions), might be as a results
of lack of training support and benefits for employees.
Like previous empirical findings, the study found a positively relationship between
training and PsyCap. Unlike previous empirical findings that were mostly conducted on
different variables and country. This researcher provides supportive evidence that training
2 The psychological capital that was adapted from Luthans (2006) four dimension measuring PsyCap is
corroborated as a single variable. The interpretations indicated a positive relationship between training and
PsyCap in the study. This elucidations showed a positive results based on the overall constructs
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and development has a significant impact on PsyCap and the results is impressive because it
conducted in an organization and country that it was not studied before. This finding
contributes to the literature of training and development and PsyCap relationship.
Discussion on Relationships between Training and development and
Organizational Commitment
Hypothesis 3: This study investigated the relationship between training and development
and organizational commitment and the results show positive significant relationship exists
between the two variables. The results are supported by empirical evidence from Iverson,
1996; Mowday, Porter, and Steer (1982) studies, who found that satisfaction with employee
capacity building leads to organizational commitment. Additionally, considering the
relationship between the variables are also supported by the Social Resource Theory (SRT).
The theory ague that social capital is the value resources embedded in social network that can
be borrowed through direct social ties and be utilized to facilitate people‘s action and or
behaviours with the workplace (Coleman et.al, 2000). Receiving this social capital leads to
greater organizational commitment if employees receive benefits and the reverse if no
benefits is receive.
Furthermore, the perspective of the signalling theory by Connelly, Certo, Ireland, and
Reutzel (2011), illustrated that training can be viewed as the signal which conveys
organizations‘ intention to employees about their job behaviours. Extending this rationale
therefore, a supportive organization conveys the behavioural expectation of commitment to
the employees. Thus, when employee expectations and values are met, positive emotions
toward the organization and feelings of loyalty to the organizational are expected.
Another theory which underlines the conclusions of this relationship is the social
exchange theory (SET), the social exchange theory Blau, (1964) posits that every interaction
among people can be understood as form of reciprocal exchange of rewards. Although, the
theory is based on individual social interaction, recent studies have attempted to
conceptualize the relationship between an organization and its employees as a kind of social
exchange relationship (Griffin, 2006). Receiving benefits from the organization, employees
are more likely to be more commitment and thereby, exhibit a strong motivation to remain in
the organization.
Likewise, the expectancy theory underlies the conclusion of this relationship (Mowday et
al., 1982). This theory ague that employee joined workplace with their own expectation and
83
values about an organization (Mottaz, 1988). Thus when expectation and values are met,
employees feelings of loyalty are expected. Therefore, based on the results of this study and
prior research conducted on some of the variables, empirical evidence provide support for
positive relationships between training and development and organizational commitment
(Iverson, 1996; Mowday, Porter, &Steer, 1982).
Finally, the theory proposed by Lawler (1992) posits the affective attachment theory that
offers a theoretical linkage between these two variables under review. The bases of this
theory outline a conceptual distinction between more transitory approach such as training and
more enduring affect such as commitment. This assumption are further extended by Mueller
and Lawler (1992), and argue that to improve working conditions, support from college and
supervisor couple with self-motivation usually results and leads to greater organizational
commitment(Mueller & Lawler, 1996). Thus the availability of training programs for
employees has the upper hand on organizational commitment for employees in GRA.
Therefore, the number of diploma / advance diploma qualification holders are growing, and
with the number of job requirement, employees especially whose training are progressing are
better off holding onto their jobs at the authority, which offers them job security , job
satisfaction and training opportunities‘.
Therefore, based on results of the study and prior research conducted on the relationship
between these two variables, some proof that the relationship is not clear (Al-Emadi &
Marquardt, 2007; Ehrhardt, Miller, Freeman, & Hom, 2011) and require further investigation.
This research conducted in a different country and settings, provide evidence that training and
development and organizational commitment relationship is not only significant but
positively related.
Discussions of the Mediating Variables
Hypothesis 4: Mediating role of Employee Job Satisfaction
The result shows that employee job satisfaction partially mediates the relationship
between training and organizational commitment. Based on the previous research, it was also
agreed that job satisfaction can serve as a mediator between human resource development
practices and desirable work outcomes; this is found to be positive. This study analysis
confirms employee job satisfaction is another factor to determine employee commitment
behaviour. However, the relationship between training and organizational commitment is
highly significant which is partly in disagreement with Ahmad and Bakar, (2003); Conway
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and Monks, (2009) who found the relationship between training and commitment not clear
and need a mediator to clarify the relationship.
Thus, the results implies that employee that receive training and development lead to
higher job satisfaction and that satisfaction drives them to perform better at work. In order
words, the training and job satisfaction of employees is crucial as it enforce employee‘s
commitment behaviour.
The results also indicated that the training and development of employees play an
imperative role than situational context does, in terms of encouraging organizational
commitment. In order words, the reasons why employees are committed are primarily
because of training support, benefits, personal motivation and employee job satisfaction
provided by the organization. The result indicates that the better training employees have, the
higher they will be committed to their job. This results is in agreement with Blau and Kahn
(1981); Bartlett (2001), who found a positive relationship between workplace training and job
satisfaction and recommended that human resource development professionals should adapt
and increase employee satisfaction through training and employee capacity building
initiatives.
Hypothesis 5: Mediating role of Psychological Capital
According to the results, training and PsyCap had positive and significant impact on
organizational commitment. It is concluded that these variables are essential for
organizational commitment to flourish. This suggests that PsyCap is another factor to
determine employees‘ organizational commitment which was not tested before according to
the researcher‘s knowledge. On the basis of these results, it can be claimed that supporting
employees by training and increasing their PsyCap level is crucial for the attainment of
organizational commitment.
The ability to trained organizations members is agued to be a key lever for achieving
organizational performance Bartlett,( 2001), likewise the possession of PsyCap (Luthans,
1998). This study‘s results indicated that PsyCap partially mediates the relationship between
training and organizational commitment and as such stressed the importance of having
training programs in the organization. These are compatible with Blau (1986) study which
found investment in employees help increase their self-worth that might help to decrease
employees‘ intention to leave the organization.
Much of the organizational commitment literature have been conveying in the greater
85
value of job satisfaction over training. For example Barlett (2001) found job satisfaction to be
highly correlated to organizational commitment than training. This argument is partly
sustained given that, according to their respective beta weigh, employees job satisfaction
(β=259) and PsyCap ( β= 113) have less score compared to training (β=.406) that was found
to have a stronger influence on organizational commitment.
Finally, findings from this study found PsyCap to partially mediate the relationships
between training and organizational commitment. This is surprising considering that this
relationship was not studied before. Therefore, the variable was found to partially intensify
the desire of employees to remain with their current employer with the presence of training
and development. Likewise the variables were found to partial reinforce the desire of
employees to be committed to GRA with the presence of PsyCap
In sum, the relationship between training and commitment has not been consistently
demonstrated in the past, prior research has shown an unclear relationship between variables.
