I

An Empirical Study of Training and Development, Psychological Capital,

Employee Job Satisfaction and Organizational Commitment in a Public

Organization: Evidence from The Gambia Revenue Authority

By

Awa Sillah

A Thesis Submitted to the

Graduate Faculty in Partial Fulfillment of the

Requirements for the Degree of

MASTER OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION

Major: International Human Resource Development

Advisor: Wei-Wen Chang, Ph. D.

National Taiwan Normal University

Taipei, Taiwan

June, 2015

II

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

"At times, our own light goes out and is rekindled by a spark from another person.

Each of us has cause to think with deep gratitude of those who have lighted the flame

within us." Albert Schweitzer

It is with humble but grateful heart I gave thanks and praises to Allah SWT for

giving me the health, strength, perseverance, and determination to complete this

thesis and for blessing me with the support of exceptional individuals. There are

many individuals who all played significant roles in the development and ultimate

completion of this thesis.

First and foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my advisor,

mentor, and IHRD mom Professor Vera Wei-Wen Chang for the continuous support

of my study and related research, for her patience, motivation, love, and immense

knowledge. She provided me with the perfect balance of mentoring and coaching to

complete this journey. Her guidance helped me in all the time of research and

writing of this thesis. I could not have imagined having a better advisor and mentor

for my graduate study.

I am also profoundly grateful for the invaluable input of my committee

members. Each committee member has uniquely contributed to the success of this

research. I would like to thank Dr. Tsai and Dr Pai-po Lee for their direction in

helping me to understand human resource development in public organizations. I am

also grateful for their sustained encouragement, insightful discussions and excellent

guidance. I am particularly grateful to all IHRD professors, for the help they

provided through their expertise and constructive advice. My profound gratitude and

great appreciation to Dr. Tony Shih, Dr Rosa Yeh, Dr Jane Lin, Dr Steven Lai, and

Professor Larry Miller who were more than generous with their time, and gave me

useful knowledge and unwavering support throughout my IHRD life. Most of all, I

am deeply grateful for the tireless efforts of the IHRD staff and ICDF program

managers, Kate, Tracy and Jessica, thank you for the outstanding dedication to our

needs. I would like to thank International Corporation and Development Fund

(ICDF) for the scholarship; I could not have completed this journey without them.

I am also deeply appreciative of all the motivation and encouragement I received

from my parent, to my Father Baba Matarr Sillah, who have given me with world and

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now, I want to give back to the world. To my Mama, Adama Susso, who never said I

could not do or be someone. If I could be half of the woman she is today, I would be

ecstatic. Completing this education journey is a true blessing. This success has not

been achieved in isolation, and I am grateful to my late mother, Kumba Kanteh who

provided prayers, support, and contribution of time, resources and guidance during

my academic journey. She was one of the few people who have always been there for

me through everything, and I know she was so proud of me to reach this day. May her

beautiful soul rest in eternal peace.

Life is somehow meaningless if what one does goes without positive effects on

lives of others. Again, I am grateful to my phenomenal husband, Darling Illo Jallow,

and In-laws who knew the timely words of affirmation and motivation that kept me

moving forward. Their support throughout this journey was priceless and will always

be recalled. To my sisters and brothers words cannot describe how much I love and

appreciate them. My Gratitude goes to my amazing twin sister; Adama Sillah, my

Khadijahs, and friend Fatou Bittaye, for their unwavering support in this endeavor. I

would like to extend a warm appreciation to relatives and comrades who have been

encouraging along the way and I will always be indebted for their unconditional love

they have given me throughout my entire academic career.

I am also immensely thankful to my fellow ‗‗IHRDers‘‘ and Classmates for the

stimulating discussions, for the times we spent working together, and for all the fun

we have had in the last two years. They all made this journey remarkable. Special

thanks to my incredible Helene Konkobo, my Chang family members (Rosy, Julie and

Fryda), Jeanine, Mariam, Fatou, Yankuba and Saikou Sanneh for the love, support,

and peer reviews.

Finally, this journey was enhanced by the contributions of The Gambia Revenue

Authority (GRA). I would like to proudly acknowledge the support of the staff for

their willingness to participate in my research. I owe a special thank you to Mr Essa

Jallow, GRA Human Resource Department, and Tax Audit Department for their

support all through the journey.

May Allah bless you all!!

IV

DEDICATION

I want to dedicate this thesis to the loving memory of my dear mother Nanding

Kumba Kanteh who instilled the values of diligence, persistence, and the importance

of helping others improve their lives. I am also dedicating this thesis to my Professor,

Wei-Wen Chang, my Sillah, and Jallow family. I finally dedicate this success to GRA

and all Employers, who devote their energies toward the development of their Human

Resources in order to attained and achieved positive work behaviors and

organizational objectives.