However, PsyCap and other desirable individual and organizational outcomes were proves to
be important for employees and organizational commitment. For example, the research
previously mentioned by Luthans and colleagues (Luthans et al., 2001) verified the
importance of training to developed PsyCap. Eisenberger et al. (1990) found a relationship
between perceived training support and measures of self-efficacy, Bartlett (2001) reported a
relationship between organizational training and commitment to the organization but it still
need further investigation. However, this research also provides evidences that training and
development created the positive conditions necessary for PsyCap to flourish which will
increase organizational commitment.
Demographics Variables Relationship with Study Variables
In additions, from the findings, it is evident that not only are the variables used in the
study related to each other, but some factors that affect these variables are personal or base on
the organization. Although their effect on organizational commitment variables is relatively
weak according to Karim (2009)‘s guidelines, the model is acceptable on the basis of Kenny
(2002)‘s guidelines, the relationship is acceptable on the impact of few demographics
variables on some dimension of training, employee job satisfaction, PsyCap, and
organizational commitment, the results of the bivariate correlation confirmed with some
previous studies results and arguments on their relationship.
In relations to age, the results showed low positive association between age and
normative commitment. This is in accordance with Blau and Kahn (1981), and Watson and
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Hewett (2006) studies, all found a causal relationship between age and normative
commitment. However, it somewhat contradicts Gumus ( 2007) study which founds that age
had an impact on all organizational commitment variables and revealed that individual
between the ages of 31-39 are not commitment to the job as most of them feel they can move
from one organization to the other anytime.
When it comes to work experience, there is a causal relationship between work
experience and formal training and job satisfaction. This is also compatible with Barron
(2001), Mottaz (1986), study that report positive associations between these two variables. In
addition, it does not provide support for research conducted by Bartlett (2001) which
indicated that work experience may have an effect on all organizational commitment
variables.
Furthermore, informal training was found to be positively correlated with affective
commitment this is supported by Blau and Kahn (1981) who found that employees who
receive on-the-job-training in organizations are less likely to leave. Thus employees who
receive such training have a very strong affective attachment because of the strong ties
between the organizations members. Therefore, those with relatively high support for training
have affective commitment because of the support they receive. This goes to show that
retaining some employees may be less costly than retaining others; therefore it is important
for organizations to isolate cases by providing formal training and informal training to
different groups of employee‘s base on needs.
Furthermore, with respect to formal training, this study found a significant and positive
relationship with employee job satisfaction. This finding is compatible with Chiang, Back
and Canter, (2005) study results indicated that formal training to be strongly associated with
employee job satisfaction and employee intention to stay. Also, they suggest that increasing
training satisfaction leads to employee job satisfaction, and intention to stay among
employees.
Finally, no demographics variable was found to be related to PsyCap. This is contrary to
prior findings by Earley and Peterson (2004), Macnab and Worthley (2012) all of whom
found a positive correlation between some of the demographic variables (age, work
experience) with PsyCap.
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CHAPTER V CONLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS
This study presented and explained the relationships between training and development,
employee job satisfaction, PsyCap and organizational commitment. The theoretical
foundations and the hypothesis were elucidated in chapter two and the empirical hypothesis
derived tested in chapter four. This chapter is divided into five phase. The first phase presents
the conclusions of the study. Phase two discusses the theoretical and managerial implications
of the results. Third phase elucidates the recommendations for both Researchers and Human
Resource Development practitioners. The fourth phase outlined the limitations of this study
and the suggestions for future research. Final considers are illustrated in the fifth phase of the
chapter.
Conclusions
This study sought to bring out to the academic spot light the varied important of the key
factors of training and development, employee job satisfaction, PsyCap, and organizational
commitment of a public organization employees. As public organizations in The Gambia are
one of the main employers, there is a need to create a positive organizational environment, in
order to saves its best hands that create the key element for achieving its vision in today's
dynamic and changing organizational environment. Thus, creating such environment, which
cares about the welfare of employees, is thought to be imperative. Since, it is through that the
organizations‘ expectations of employees‘ commitment and endeavour to undertake
additional roles in the organizational processes will be attained. Consequently, employee
willingness to remain in the organization may be actualised when they perceive a higher
degree of supportive work setting. .
According to the results and discussions, training and development is associated with
organizational commitment and the mediating role of PsyCap and employee job satisfaction
is found to be positively significant. To sum, the variables under study are critical factors
enhancing employees‘ commitment behaviour. The detailed conclusions are presented below.
Training and Development has effect on Employee Job Satisfaction
The first hypothesis elucidates that training and development has an impact on employee
job satisfaction. The results indicated that employee‘s training (Supports, benefits and
personal motivation) orientations are associated with their job satisfaction. This suggest that
when employees‘ feeling towards the support received from management, training benefits,
88
and personal motivation to training are negative, they may developed undesirable feeling
towards the organization, and vice versa. The study concludes that training affect employee
job satisfaction which can have an indispensable impact on their level of performance,
commitment, and productivity. Considering that employee who have no or little affection for
the organization will not feel inclined to put in much effort into the organization without
reservation.
Psychological Capital Dependent on Training and Development
The second hypothesis that training and development affect employee PsyCap is found to
be positive. The results of the correlations and regressions analyses indicated that employee
with higher orientation to training might be more likely to have higher level of PsyCap; these
conclusions might suggest that employees with support for training are more adept at using
their PsyCap to facilitate positive organizational outcomes. Hence, the ability for PsyCap to
flourish could possibly imply that employees who receive training are more aware of the
factors that could contribute to their own personal development. As Badran and Youssef
(2015) posits that awareness of the factors that elicit PsyCap and understanding the benefits
of PsyCap components could help employees to take the appropriate actions that influence
positive organization citizenship behaviours. Consequently, if the employees level of PsyCap
drops, limited training support and benefits are likely to be some of the factors leading to
such a situation. Similarly, if employees PsyCap increase, they are more likely to contribute
to the organization. Accordingly, organizations with positive PsyCap employees tend to be
more effective than with employees with little or no PsyCap (Luthans, 2007). Thus, these
conclusions will have implication for public organizations such as the Gambia Revenue
Authority.
Training and Development has impact on Organization Commitment
The results of the data analysis confirmed that the research prediction in hypothesis 3 is
positive and indicate that employees who receive high levels of training tend to have a higher
level of organizational commitment. This study also designates that employees allocate
differing values to the aspects of training like supports, motivation, and benefits, rather than
addressing training and development as an all-or-nothing concept. This may mean numerous
things to employees, researchers, and to the organization. Results of surveys noted in the
introduction are a testament to the importance of training and development in the minds of
employees. This study confirm that employees value training as it is the dominant factor that
leads to organizational commitment behavior.
89
To examined on another level, employees in revenue administration that are in constant
communication with tax payers might be often motivated by the ability to be trained on tax
payer services and in return organizational commitment may be attained.
Mediating role of Employee Job Satisfaction and Psychological capital
The last two hypotheses 4 and 5 elucidated the mediating role of PsyCap and employee
job satisfaction on relationship between training and development and organizational
commitment. The hierarchical regressions results showed that training have not only have an
effect on employee job satisfaction and PsyCap but have a significant impact on employee
organizational commitment. With that been said, this study laid the groundwork for future
studies in the Gambia to further examine factors that affect employee job satisfaction and
PsyCap in order to unveil their potential influence or for organizational commitment.
The hierarchical regression results also showed that employee job satisfaction partially
mediated the relationship between the two variables. Referring to this association, the results
confirmed that training and development (training support from colleague, management
training support, personal motivation of training, and training benefits), couple with PsyCap,
employee job satisfaction had an impact on organizational commitment. The result further
elucidates that training and development had a greater effect on organizational commitment.
Thus, the Gambia Revenue Authority should consider all these variables when promoting
employee committed behavior.
In addition, this result also lent empirical support from Tansky and Cohen, (2001)
argument which emphasized that employees‘ satisfied with job training are more committed
to their organizations, and employees who are satisfied in their jobs are more willing to
accept organizational goals and values. Therefore, employees who posess higher PsyCap are
also more willing to exert effort in the organizations (Luthans 1996; Hatcher, 1999). These
results are important implications for HRD practitioners in GRA to take into consideration.
Theoretical and Practical Implications
This study makes several theoretical contributions to training and development, employee
job satisfaction, PsyCap, and organizational commitment literatures. Based on the research
conclusions, the corresponding theoretical and practical implications were discussed as
follows:
90
Implications from hypothesis 1 Training and Development and Employee
Job Satisfaction
As shown in table 4.12 in chapter IV, hypothesis 1 ‗‗there is a significant relationship
between training and development and employee job satisfaction‘‘ was fully supported. This
means that within the context of the GRA there is a significant positive relationships between
training and employee job satisfaction
Theoretical Implications.
This research has very important implications for researchers in the field of human
resource development, as it adds on the literature of training and development and employee
job satisfaction in the Gambia. For instance, despites the importance of training and
development, there is very limited research on its impact on satisfaction related in the
Gambia. Moreover, the study found the relationship between training and employee job
satisfaction to be positive. The results expand the factors influencing employee job
satisfaction. However, given the exploratory nature of the results, any interpretations
provided based on this findings should be treated circumspectly.
Practical Implications.
These results have numerous implications for GRA management and for HRD
practitioners. It is suggested that HRD practitioners consider desired work-related attitudes
such as employee job satisfaction to be an additional outcome of training and development
activities. Results indicating that training can play a role in the development and maintenance
of employee job satisfaction should encourage GRA management to further explore the role
of training and its relationships to improvements in retention and productivity of employees.
This could also suggest that HRD professionals adopt a broader perspective towards training
outcomes.
The results of this study also illustrate that HRD practitioners can play a significant role
in establishing a positive perception toward training and development within organizations.
Employee attitudes toward access to training, perceived benefits of training, and the social
support for training from colleagues and senior management staff can be influenced by
management actions. The results that these attitudes are related to employee job satisfaction
should encourage those responsible for recruitment, selection, and initial socialization of
newly hired employees to add information on the amount and type of HRD provided and the
level of managerial support toward training and development. Thus, in order to develop
91
appropriate positive organizational outcomes out of training and development, GRA can do
the following:
I. Training needs assessment: Employee skills assessment first need to be done in order
to create a vibrant public enterprise that triggers positive organization outcomes
behaviors. The needs assessment is a process for figuring out how to close a learning or
performance gaps. It involves determining what the important needs of employees are
and how to address them (Gupta 2011). This different components couple with the
training support and benefit will immensely help in employees‘ capacity building and
job satisfaction. However, the needs valuation is supposed to identify and address the
following:
I. What are the organization current learning and performance gap that will determine
future action?
II. What interventions (assets or resources) GRA can do to improve the skills and
competencies of employees
III. Employees relationships with colleagues and management that affect the delivery of
informal training and formal training
IV. Examine department work culture and employee behavior within the organization to
gauge what factors affects employee job satisfaction.
II. Identify implementation focus. After the needs valuations are done, GRA needs to
decide what to focus on in order to help both employees and the organization. As the
needs audit are implemented in complex systems, a change in one levels or element of
the system can affect other levels. Moreover, the assessments within the organization
can produce results that contribute to the larger shared vision of GRA (Kaufman, 2012)
III. The next stage is to review what thematic areas is contributing to employee job
satisfaction and what needs to be improved. In consideration, GRA need to do
performance evaluation/appraisal, taking into account the human resources, the tax
payers‘ needs and the infrastructures available.
IV. Finally, employee job satisfaction is imperative in any organizational development, thus,
the HRD practitioner should not alienate the strategic objectives of GRA. In all training
interventions, strategies made must be aligned to the objectives of the organization.
This steps highlighted are not an ends in itself and a more detailed, well planned
implementations steps are needed to guide the executions stage.
92
Implications from Hypothesis 2 The relationship between Training and
Psychological capital
As shown in table 4.13 in chapter IV, hypothesis 2 ‗‗there is a significant relationship
between training and development and psychological capital‘‘ was fully supported. This
means that within the context of GRA, training has a significant effect on PsyCap. These
findings have both theoretical and practical implications:
Theoretical Implications.
The hypothesis 2, being supported, has made some important contributions to the
theoretical relationships between training and development and PsyCap. As Psychological
capital is a model characterised by the dimensions that assist in measuring human
contribution to the organizations in subtly distinct ways. Firstly, as PsyCap concept is in its
early stages, the premise requires rigorous explorations. However, this study looks at
organizations invention such as training impact on employee PsyCap development. As
indicated, PsyCap has been determined to be a second-order factor comprising of hope,
optimism, resilience, and efficacy (Luthans, Avolio, et al., 2007). This means that PsyCap
incorporates the mechanism(s) that these four discriminant constructs have in common. To
explained, the PsyCap literature has utilized the notion of ―theory borrowing,‖ mainly
drawing from psychological resource theory (Hobfoll, 2002). Some argue that PsyCap levels
differ from one employee to another and the individual background can influence it.
However, one aspect of this research is that it suggests some constructs are best
understood as indicators of broader underlying factors. That is, while an individual construct
(training support) may be valid, it may be more beneficial to consider it as an indicator of
PsyCap. Therefore, this study elucidates that support given through training is imperative to
improving employee PsyCap than the training benefit they (employees) received.
Secondly, this research found very few studies that measured the development of PsyCap.
In other words, few have considered PsyCap to be the antecedents in a theoretical model.
Recent research has suggested that PsyCap can be enhanced by developmental interventions
(Luthans, Avey, et al., 2010). However, there has been no systematic method of examining
antecedents to PsyCap, which suggests this may be a fruitful area of future research.