I

ABSTRACT

A well-organised human resource development programme is a critical strategy for

public organizations, as in the coming years human capital will increasingly play a significant

role in organizational development. Notwithstanding, the human resource commitment and

turnover is one of the biggest concerns of organizations especially in the 21st century. This

study was conducted in The Gambia to explore strategies that public organizations could

consider for increasing employees‘ commitment behavior in order to achieve national

development mandates. Thus, this study departing from the emphasis in prior behavioral

research developed a framework of organizational commitment that incorporates training and

development, employee job satisfaction and psychological capital. The analyses of the data

collected from 257 employees of The Gambia Revenue Authority indicated that training and

development and organizational commitment are associated positively, and that, employee

job satisfaction and psychological capital partially mediates the relationship. This research

used a quantitative research paradigm, and prior to the data collection, the study adopted

validated measurement instruments from previous researchers who have conducted studies on

these constructs. Thus, to confirm their suitability, the instruments have gone through the

process of face validity, pilot study and construct reliability. The data was analyzed using

SPSS 22 and Amos to compute descriptive statistics, confirmatory factor analysis,

correlations, linear and multiple regressions. Thus, this study may lead to a better

understanding as regards to how human resource development practitioners can design

policies that may enhance organizational commitment behaviors in public enterprises. Based

on the results of this study, practical and theoretical implications were discussed.

Keywords: training and development, psychological capital, employee job satisfaction,

organizational commitment, Human Resource Development, Gambia Revenue Authority

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT .......................................................................................................... I

TABLE OF CONTENTS ..................................................................................... II

LISTS OF TABLES ............................................................................................IV

LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................. V

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION .......................................................................... 1

Research Background ............................................................................................................. 1

Problem Statement ................................................................................................................. 4

Research Purposes .................................................................................................................. 6

Research Questions ................................................................................................................ 7

Research Significance ............................................................................................................ 7

Delimitations .......................................................................................................................... 9

Definitions of Terms .............................................................................................................. 9

CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW .......................................................... 11

Training and Development ................................................................................................... 11

Psychological Capital ........................................................................................................... 15

Organizational Commitment ................................................................................................ 17

Employee Job Satisfaction ................................................................................................... 22

Relationship between the Variables ..................................................................................... 26

Overview of Training and Development of the Gambia Revenue Authority ...................... 35

CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHODS ......................................................... 37

Research Framework ............................................................................................................ 37

Research Procedure .............................................................................................................. 38

Research Instrument ............................................................................................................. 41

Reliability and Validity of the Instrument............................................................................ 45

Sample for the Study: The Gambia Revenue Authority ...................................................... 46

Method of Data Analysis...................................................................................................... 48

Pilot Study ............................................................................................................................ 50

CHAPTER IV RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS ............................................ 53

Descriptive Statistics ............................................................................................................ 53

Confirmatory Factor Analysis Results ................................................................................. 63

Hypothesis Tests .................................................................................................................. 67

III

The Relationship between the Variables .............................................................................. 71

Discussions of the Findings ................................................................................................. 80

Demographics Variables Relationship with Study Variables .............................................. 85

CHAPTER V CONLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS ................................... 87

Conclusions .......................................................................................................................... 87

Theoretical and Practical Implications ................................................................................. 89

Research Recommendations ................................................................................................ 99

Limitations and Future Research........................................................................................ 102

Final Considerations ........................................................................................................... 104

REFERENCE .................................................................................................... 105

APENDIX A: QUESTIONAIRE ...................................................................... 119

APPENDIX B: QUESTIONNAIRES ITEMS CODING ................................. 125

IV

LISTS OF TABLES

Table 2.1 Definitions of Organizational Commitment…………….……………………….18

Table 2.2 Organizational Commitment Model……………………….…………………….21

Table 2.3 Definitions of Job Satisfaction...……………………..……….…………………….23

Table 2.4 Five facet of Hackman job description model…………….………..…………….26

Table 3.1 Research Hypotheses……………………………………….…………………….38

Table 3.2 Established Reliability of Variables……………………….….……….………….44

Table 3.3 Reliability Methods for this Research……..……………………………………..45

Table 3.4 Validity Methods for this Research………..……………………………………..45

Table 3.5 Reliability of variables…...…………….…………………………………………52

Table 4.1 Demographics Characteristics of the Sample…………………………………….54

Table 4.2 Descriptive Statistics for Training and Development …………………….…....56

Table 4.3 Descriptive Statistics for Organizational Commitment…………………………......58

Table 4.4 Descriptive Statistics for Employee Job Satisfaction ……………………………60

Table 4.5 Descriptive Statistics for Psychological Capital…….……………..…………….62

Table 4.6 Criteria for Evaluating CFA Results.……………………………………………..63

Table 4.7 Confirmatory factor Analysis for Training and Development……………..…….64

Table 4.8 Confirmatory factor Analysis for Organizational Commitment………….…….. 64

Table 4.9 Confirmatory factor Analysis for Psychological Capital…….. ………….……...65

Table 4.10 Confirmatory factor Analysis for Employee Job Satisfaction ………….…….....66

Table 4.11 Correlation Table………………….……………………..…………………...….70

Table 4.12 Multiple Regressions Analysis summaries of Training and Development

and Employee Job Satisfaction……………………………………………………………....71

Table 4.13 Multiple Regressions Analysis summaries of Training and Development

and Psychological Capital ……………………….………….……………………………....73

Table 4.14 Linear Regression Analysis summaries of Training and Development

and Organizational Commitment ………………………………………………...………….74

Table 4.15 Results for Employee Job Satisfaction Mediation on Training and

Organisational Commitment Relationship……………..………………………….………....76

Table 4.16 Results for Psychological Capital Mediation on Training and

Organisational Commitment Relationship…………………………………………………...77

Table 4.17 Summary of Analysis Results…………………..……………………………….79

V

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1 Psychological Capital Model………………………………………………...…..17

Figure 2.2 Hackman and Olham‘s Job Satifaction characteristics model…………………...25

Figure 3.1 Research Framework….……………………………………………………........37

Figure 3.2 Research Procedure ………..…………………………………………………….40

VI

“Human resources are like natural resources; they're often buried deep...You

have to create the circumstances where they show themselves.”

― Ken Robinson

1

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

This chapter provide an overall motivation for conducting this research. It gives an insight

of the study background, purposes, the questions that frames the investigation and the

significances of the research. The theoretical framework upon which the researcher addresses

the research questions was discussed and thereafter, delimitations were also stated. Finally,

the key terms were defined in order to provide a comprehensive focus of this entire study.

Research Background

Organizations are known to exist and function in dynamic environments. This

circumstance compels organizations to adopt innovative measures to meet the changing needs

of the time and to bridge the gaps between actual and desired targets (Ozoya, 2009; Porras &

Silvers, 1991; Ndulue, 2012). Through this process, human resources play a significant role

in achieving organizational goals. Additionally, they have become the most significant asset,

as the public organizations shifted from traditional government focus to a new public service

oriented enterprise aims at the 3Es–economy, efficiency and effectiveness. In this transition,

the development of human capital becomes the core, as well as the differentiator for public

organizations (Camilli, 2004). As such, in public enterprises the critical resources are not

only the revenue provided to government, but also ‗‗the employees whom the organization

hires and must retain‘‘ (Barber & Strack, 2005, p.83). Therefore, the need for public

organizations to create conditions where employees would be highly committed is critical to

achieving its goals. In turn, this can increase employee commitment, reduces turnover

intention and actual turnover.

In recent years, there have been inexplicable turnovers in most public enterprises in Sub-

Saharan Africa, a trend which started around the 1960s, and it became more of a problem in

the 21st Century (Kiragu, 1998). However, with organizations witnessing remarkable changes

over time, many public enterprises in developing countries have come under pressure to

become more proactive in improving employees‘ skills, so as to provide high quality service

to the public, increase commitment and contribute immensely to national development. In

this regard, public enterprises are subjected to the introduction of programs for greater

organizational commitment in order to steer genuine development in their respective

communities and The Gambia is not an exception (Dahida, 2013)

In The Gambia, anecdotal evidences have shown that, the society expects public

enterprises to become more citizen focused, and to operate in a more business-like manner;

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forcing public sector organizations to increase accountability, quality, and effectiveness in

service delivery for greater public trust and confidence. This is coupled with other

expectations of meeting government and other stakeholders‘ performance targets. Many

public and private sectors around the world are faced with similar situations and the impact of

economic crisis and globalization (Haufler, 2013). Consequently, the concern of how to

increase employees‘ commitment in order to meet public demands, and maintain high

performance has emerged. Additionally, according to Crook,(2010) the key problems of some

African public services remain those of over or understaffing and lack of organizational

commitment. International Monetary Fund (IMF, 2015) recent report posits that that ‗‗times

are tough in most West Africa countries and many economies… Investors are pulling money

out of riskier spots and growth forecasts decline especially in The Gambia, that suffered from

all these trends, a harbinger of things to come (p.1)‘‘. If this trend continues it will affect

revenue collected from business for national growth. Hence, these situations reiterate the

need for a greater public service commitment to achieve organizational objectives. However,

many raise questions concerning how the public sector employees can survive such

transformation, whether they are professionally competent to work against the pressures in

order to deal with the increasing demands. With these questions into consideration, this study

found out some feasible recommendations and important strategies to increase organizational

commitment in public organizations in The Gambia

Moreover, organizational commitment is a construct that has been widely studied and

found to be an unswerving predictor of employee turnover and intention to leave (Meyer &

Allen, 1997). Thus, the need for factors that predict organizational commitment has become

critical and the demand for a greater understanding of this organizational phenomenon

increases daily. The major drive behind this continuous recognition of organizational

commitment among human resource researchers for over three decades is that it is often seen

as a key to‗‗organizational success‘‘(Benkhoff, 1997b). Against this backdrop, organizational

commitment has emerged as a promising area of research within the study of organizational

psychology and industries recently (Adebayo, 2006; Meyer & Allen, 1997). This is in part

due to the vast number of studies that have relationships with commitment, attitudes and

behaviours (Porter, Steers, Mowday, & Boulian, 1974). Existing theoretical studies showed

that commitment has direct implications on individuals and an overall on the organizations

(Allen & Meyer, 1990.). Ultimately, to achieve this, it is generally associated with motivation,

management support, and positive organizational climate. Thus, for public organizations,

3

implementing strategies that increase employees‘ commitment could be helpful in reducing

the intention to leave.