Finally, the analysis revealed the relationships between development interventions (such
as training) and employee PsyCap were strongest in studies conducted in the United States
93
and in the service sector (Hobfoll, 2002).This study results provide a strong evidence-based
that training and PsyCap relationship are strong in a public organization in the Gambia. Thus,
it is recommended training affect PsyCap and the theoretical contributions for HRD conclude
in this research that PsyCap can be an antecedent of training and development
Practical Implications.
There are also a number of practical implications, primarily revolving around HRD. As
previously mentioned, PsyCap has been empirically found to be developable (Luthans
&Avey, 2010) even in relatively short training interventions though informal or formal
trainings. Since the results from this study suggest PsyCap to be related to important
employee behaviors, and organizational commitment, then HRD interventions such as
training in this study, may be applied in HRD programs for potential increase in desirable
behavioral outcomes back to the job.
In addition to desirable attitudes, research has found PsyCap to be negatively related to
undesirable employee attitudes, such as cynicism toward change or turnover intentions.
Specifically, based on the optimistic expectancies of future events as well as resilience to
setbacks, those higher in PsyCap have reported being more open and less cynical about
change in their organizations. Further, Avey, Luthans, and Youssef (2010,) note:
‗‗…―PsyCap has a motivating impact that can enhance internalization, determination,
and pathways thinking, which contradict with ‗giving up‘ and despair associated with
cynicism. Related to being less likely to give up is the notion that those high in PsyCap
are less likely to have turnover intentions‘‘ (p. 439)
The Gambia Revenue Authority is no exception to this affirmation and thus, developing
employees PsyCap levels might have some potential benefits to the organization. As the
higher levels of optimism regarding the future and confidence in their ability to succeed in
their current job will motivate them to take charge of their own destinies (Seligman, 1999),
self-select into challenging work endeavors (Bandura, 2000), engage the necessary efforts,
resources, and persevere in the face of obstacles (Stajkovic & Luthans, 1998b)
Therefore, The Gambia Revenue Authority may want to consider development of PsyCap
through training and development programs. The following practices are recommended:
I. Socialization: Process of becoming an Insider
Employee socialization or‗‗onboarding‘‘ will be an important practice to develop employee
PsyCap, as it is a process by which an individual acquires the social knowledge and skills
94
necessary to assume an organizational role. To become organization member, GRA can help
employees establish relationships and learn behaviors, procedures, expectations and values.
However, learning new things, new employees may also need to unlearn things that helped
them succeed in previous settings, but would be maladaptive in their new settings (Werner &
Desimone, 2011). During this phase, GRA can conduct orientations; realistic job previews
(RJP) and on-job-training immediately new employee join the organization. As according to
Werner and Desimone, (2011), successful socialization of employees is critical to both
individuals and the organizations. At stake are:
I. The employee‘s satisfaction, performance, and commitment to the organizations
II. Lower PsyCap which might impact the organization negatively, as employees with
higher PsyCap expect good things to happen at work (optimism), believe they create
their own success (efficacy and hope), and are more impervious to setbacks
(resilience) (Luthans, 2010)
III. Start-up costs invested in the employee (Such as recruitment, selection, training and
the time employee will be fully settle)
IV. The likelihood that the employee will remain with the organization
V. The costs of replacing the employees if they leave
2. Team Training/ Team Building.
Another very important practice GRA can adapt is team building, since the authority has
many different departments with different mandates. Adapting this approach of training might
be much more meaningful than joining trainees‘ from different unit. As Fortune and Utley
(2006) viewed team building as efforts to unify varied individual energies, direct these
energies towards valued goals and outputs, and these efforts are link to organizational results.
This intervention can help build the confidence, hope and resilience of individual employees
as they work with groups they affiliated to. Thus, GRA should consider team training under
the following conditions:
I. A specific training goal needs a multifaceted group of people with complementary
talents.
II. A broad- based perspectives are needed to develop and carry out the vision of
growing each departments
III. HRD professionals may rely on the HRD process model among other (Example.,
ADIE: assess, design, implement, evaluate) in designing and delivering team
training programs (Desimone, 2007)
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Having elucidates the implication of research results 1&2, the researcher now proceed to
discuss the implications of the research results 3.
Implications for Research Hypothesis 3: Training and Development and
Organizational Commitment
The main question of the study: ‗‗what is the relationship between training and
development and organizational commitment?‘‘ this was asked in an attempt to fullfill a part
of the research purpose and in an attempt to address Ahmad and Bakar, (2003) study that
claim the relationship between the variables is not clear and need further investigations.
Recall also that that the results for Hypothesis 3 (Table 4.14) showed that the overall
dimensions of training and development had a positive impact on organizational commitment.
These results have both theoretical and practical implications discussed as follows;.
Theoretical Implications.
The study provides empirical evidence that training and development correlates positively
with organizational commitment. This outcome gives researchers an understanding of the
concept in The Gambia, as it has not been studied. In addition, the results elucidates that
training was preferred predominantly by employees in this study as it has a higher impact on
organization commitment
Practical Implications.
The relationships between training and development and organizational commitment have
already been established to some extend in profit organizations, especially service enterprises.
This research has established this relationship in a public enterprise. Nonetheless, in terms of
practicality of the relationship, the organization type does not matter. The motive of training
and development is to increase the competencies of employees and enhance positive
employee behaviours.
Even though organizational commitment is a diverse construct with a large body of
theoretical and empirical literatures, HRD managers can focus on key elements. First, it
appears that affective and normative commitment is most important to foster within
organizations. Second, HRD practitioners should concentrates on, not only the job-related
antecedents to commitment but personal or situational characteristics even though they have
little control on them. With support from colleagues and management it can be attainable.
96
The HRD practitioners can do it by adapting the summary of relevant job- and organization-
related antecedents of high levels of organizational commitment from Pinks (1992)
suggestion that, HRD managers could play a role in increasing job challenge, role clarity, and
encouraging employees‘ engagement in training participations and decision makings. They
could also communicate with employees that the organization depends on the continued
efforts of every employees to achieve its objectives.
Finally, it should be noted that HRD is one of many organizational processes that can
assist in the development and maintenance of organizational commitment. However, the
relationship between training and commitment explored in this study should not result in
HRD professionals believing that training alone has a relationship with organizational
commitment. In fact, these results highlight that HRD is one component of a complex set of
management practices that together influence the attitudes and behaviours‘ of employee.
The Gambia Revenue Authority may want to consider detailed planning in training and
development process to meet the intended purpose. Thus, GRA may want to take into
considerations the activities mentioned below in supporting training program that influence
positive outcomes. One may ask how this can be actualized. To answer this question, GRA
can consider the following implications in turn
.