Furthermore, many researchers posit that for firms to achieve organizational goals

investing in the human resource base is critical as it is fundamentally important to human

capital development (Wesley, 1999). In this regard, Saks (1996) reported that, the greater the

amount of development employees experience, the more they possessed ―positive job

attitudes, ability to cope, and... lower intentions to quit‖ (p.449). Thus, greater skills and

abilities were shown to lead to better performance and, in the process, leads to better attitudes

about the job (Miller & Jablin, 1991). Besides, ―employees may view an effective training

experience as an indication that the enterprise is willing to invest in them and cares about

their career development; thus training may enhance their commitment‖(Tannenbaum et al.,

1991, p.760). In addition, organizations strategies to minimise lack of commitment should

come with more proactive measures and initiatives to increase action oriented employees.

Thus without any interventions or programs for employee development, their mission for

contributing to national development might not be achieved.

Likewise, according to Laing (2009), factors determining employee organizational

commitment include the degree of change in macro environment, internal change, employee

job satisfaction, age, availability of knowledge, skills and extent to which the organization

sees training as a motivating factor for the development of both the employees and attainment

of the organizations‘ performance targets.

Therefore, to achieve desirable work behaviours, training the human resources in

consonance with immediate and remote operational environment is imperative. Most

important among the response options to environmental subtleties is the organization‘s focus

on developing and improving the human side of the enterprise. As training is considered an

indispensable human resource functions as it is the wire that improves the asset that moves

the organization to the direction of meeting its objectives (Ozoya, 2009). With regards to this,

the human capacity has become a critical index to both public and private enterprises; the

development of such capacities has become an important facet in designing the strategic

direction of organizations (Tim & Brinkerhoff, 2008). Training also ensures that

organizational members possess the knowledge and skills they need to perform their jobs

effectively, take on new responsibilities, and adapt to changing conditions. Studies found that

an organization developing the knowledge, skills and abilities of employees, is viewed as an

investment and can contribute to the formation of position trust. Considering training and

4

development is believed to be discretionary and it is highly valued (Gavino, Wayne, &

Erdogan, 2012).

Furthermore, employee job satisfaction has been found to help clarify the relationship

between human resource management practices with organizational commitment. Research

by Allen , Shore, and Griffeth (2003) confirmed this result and found that human resource

practices were more strongly correlated with job satisfaction than with organizational

commitment, suggesting that human resource practices increase job satisfaction and that

―leads to affective attachment to the organization‖ (Allen et al., 2003, p.114).

Moreover, review of literatures also indicates that few researchers (Chambel & Sobral,

2011, Gavino et al., 2012) have looked at the mediating impact of job satisfaction on the

relationship between training and development and organizational commitment. Also,

according to the researcher‘s knowledge, no study investigated psychological capital (PsyCap)

as a mediator between the two variables in public organizations.

Problem Statement

This section explores and presented the problem found in research and in practice:

Problem of Research

Training and development impact on organizational commitment has been studied in

some industries in recent years and the outcomes of the researches have provided some

indication to suggest that training and development has effects on organizational commitment

(Ahmad & Bakar, 2003; Bartlett & Kang, 2004). However, empirical studies of the

relationship are in its primary phases and the exact nature of the relationship is still indistinct.

(Bartlett, 2001; Conway & Monks, 2009). In addition, Fornes, Rocco, and Wollard (2008)

posits that there is a need to conduct human resource development research in understanding

how to trigger employee commitment behaviour since there is a gap which little is known..

Though, Human Resource Development (HRD) practices have been establish to be

correlated to organizational commitment (Conway & Monks, 2009; Kinicki, Carson, &

Bohlander, 1992), some scholars have recommended that the association is not direct.

Research conducted by Meyer and Smith (2000) found that employee job satisfaction played

an important role in mediating the link between human resource management (HRM)

practices and commitment. The researcher noted from a theoretical perspective that

understanding mediating mechanisms puts researchers ―in a better position to explain why

5

known relations exist and to search more systematically for influencing factors in future

research‖ (Meyer et al., 2002, p.39).

However, a ―gap… exists in understanding which mediator play a role in the relationship

between HR practices and employee behaviours that benefit the organization‖ (Gavino et al.,

2012, p.667). In addition, there is limited research on PsyCap as a mediating variable and its

influence on the link between commitment and other factors.

Furthermore, despite the extensive studies and interest on PsyCap, training and

development and organizational commitment, there is still very little research done in

developing countries (Meyer et al., 2002). Given the growing significant of public enterprises

in facilitating economic advancement, there is a need to extend our understanding of the

factors that enhance commitment. However, in The Gambia, although there have been few

researches on capacity building, the mediating role of employee job satisfaction and PsyCap

on the relationship between training and organizational commitment was not looked at before.

This reiterates the fact that very little empirical research has been conducted and this gap

created the need for this empirical study to be conducted in The Gambia.

Problem of Practice

The environment of public organizations has undergone rapid transformation

especially through the structural adjustment program of the International Monetary Fund

(IMF, 2003), globalization and economic crises. In the centre of these changes, challenges

occur. This has created pressure on many public firms to come with proactive measures to

face these challenges, through the development of the human resource. Therefore, training for

all levels of public enterprise employees is critical to developing expertise, though the type of

skill-building needed (e.g., tax administration, public sector administration, public sector

reform programs etc.) may vary. Without continuous learning for public servants, the level of

professionalism needed for public satisfaction, economic growth and advancement could be

negatively impacted (Richard, & Daniel, 2001). According, to Hartz (2002), ―there is

absolutely nothing more important for the future well-being of employees and economic

growth than a highly developed, motivated and renewable intellectual capital base.‖ (p.6).

Thus, with this critical need for highly committed and skilled workers, taxpayers satisfaction

and employees retention can become a serious issue for public organizations to tackle when

business are closing and employee turnover keeps increasing (Kiragu, 1998).

6

In addition, to the financial impacts of personnel loss, lack of organizational

commitment can also be disruptive to public organizations because, along with individuals

departing from the organization, the public might be dissatisfy with the work behaviour of

employees in the public enterprises. This when not address might leads to closure of some

businesses and affect economic growth of the country. Thus, one way the organizations can

boost performance is by increasing organizational commitment of employees as it positively

associated with desirable work behaviours (i.e., attendance, job performance) (Meyer &

Herscovitch, 2001). While investments in training and providing a supportive work

environment strengthen commitment, it also develop PsyCap, as it is regarded as an

expression of the organization‘s support to the employees (Eisenberger, Huntington,

Hutchinson, & Sowa, 1986).

Accordingly, significant positive revenue growth is forecasted for public organizations in

The Gambia (Gambia. Dept. of State for Finance, & Economic Affairs, 2007; IMF, 2013),

nonetheless, anecdotal evidences have shown that the commitment of public servant is a

critical concern. The problems of practice addressed in this study are: understanding factors

that contribute to creating a supportive work environment and organisational commitment in

public enterprises. Thus, this research identifies the contributions and impact of human

resource practices on commitment. These recommendations can be used by HRD

practitioners and policy makers to decide how to invest resources allocated to human

resources for a better performance.

Research Purposes

Based on the research background and motivation, this empirical study aims to

investigate the relationships between training and development, employee job satisfaction,

PsyCap and organizational commitment, and derived related theoretical and practical

implications. The underlying factors may empower The Gambia Revenue Authority‘s HR

unit and identify factors important for greater organizational commitment. The exploration of

current GRA employees‘ development initiatives might contribute towards an understanding

of how training improves desirable work behaviour. Thus, these relationships might provide

strong arguments for more and better HRD programs delivery in public organizations. In

addition, the evaluation might not only create a holistic view of the variables, but may also

assist in fostering a sense of obligation to stay commited among employees in public

organizations.

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The purpose of this research therefore, was to examine employees‘ perception of training

impact on organizational commitment in GRA.

Thus, these objectives are herein outlined as the purposes of the study:

Investigate the effect of training and development on employee job satisfaction and

psychological capital of the Gambia Revenue Authority.

Examine the mediating role of psychological capital and employee job satisfaction

on training and development – organizational commitment relationship of the Gambia

Revenue Authority

Examine the impact training and development have on employees organizational

commitment of the Gambia Revenue Authority

Research Questions

According to the research purposes derived from the background and motivation of the

study, three research questions needed to be answered and are formulated as follows;

1. Does training and development (training support from colleagues, management

training support, motivation of training, and training benefit) have a significant

relationship with employee job satisfaction and psychological capital in the Gambia

Revenue Authority?

2. Whether employee job satisfaction and psychological capital play a role as mediators

in the training and development and organizational commitment relationship in the

Gambia Revenue Authority?

3. Does training and development have a significant relationship with organizational

commitment in the Gambia Revenue Authority?

Research Significance

This study makes important contributions to training and development, employee job

satisfaction, PsyCap, and organizational commitment literatures in public organizations both

in theory and in practice. While research on training and organizational commitment has been

conducted in private organizations/corporations (Swerdlow, & Cummings, 2000;

Tannenbaum, Mathieu, Salas, & Cannon-Bowers, 1991), there is little information and

empirical studies found in public enterprises. Consequently, researchers like Camilleri (2006)

have called for additional studies of what can enhance commitment in public organizations.

Most studies of training are considered as a one-dimensional construct and outcomes to

public sectors training and development programs are rarely taken into account. Ismail, Md

8

Nor, and Marjani (2009) pointed out that when addressing training and development, it is

fundamental to know how training leads to organizational development. Taking into account

training conducted by the organizations can boost organizational commitment which is

particularly important in achieving performance targets.