1. Participation and Involvement
One of the oldest and most effective strategies for overcoming commitment challenges is
to involve organization members directly in planning and implementations processes. As
employees engagements and participations can leads the organization delivering high quality
services to the tax payers and overcome lack of commitment behaviours. In addition,
employees can provide a diversity of information and ideas, which can contribute to making
the organizations interventions effective and appropriate to the situation. This can also
contribute to identify pitfalls and barriers to implementation.
Thus, the involvement of employees increases the likelihood that employee‘s interest and
needs, will be accounted for during training (Werner & Desimone, 2007). Consequently,
employees will be committed to implementing the changes because doing so will suit their
interests. Moreover, for employees having strong needs for involvement, the act of
participation itself can be motivating, leading to greater efforts to achieve desirable
organizational outcomes.
97
2. Management Development
Reviewing through the data analysis, management training support is very essential to
positive organizational outcomes, thus, the researcher deem it necessary for GRA to further
explore into it, as the benefits can be numerous. While many believed that the ability to
manage or to lead is primarily an inborn capability, the current prevailing view is that most of
the KSAOs (Knowledge, Skills, abilities, and other characteristics) required to be an effective
manager can be learned or enhanced. Therefore management development can and should be
practiced in GRA and the following definition captures the essence
‗‗ …an organization‘s conscious effort to provide its managers (and potential
managers) with opportunities to learn, grow and change, in hopes of producing over
the long term a cadre of managers with the skills necessary to function effectively in
the organization‘‘(Desimone 2007, P.443)
Thus, this study suggests the following to GRA
I. The management development should be seen as specific to GRA needs, since
each organization is unique and therefore, its goals should be to develop
individuals that have the intention to serve the organization.
II. The development should consist of providing employees with opportunities for
learning, growth and change. While there is no guarantee that particular
individuals will take advantage of it, it cannot occur unless opportunities are at
least provided.
III. The management training must be a conscious effort on the part of GRA as
leaving development to chance greatly reduces the likelihood that the
organization will achieved the kinds of behaviour changes it needs and desires
IV. Like all HRD activities management development should be directly linked to
the organization‘s strategy, that is, it must meet GRA mandates if it is to yield
good returned on investment
The researcher deems these steps necessary and can serve as a benchmark for GRA‘s
management to use in order to improve organizational commitment behaviours.
Hierarchical Linear Model of Organizational Commitment
In addition, the study did not only theoretically develop the hierarchical model of
organizational commitment by integrating the research on training and development, but also
98
empirically showed the mediating role of PsyCap and employee job satisfaction. Although
partial research findings of this study are in accordance with the previous studies on the
mediating role of employee job satisfaction (Bartlett 2011), the research findings of previous
and current studies, however, complement each other, the compatibility of the results is all
the more impressive.
Likewise, the results that PsyCap partially mediates the relationship can play an
indispensable role in helping employers to developed employees PsyCap in order to inspire
their propensities of organizational commitment behaviours. As employees with training
support, may be likely to have higher PsyCap to increase work related behaviours. Research
elucidates that PsyCap was not use as a mediator before, the results of this study is
impressive and add to the current understanding of this organizational behaviour research.
Practical Implications.
Furthermore, the result of this study reveals that job satisfaction and PsyCap partially
mediates the relationship between training and organizational commitment
In line with this, the results suggest that in order to create a work environment that
encourages employees to be committed to the organization, training development, PsyCap
and employee job satisfaction are all very important factors, particularly in public
organization. Therefore, GRA management should ensure training and development to
increase employee satisfaction and PsyCap, which can in turn lead to a reciprocal attachment
from employees. This is echoed by Stewart, Carson, and Cardy, (1996) whom stated that if
employees are not supported, it can negatively affect all strata of the organizations, since
human capital continues to be one of the most important resources that can results in public
organizations contributions to national development.
In addition, given the general expectancy of success derived from optimism and the belief
in personal abilities derived from efficacy, those high in PsyCap report being more committed
with their job (Luthans, Avolio, et al., 2007) and committed to their organizations (Luthans,
Norman, Avolio & Avey, 2008). PsyCap can be argued to be related to organization
commitment, because the organizations fulfill needs for efficacy and accomplishment for
those high in PsyCap. In turn, they are more likely to embed themselves and be enthusiastic
about their work (engagement).
Above all, since training and development, PsyCap and employees job satisfaction are
found to be important factors for organizational commitment. What leads to employees being
99
all committed to their organizations should be a subject of interest for GRA and other
employers.
Research Recommendations
Recommendations for GRA and HRD Practitioners
This study provided evidence on the importance of training and development (i.e. training
support from colleagues, management, training benefits and motivation of training) for
nurturing organizational commitment behavior and increasing employees‘ job satisfaction
and positive PsyCap in a public organization such as GRA. Although, the organization has a
centralized structure which supposedly would be expected to inhibit policies, training, and its
positive impact to the organization should not be altered but enhanced. As Blau (2001)
suggested that, an organization‘s hierarchical structure can be maintained while participations
and engagement of employees can be added so as to encourage commitment behavior among
organizational members
In relation to descriptive statistics results for training, the question‘ training results in
more opportunities to pursue different career path‘‘ gathered the lowest mean scores,
therefore, giving more training opportunities to employees and engage them in decision
making process will greatly help, since GRA‘s employees are not ready to take a different
career path, and subsequently that will promote organizational commitment behavior. It has
been reported by Blau (2001) that an organization characterized by training support from
management, ease positive organizational behavior to flourish. In addition, study conducted
by Bartlett (2011), indicated that the higher the degree of employee training couple with
satisfactory employment conditions, the greater propensity of organizational commitment
Thus, increasing employee‘s commitment, employee right to participation and support is
even more important if the organization‘s goal is to retain employees. Research has shown
that being able to involve employees is imperative to the organizational success (West&
Anderson, 1996). Thus, to attain this, it is recommended that, HRD practitioners and policy
makers at GRA should welcome employees‘ opinions, particularly to those issues that are of
concern to them, and nurture collegiality as a platform to invite individuals to help each other
to commitment and increase competencies. While all these suggestions could be effective
ways to encourage positive organizational outcomes, GRA management in collaboration with
HRD practitioners needs to understand employees‘ needs and organizational objectives in
order to tailor effective policies that may be susceptible to trigger organizational commitment
behavior.
100
When it comes to employee job satisfaction, the question JS7‗‗the work is arranged so
that I have a chance to do things for other people‘‘ gathered the lowest mean scores.
Accordingly, it is recommended that management organize periodic meetings across
organizations units in order to promote collaborations between departments and units. That
may be an important step couple with training to build employee job satisfaction. Moreover,
building the capacity of organization‘s members will help to build the relationships between
people, increase employee job satisfaction, and enhance employee loyalty to the organization
Furthermore, GRA management, Policy makers and HRD practitioners, through training
and development opportunities offer, can be influential in the overall job satisfaction of the
employees. They are also influential in shaping workplace attitudes and organizational
commitment, which are important to the entire organization. These connections to the larger
organizational picture are important for practitioners to remember. HRD practitioners
interested in improving these variables in the organizations should, in part, focus on training
and development of employees as one of the ways to do so.
With regards to PsyCap, it is recommended that HRD practitioners articulate and
formulate a training system that develops employee PsyCap level. According to the results, it
seems like the employee favor a personalization strategy as shown in the findings, personal
motivation to training have a higher influence on PsyCap. Therefore employee engagement is
crucial while personalization strategy may be adopted; it is recommended that some degree of
codification strategy should be embraced. The codification of training for employees is not
only necessary for employee satisfaction and PsyCap but will also be imperative for GRA. As
department members with the skills from the training can re-use it to coach or mentor other
organizational members. Thus, it is also recommended for management to offer their support
through the development and implementation of training programs necessary to enhance
individuals‘ skills and competency to boost PsyCap level.
Furthermore, studies such as the present research are important because it enables HRD
practitioners and policy makers in public organizations to improve organizational
commitment by investigating factors that can improve it. As the results of this study showed
that there is a strong relationship between training and organizational commitment in The
Gambia. Policy makers should work at improving the work environment that affects these
behaviors. Thus, if these conditions are affected negatively, their output will be affected;
above all attaining organizational commitment will consequently become a challenge.
101
Finally, GRA management should not only focus on the contextual factors discussed in
this study. It is highly recommended that they take into account other factors outside the
scope of this research that may influence organizational commitment behavior. Researchers
like De Long and Fahey (2000) identify work motivation, compensation satisfaction,
individual and organizational counterproductive behavior as important factors enhancing
commitment behavior. The result of the study elucidates training and development r2
to be
only 25% this shows GRA could also consider factors proposed by Delong and Fahey in
addition to the variables studied in this research. Similarly the variables selected for this
study are important and applicable to GRA environment. Therefore, GRA HRD practitioners
can use the conclusions drawn from this study when designing theirs policies to influence
higher desirable work behaviors among employees.
Recommendations for Researchers
This study suggests that organizational behavior and HRD researchers can capitalize on
existing empirical work, as well as adopt new research methods to demonstrate to
organizational decision makers that training and development contributes to desired
workplace attitudes, employee job satisfaction and PsyCap. This researcher has identified
some recommendations for researchers as follows;
Firstly, a large sample can be used to investigate the current model or research
framework. Another independent study can look at comparing public to private or non-profit
organizations to see if the relationship between the variables given in this study would be the
same or if the mediating variable has a greater impact in determining organizational
commitment in public organization as opposed to private organization vice versa.
Secondly, a different set of variables can be used as explained in the recommendations
part for HRD practitioners. This researcher chooses the variable based on the review of
literatures. However, this does not necessarily mean that they were the best set of variables
but they were never been studied in the organization‘s under study. Future researchers can
focus on using a different combination of organizational behavior variables. This can be done
to optimize the research model for a given situations
Thirdly, choosing other mediators between training and development and organizational
commitment relationships is doable. This research used employee job satisfaction and
PsyCap as mediators, however, multiple research questions are left unanswered such as in
what other contexts, levels of analysis (group, organizational, and community), and even
102
gender or work-life balance issues does this variables matter most. Another area of omission
is alternative methods (e.g., qualitative or mixed) and systematic theory linking primary
antecedents of all the variables use in the study. Example, while previous research has
effectively articulated what PsyCap is, how and why it manifests in the workplace (Luthans
& Youssef, 2007); it has not been consistently linked in a theoretical architecture to other
variables (such as PsyCap relationships with other variables) or underlying mechanisms and
processes. While the researcher is aware this theory-building is in progress, more contribution
is needed.
Finally, if any researcher chooses to pursue these recommendations, they must be aware
of the time and difficulty involved in the analysis of this sort of exploratory research.
Therefore, care must be taken into consideration in conducting such research.
Limitations and Future Research
Although, this study endeavoured to perfect the design of the research, it still had some
limitations and the results should be viewed within the research‘s limitations.
First, the researcher recognized that the self-reported nature of the data precludes us from
drawing casual influences about the relationship between the variables. To draw better
inferences on the relationship between training and development, employee job satisfaction,
PsyCap, and organizational commitment, a cross sectional study and multi-waves will be
recommended. Such approach will allow a better understanding on how training and
development affect positive organizational outcomes overtime in The Gambia. Despites this
limitation, this study provides an interesting glimpse of how training, PsyCap and job
satisfactions affect organizational commitment. The researcher hopes that the finding can
serve as a basis to fuel interest in this topic in Africa and encourage other scholars to adopt
other research design in examining these issues.
Secondly, the data study did not include interview and observations in each department
within GRA. Whether the findings and suggestions provided by this study can be applied to
other populations in other sectors requires further discussions. Given the exploratory nature
of this results that training and development correlates positively to organizational
commitment, this study suggest that further researchers undertake large-scale research using
quantitative and qualitative methods to address this issue that whether different occupational
categories (different social resources) correlate with organizational commitment propensity in
various degree.
103
Thirdly, the researcher have to acknowledge some challenges in adapting prior validated
scales, in particular, training and development and employee job satisfaction to our study. As
the original Hackman employee job satisfaction scale was design for job design. To adapt the
scales, the researcher modifies the items to measure employee job satisfaction. In addition,
assessing training and development company training was deleted, this argument are
supported by the Cronbach‘s alpha and correlated item to item–total correlation, which
suggest that all items correlate well with overall scales. The validity and confirmed validity
of the adapted scales scale lends confidence to the researcher‘s effort to delete the dimensions.
Moreover, the CFA of PsyCap and training and development are less than 90 but
researchers like Brown & Cudeck, (1993) approve that above 80 can be application and
accepted. During data analysis apart from training and development, all other variables are
corroborated as a single variable. Future researcher can further explore each dimensions
relationship with organizational commitment and compare the findings with this study.
Overall, with regards to PsyCap, the substantial numbers of empirical studies conducted
in a short period of time have been relatively narrow in scope. This leaves ample opportunity
for future research to expand with other positive psychological resources such as wisdom (see
Luthans, Youssef, & Avolio, 2007, that suggest other such resources for inclusion in PsyCap)
and examine the extremes of those with especially low or high PsyCap and whether, as has
been found with organizational commitment, there may be a curvilinear relationship between
PsyCap and positive organizational outcomes.
Furthermore, despites the fact that Common Method Variance (CMV) was taken care of
during the questionnaire design, the study may have undergone CMV. The questionnaire was
sent to some participants via email to fill on their own, CMV might have already taken place.
Thus, the data was collected via self-reports from the respondents and responses may have
been overestimated or underestimated which could have affected the results of the
relationship between the variables
Finally, as the research drew the sample from a public organization, in different
department and sector within GRA, one sector training might be more proactive than the
other in the organization. To better test this model of training and development and
organizational commitment, future research should adopt a random sampling approach that
taps a wider spectrum of employees in all sectors in The Gambia. This will allow for a robust
test of research framework or model.