However, many of the studies conducted in public organizations to date are mainly

theoretical. This study extends on the training and organizational commitment literature as it

provides support for the type of desired behaviour and interventions that are essential for

public enterprise‘s success. Furthermore, the results of this study may be of interest to

organizations that seek to improve employee job satisfaction and PsyCap

Thus, employee job satisfaction has become crucial as it is often seen as a key construct

that influences behaviour for retention. Citing from Spector (1997),‗‗it is vital for

organizations to develop innovative capacities that increase employees‘ job satisfaction as

they allow employees to respond to the needs of the internal or external environment, and

respond swiftly to changing demographics‘‘ (p. 24). Likewise, training and development has

been claimed to be essential for PsyCap and some studies have provided substantial evidence

on these relationships. However, research with empirical evidence on PsyCap that is crucial

to organizational commitment is relatively scarce. Thus, an important contribution of this

research is represented by the role of PsyCap and employee job satisfaction on the

relationship between training and organizational commitment

Moreover, there is dearth of theoretical and empirical studies in public organizations in

The Gambia. Therefore, the implications of this study have the potential of unlocking

economic value from the GRA‘s training programs as it attempts to identify the contextual

factors that enhance employees‘ commitment behaviours. In addition, the management of

GRA may also find the results of this study of practical benefit, as it provides practical

recommendations for greater commitment, in order to successfully achieve organizational

goals. Given that organizations successes depends mainly on the ability to capitalize on the

value of employees. As a result, various organizations are developing and implementing

training and development programs to manage and leverage their human capital (Kankanhalli,

Tan, & Wei, 2005). ).

Thus, the outcomes of this study laid a foundation for future researchers interested in

understanding these variables in public organizations in Africa. Finally, the results may

contribute to raise awareness among public enterprises in The Gambia about the importance

of training and development, employee job Satisfaction, PsyCap to the employees and to the

organizations at large.

9

Delimitations

The researcher places some delimitation in order to manage the scope of the study.

First, it is delimitated to The Gambia and to one public enterprise GRA. Furthermore, the

research is also delimitated to GRA employees, specifically, those who have undergone

training.

Drawing from the delimitations, since the study is delimited to Gambia this means that it

is culturally bound, therefore, the results cannot be generalized to other organizations. In

addition, the research participants consisted only of employees working full time. Since

people have different perceptions of the organizations they belong to and respond differently

to their organization‘s environment, the findings of this study can be context specific and

may not be applicable to members of other groups of organizations (i.e part-time employees,

Interns or experts from International Monetary Fund, etc.).

Definitions of Terms

In this section, the researcher provides both the theoretical and operational definitions

of the variables in this research. The operational definitions outline how the variables are

measured and theoretical definition outline the concept of the constructs. The four main

constructs investigated in this study include training and development, employee job

satisfaction, Psychological Capital, and organisational commitment as described below:

Training and Development

Training is defined as a learning activity directed towards the acquisition of specific

knowledge and skills for the purpose of an occupation or task (Cole, 2004). In other words, it

is the plan and systematic approach to employee learning leading to the acquisition of new

knowledge or skills for the purposes of personal growths (Aguinis & Kraiger, 2009). This

study looks at training and development as support and benefits employee received to

developed their knowledge, skills and ability that leads to job satisfaction, high PsyCap, and

organizational commitment. An 18 scale items is used to measure training and development

shown in table 4.2 of this text. This scale is formally adapted from Barlett (2011), but the

different dimensions scale are developed by (Tharenou & Conroy.,1994; Noe & Schmitt.,

1986; Noe & Wilk, 1993)

10

Psychological Capital

Psychological Capital is defined as ‗‗the positive and developmental state of an

individual as characterized by high self-efficacy, optimism, hope and resiliency. It is

concerned with individuals‘ strength, perceptions, attitude towards work, and general outlook

of life‘‘ (Luthans, 2007 p.1). A 24-item scale from Luthans (2005) research is used to

measure PsyCap. This is shown in Table 4.5

Organizational Commitment

Organizational Commitment is referred to as the degree of commitment and loyalty

that employees exhibit toward employers. It is also known as the degree to which an

employee identifies with a particular organization and its goals and wishes to maintain

membership in the organization (Meyer & Allen, 1991). Organizational commitment

therefore, is assessed using the 24-item developed by Allen and Meyer (1990). This measure

includes three dimensions of organizational commitment– affective, continuance, and

normative commitment

Employee Job Satisfaction

Employee Job Satisfaction refers to the positive feelings employees have for their

work in relation to previous, current experiences or available alternatives (Balzer, 2000). The

researcher measured employee job satisfaction as a dependent and a mediating variable. The

Hackman 15 item job design instrument was adapted to measure employee job satisfaction

which includes satisfaction with skill variety, task significant, task identity, autonomy and

feedback of Results

11

CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW

The increasing importance of organization commitment in public organizations has

increased the need to identify factors that increase commitment and reduce turnover intention.

In this chapter, the researcher provides a review of previous literature relevant to this research

and the relationship between the variables. Training and development, PsyCap, employee job

satisfaction, and organizational commitment are conceptualized; their dimensions and

empirical studies also reviewed. The final phase provides an overview of The Gambia

Revenue Authority‘s training and development programs.