104
Despites these limitations, the results of this research expand current understanding of the
factors that have relationship with organizational commitment in the Gambia Revenue
Authority.
Final Considerations
This research contributes on public organizations literature, even more in training and
development, organizational commitment, employee job satisfaction and PsyCap study in
The Gambia. Further studies are needed to extend the findings of this study by taking into
account a broader set of factors (e.g work motivation, individual and organizational
counterproductive behavior), how these factors affect employee‘s commitment behavior
remains an interesting issue in research. Future studies may also focus on other occupations
or professions and on the meaning of training satisfaction as it pertains to employees,
employers, and customers (Tax payers). Researchers can investigate and bring these issues in
the academic spot light of The Gambia and Africa at large.
105
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119
APENDIX A: QUESTIONAIRE
Cover Letter
Dear Respondent
Thank you for your taking part in this survey. This questionnaire is part of a research project
being conducted by Awa Sillah, a student of the Graduate Institute of International Human
Resource Development at the National Taiwan Normal University in Taipei, Taiwan. The
study focused on investigating what relationship training and development, psychological
capital and employee job satisfaction have on Organizational commitment. The study aim to
contribute to the human resource development practices of GRA as well improve
organisational commitment
The first section of this questionnaire contains questions on demographic data while
subsequent sections contain the main questions of this research. It will not take more than
thirty minutes of your time to fill out. You are not required to identify yourself in any way
throughout this process. You are assured of the highest level of confidentiality as a result of
this survey will strictly be used for academic research purposes.
You cooperation in filling out the attached questionnaire is highly appreciated.
For any inquiry about this study, please do not hesitate to contact the researchers
Name: Awa Sillah, Wei-Wen Chang Ph.D
University: National Taiwan Normal University
Department: Graduate Institute of International Human Resource Development
Email: awasillah@gmail.com
Thank you very much for your valuable time and thoughts in completing this questionnaire
120
QUESTIONAIRE
Section A Below are statements about your perception of training and development. Using the
following scales, indicate your level of agreement or disagreement
1= Strongly Disagree (SD) 2=Disagree (D) 3=Neutral (N) 4=Agree (A) 5= Strongly
Agree (SA)
SN Items SD D N A SA
1 I can count on my co-workers to provide me with help
and services needed to complete my job assignments.
1 2 3 4 5
2 My co-workers tend to resist my efforts to apply new
knowledge or skills on the job.
1 2 3 4 5
3 More experienced co-workers are usually reluctant to
give me guidance
1 2 3 4 5
4 I feel comfortable discussing my skill weaknesses with
my manager.
1 2 3 4 5
5 My manager is supportive of my efforts to acquire new
knowledge and skills
1 2 3 4 5
6 My employer values development of new skills or
acquisition of new knowledge.
1 2 3 4 5
7 When I make a mistake, my manager usually treats it
as a learning experience that can prevent failure and
improve performance in the future.
1 2 3 4 5
8 My manager shares information with me about
problems or trends in the company that can influence
my career plans.
1 2 3 4 5
9 My manager makes sure I get the training needed to
remain in the organization and be effective in my job.
1 2 3 4 5
10 I try to learn as much as I can from training programs. 1 2 3 4
11 I am usually motivated to learn the skills emphasized
in training programs.
1 2 3 4 5
12 I am willing to invest effort to improve skills and
competencies related to my current job.
1 2 3 4 5
13 I am willing to invest effort to improve skills and
competencies in order to have career progression
1 2 3 4 5
Participating in training programs will..
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14
15
16
17
18
help my personal developing 1 2 3 4 5
increase my chances of performing better 1 2 3 4 5
result in having to do extra work that would add value 1 2 3 4 5
Result in more opportunities to pursue different career
paths.
1 2 3 4 5
Help me stay up-to-date on new processes and
products or procedures related to my job.
1 2 3 4 5
Section B Please read each statement and respond to the following questions. Use the scale
below to reflect your view by circling the number that best represent your opinion. The scale
ranges from strongly disagree to strongly agree
1= Strongly Disagree (SD) 2=Disagree (D) 3=Neutral (N) 4=Agree (A) 5= Strongly
Agree (SA)
Items SD D N A SA
1 I would be very happy to spend the rest of my career
in this organization.
1 2 3 4 5
2 I enjoy discussing about my organization with
people outside it
1 2 3 4 5
3 I really feel as if this organization‘s problems are my
own
1 2 3 4 5
4 I think that that I could easily become as attached to
another organization as I am to this one
1 2 3 4 5
5 I do not feel like ―part of the family‖ at my
organization.
1 2 3 4 5
6 I do not feel ―emotionally attached‖ to this
organization.
1 2 3 4 5
7 This organization has a great deal meaning for me. 1 2 3 4 5
8 I do not feel a strong sense of belonging to my
organization.
1 2 3 4 5
9 I am not afraid of what might happen if I quit my job
without having another one lined up.
1 2 3 4 5
10 It would be very hard for me to leave my
organization right now, even if I wanted to.
1 2 3 4 5
11 Too much in my life would be disrupted if I decided 1 2 3 4 5
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to leave my organization now
12 It wouldn‘t be too costly for me to leave my
organization now.
1 2 3 4 5
13 Right now, staying with my organization is a matter
of necessity as much as desire.
1 2 3 4 5
14 I feel that I have very few options to consider
leaving this organization.
1 2 3 4 5
15 One of the few serious consequences of leaving this
organization would be the scarcity of available
alternatives
1 2 3 4 5
16 One of the major reasons I continue to work for this
organization is that leaving would require
considerable personal sacrifice—another
organization may not match the overall benefits I
have here.
1 2 3 4 5
17 I think that people these days move from company
to company too often
1 2 3 4 5
18 I do not believe that a person must always be loyal
to his or her organization
1 2 3 4 5
19 Jumping from organization to organization does not
seem at all unethical to me.
1 2 3 4 5
20 One of the major reasons I continue to work in this
organization is that I believe loyalty is important and
therefore feel a sense of moral obligation to remain.
1 2 4 5
21 If I got another offer for a better job elsewhere I
would not feel it was right to leave my organization
1 2 3 4 5
22 I was taught to believe in the value of remaining
loyal to one organization.
1 2 3 4 5
23 Things were better in the days when people stayed in
one organization for most of their careers
1 2 3 4 5
24 I do not think that to be a company man/ woman is
sensible
1 2 3 4 5
Section D
Please read each statement and respond to the following questions. Use the scale
below to reflect your view of satisfaction by circling the number that best represent your
123
opinion. The scale ranges from very dissatisfied to very satisfy
1=very dissatisfied (VD) 2= dissatisfied (D) 3- Neural (N) 4= Satisfied (S) 5= Very
Satisfied
Items VD D N S VS
1 I am satisfy with my job as it provide me with
opportunity that improve my skills
1 2 3 4 5
2 It provide me with a variety of work 1 2 3 4 5
3 Give me an opportunity to do different tasks 1 2 3 4 5
4 I feel satisfied with my job as it allows me with the
opportunity to complete the work I start
1 2 3 4 5
5 My job is arranged so that I have a chance to do the
job from one stage to the other
1 2 3 4 5
6 The task is arranged so that I may see work
assignment through to their final completion
1 2 3 4 5
7 The work is arranged so that I have a chance to do
things for other people.
1 2 3 4 5
8 The task is relatively significant in the organization 1 2 3 4 5
9 The task is very significant in the broader scheme of
things
1 2 3 4 5
10 I am Satisfied with the autonomy to do my own
work
1 2 3 4 5
11 Provides the opportunity for independent thought
and action
1 2 3 4 5
12 My job gives me considerable opportunity for
independence and freedom in how I do my work
1 2 3 4 5
13 I am Satisfy with feedback provided on how well I
am performing as I am working
1 2 3 4 5
14 Provides me with the opportunity to find out how
well I am doing (job evaluation)
1 2 3 4 5
15 Provides me with feeling that I know whether I am
performing well or poorly (performance appraisal
1 2 3 4 5
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Section E
Finally, we are interested in demographic information about you. Once again, your
responses will be kept confidential.
1. Gender
□ 1.Female □ 2. Male
2. Age
□ 1. Less than 20 years □ 2. 20-- 30 years
□ 3. 31—40 years □ 4. 41-50
□ 5 Above 50 years
3. What is your educational level (highest level completed)?.
□ 1 Certificate □ 2. Diploma □ 3. Bachelor degree □ 4. Master Degree
□ 5. Doctórate Degree
4.How many years work experience do you have ?
□ 1. Less than 1 year □ 2. 1year to 5years
□ 3. 6 to 10years □ 4. 11 to 15years
□ 5. More than 15years
5. How many times in the past year have you participated on-the-job training? ______times
6. How many times in the past year have you participated in formal training/education
programs run by Gambia Revenue Authority ? __________times
Thank you for your co-operation. We greatly appreciate the time you have to complete
this survey
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APPENDIX B: QUESTIONNAIRES ITEMS CODING
Training and organizational Commitment
SN Question Training Support from Colleagues
1 I can count on my co-workers to provide me with help and
services needed to complete my job assignments. TD-TSC1
2 My co-workers tend to resist my efforts to apply new knowledge
or skills on the job. TD-TSC2
3 More experienced co-workers are usually reluctant to give me
guidance TD-TSC3
4 I feel comfortable discussing my skill weaknesses with my
manager. TD-TSS4
5 My manager is supportive of my efforts to acquire new knowledge
and skills TD-TSS5
6 My employer values development of new skills or acquisition of
new knowledge. TD-TSS6
7 When I make a mistake, my manager usually treats it as a learning
experience that can prevent failure and improve performance in
the future.
TD-TSS7
8 My manager shares information with me about problems or trends
in the company that can influence my career plans.
TD-TSS8
9 My manager makes sure I get the training needed to remain in the
organization and be effective in my job. TD-TSS9
10 I try to learn as much as I can from training programs. TD-PMT10
11 I am usually motivated to learn the skills emphasized in training
programs. TD-PMT11
12 I am willing to invest effort to improve skills and competencies
related to my current job. TD-PMT12
13 I am willing to invest effort to improve skills and competencies in
order to have career progression TD-PMT13
Training Benefits: Participating in training and development
programs will...
14 help my personal developing TD-BT14
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15 increase my chances of performing better TD-BT15
16 result in having to do extra work that would add value TD-BT16
17 Result in more opportunities to pursue different career paths. TD-BT17
18 Help me stay up-to-date on new processes and products or
procedures related to my job. TD-BT18
Organizational commitment OC
Affectiv
e
I would be very happy to spend the rest of my career in this
organization. OC-A1
I enjoy discussing about my organization with people outside it OC-A2
I really feel as if this organization‘s problems are my own OC-A3
I do not feel like ―part of the family‖ at my organization. OC-A4
I do not feel ―emotionally attached‖ to this organization. OC-A5
This organization has a great deal meaning for me. OC-A6
I do not feel a strong sense of belonging to my organization. OC-A7
I think that I could easily become as attached to another
organization as I am to this one OC-A8
Continu
ance
I am not afraid of what might happen if I quit my job without
having another one lined up. OC-C9
It would be very hard for me to leave my organization right now,
even if I wanted to. OC-C10
Too much in my life would be disrupted if I decided to leave my
organization now OC-C11
It wouldn‘t be too costly for me to leave my organization now. OC-C12
Right now, staying with my organization is a matter of necessity
as much as desire. OC-C13
I feel that I have very few options to consider leaving this
organization. OC-C14
One of the few serious consequences of leaving this organization
would be the scarcity of available alternatives OC-C15
One of the major reasons I continue to work for this organization
is that leaving would require considerable personal sacrifice—
another organization may not match the overall benefits I have
OC-C16
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here.
NORM
ATIVE
I think that people these days move from company to company
too often OC-N17
I do not believe that a person must always be loyal to his or her
organization OC-N18
Jumping from organization to organization does not seem at all
unethical to me. OC-N19
One of the major reasons I continue to work in this organization
is that I believe loyalty is important and therefore feel a sense of
moral obligation to remain.
OC-N20
If I got another offer for a better job elsewhere I would not feel it
was right to leave my organization OC-N21
I was taught to believe in the value of remaining loyal to one
organization. OC-N22
Things were better in the days when people stayed in one
organization for most of their careers OC-N23
Employee job satisfaction
Constructs Code
1 I am satisfy with my job as it provide me with opportunity
that improve my skills
JS-SV1
2 It provide me with a variety of work JS-SV2
3 Give me an opportunity to do different tasks JS-SV3
4 I feel satisfied with my job as it allows me with the
opportunity to complete the work I start JS-TI 4
5 My job is arranged so that I have a chance to do the job
from one stage to the other JS-TI5
6 The task is arranged so that I may see work assignment
through to their final completion JS-TI6
7 The work is arranged so that I have a chance to do things for
other people. JS-TS7
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8 The task is relatively significant in the organization JS-TS8
9 The task is very significant in the broader scheme of things JS-TS9
10 I am Satisfied with the autonomy to do my own work JS-A10
11 Provides the opportunity for independent thought and action JS-A11
12 My job gives me considerable opportunity for independence
and freedom in how I do my work JS-A12
13 I am Satisfy with feedback provided on how well I am
performing as I am working JS-FR13
14 Provides me with the opportunity to find out how well I am
doing (job evaluation) JS-FR14
15 Provides me with feeling that I know whether I am
performing well or poorly (performance appraisal JS-FR15
Demographic Questions Items Coding
1 Gender : D1
2 Age: D2
3 Education level: D3
4 Work experience: D4
5 Informal Training: D5
6 Formal Training: D6