Training and Development

The disorder in current organizational environment has called for a responsive and

innovative workforce. One of the important ways of attaining organizational commitment is

the creation of conditions for the rapid acquisition of new knowledge and skills (Brown,

Boyle, & Boyle, 2002). Although this may be achieved in an ad hoc fashion with people

learning from each other or simply through experience, a key factor is the quality of planned,

training and development in organizations. Recently, training and development gain

prominence among researchers and many definitions and interpretations can be found within

the HRD literatures which are presented below.

Definitions of Training and Development

Training and development as suggested by Van Wart et al. (1993), is an application

driven that aims to impart skills that are useful immediately in particular situations. McLagan

(1989) defined training and development as identifying, assuring and helping to develop key

competencies that enable individuals to perform current or future jobs (cited in Wan, 2007).

Swanson and Holton (2001) posits that training and development are a process of

systematically developing ―work-related knowledge‖ and ―expertise‖ in employees for

improving job assignments. Moreover, Akdere (2003) defined training and development

practices as parameters for increasing the employees' level of self-awareness and skills to

fulfil their tasks well. Wexley and Latham (1991) put more emphasis on training and term it

as a planned endeavor to facilitate the learning of ―job-related behaviour‖ on the part of an

organization‘s employees. They defined job-related behaviour as any knowledge and

expertise acquired by an individual that can be related to organizational objectives. As a

result, training has been considered as a systematic process by different practitioners in order

to improve individual and organizational job performances

12

There is a common philosophy underlying Human Resource Development (HRD) which

contradicts with the organizational context in which training and development interventions

are applied. These common philosophies usually try to characterize the workplace in terms of

being like a "family". Therefore, at its simplest, management in a fatherly fashion look after

the workforce and know what's best for them. Like children in families, workers are expected

to display loyalty and a willingness to fall (Sinclair & Collins, 1992).

As job security for employees now a days becoming a challenge which always raises

question of employee commitment, alternatively, organizations may give opportunities for

internal rotation, gradual growth, improved skills and abilities, as well as individual and

professional development (employee or career development opportunities; this in return,

according to Tansky and Cohen (2001), organizations may expect certain employee attitudes,

including commitment which is the strength of an individual‘s identification with and

involvement in a particular organization (Mowday, Porter & Steers, 1982).

However, scholars have argued that organizational employee training and development

initiatives are necessary interventions to ensuring employee morale and satisfaction (Jackson

& Vitberg, 1987). Since individual employees put their career into consideration in an

organization, it is possible that their perceptions of career prospects in the organization for

example, continual growth through training and development opportunities will have an

effect on organizational commitment (Jans, 1989). In fact, the new psychological contract

indicates that the employees bring in a good performance while continuously learning and

adapting, which in exchange the organization gives developmental relationships, and good

rewards and other necessary compensation (Hall & Mirvis, 1996). The authors further argued

that greater understanding of how to provide work environments friendly to not only training

and development but also provide an atmosphere that encourages managers to care for their

employees.

The relationships involved in employee training and development transactions can be

considered exchanges. Blau (1964) categorized two types of exchanges: economic exchanges

and social exchanges. The latter (social exchange) is based on implicit obligations and trust.

Its value of the exchange is determined by the identities of the two parties involve. Both

parties have their expectations about the behavior of the other party which are not necessarily

based on timing or the specifics of what each party must render. If the benefit is ripped by

both parties, either of them will know whether the expectations of the other have been fully

met or not. Social exchanges involved reciprocity (Tansky & Cohen, 2001), and reciprocity

according to Gouldner (1960) is the norm of assumption that the recipient of benefit is

13

obliged to repay the donor in one way or the other. Training and development of employees

could be considered as a social exchange which is based on implicit obligations that needs

trust. It gives opportunities and benefits. In showing appreciation for these opportunities and

benefits, the employees may feel obliged to give back to the organization thus making them

more committed to the organization (Tansky & Cohen, 2001).

It is arguable that organizations need to attain flexibility and skill interchangeability from

a trainable, responsive workforce (Jarratt & Coates, 1995). How to acquire and maintain such

a workforce remains the question. The conventional psychological contract that gave

employees security in exchange for commitment is becoming a thing of the past. As

employees are increasingly getting aware that job security is no longer included in

employment contract, they may live in fear of being laid off. Why should these workers be

committed to the organization (Tansky & Cohen, 2001). Meanwhile, workers may remain

with the same company; they need to be trained and developed to move into new jobs

(Tansky & Cohen, 2001). Among human resource practices that may lead to employee

commitment is continuous training and development (London, 1989). London further

described employee training and development as a long-term personal and professional

growth of individuals; this fall within the domain of human resource development, which

refers to organized learning experiences provided by the employer to enhance performance

and personal growth of employees (Nadler & Nadler, 1989).

Some organizations refer to their employee training and development programs as career

development programs since they help employees to build skills that are necessary to move to

other jobs in the organization, thus leading to commitment. According to Gutteridge,

Leibowitz, and Shore (1993), organizational leaders believed that the following significant

results can be produced because of organizational development efforts: enhanced employee

commitment, enhanced employee skills and morale, employee empowerment, improved HR

planning and selection, and greater strategic advantage. Training and development are also

refers to as a set of systematic and planned activities designed by an organization to provide

its members with the opportunities to learn necessary skills to meet current and future job

demands (Gutteridge, Leibowitz, and Shore ,1993).

Theories of Training and Development

It should be noted that for effective leaning and development, in a learning environment,

motivation provides the incentive that propels trainees to devote to learning activities, and

14

intrinsic factors are critical success factor of learning. The self–determination theory proposes

that for one to be motivated and to function at optimal level, a set of psychological needs

must be met. These needs are relatedness, competence, and autonomy. Relatedness relates to

association and sense of belonging with others. This association and belonging provide the

required emotional security that individuals need to actively explore and effectively deal with

their worlds. The rationale behind the self-determination theory from a learning perspective is

that a strong sense of relatedness better positions trainees to take on challenges, set positive

goals, and establish high expectations that motivate them. Furthermore, relatedness needs

provide a motivating force for developing social regulations and adapting to interpersonal

circumstances (Andrew & Martin, 2009)

The theory of reasoned action argued those trainees‘ reactions to technology use tends to

affect performance of users. The theory was proposed by Fishbein and Ajzen in 1985. The

assumption is based on the rationale that a person‘s decision to engage in a specific behavior

is based on his or her own will, which is determined by organized thoughts. The theory

highlights that under a great extent an individual‘s behavior can be reasonably assessed from

his or her behavioral intention, which is decided by behavioral attitude and subjective norm.

A person‘s attitude towards behavior is determined by salient beliefs about consequences of

engaging in the behavior in addition to evaluating those consequences. In the same vein, if

employees willfully react favorably to training, their learning and transfer of transfer and

commitment will take place (Chi, 2011).

Kirkpatrick (1998), also mentioned that for the employees who are train to successfully

adopt what they learn in a training programme on to the job. It is significant to provide help,

encouragement, and rewards. He mention intrinsic (inwards feelings of satisfaction, pride and

happiness) and extrinsic (coming from the outside such as praise, freedom and recognition)

rewards as being very important for learning and commitment of employee being train. Also,

employee who enthusiasm and oriented towards learning are proposed to be more trainable

and will tend to be likely to stay in the organization. Training and development did not only

have significant impact on the employee only but also on the organization (Kraiger, Mclinder

& Casper, 2004).

In conclusion, there is a great deal of positive outcomes that can be deriving from training

and development both at the employee and organizational levels as indicated in the literature.

Thus, from the literature review the concept of organization training and development as

perceive by employee can be viewed in various dimension. This research adopts the

dimensions proposed by Bartlett (2001) on employee access to training and development (on-

15

the-job or formal training). Other variables that are assess and included in the study to

determine training are based on frequency of participation in training events (Tharenou &

Conroy, 1994). How much training they receive that enhance behavioural change and

increase organizational commitment, the perceived support of training from colleagues and

support from management ―Motivation to learn from training‖ developed by Noe and Schmitt

(1986), and other item adopted from Noe and Wilk, (1993) benefits of training scale.

Psychological Capital

The metaphor of the psychological capital has emerged in recent organizational

psychology literature. The motives for this sudden popularity are perhaps twofold. First, the

concept addressed the importance of ‗‗who you are‘‘ beyond the concept of economic capital

(what you have), human capital (what you know), and social (who you know). The other

reason is that the relationships people have with their employing organisations are

undergoing rapid, and sometimes far-reaching, changes. The PsyCap provides means of

examining how such changes are perceived by those most directly affected and gives some

indication of the effects such changes may have on their attitudes and behaviour. PsyCap is

derived from positive organization behaviour basis and criteria (Luthans & Youssef, 2007;

Luthans et al., 2004) as a way of examining and exploring the study and application of

positively oriented human resources strengths and psychological capacities that can be

ascertained by measuring, developed, and effectively managed for performance

improvement in today‘s workplace (Luthans, 2008).

According to Larson &Luthans (2006), PsyCap during the late 1990s emerged with a

renewed emphasis on what is right with people, rather than the almost total preoccupation

psychology has had over the years with what is wrong with people. The composite construct

of PsyCap has been defined as

―an individual‘s positive psychological state of development characterized by: (1) having

confidence (self-efficacy) to take on and put in the necessary effort to succeed at challenging

tasks; (2) making a positive attribution (optimism) about succeeding now and in the future; (3)

persevering toward goals and, when necessary, redirecting paths to goals (hope) in order to

succeed; and (4) when beset by problems and adversity, sustaining and bouncing back and

even beyond (resilience) to attain success‖ (Luthans, Youssef, & Avolio, 2007, p. 3).

As organizations seek ways to help employees navigate the ever-challenging work

environment, they increasingly are recognizing the importance of positivity and concentrating

16

on developing employee strengths, rather than dwelling on the negative and trying to fix

employee vulnerabilities and weaknesses.

Moreover, positive psychology has a great potential for influencing the efficiency and

performance of the human resource. Originally, Law Wong, and Mobley, (1998) proposed a

conceptual framework for establishing how PsyCap is a multidimensional approach; they

conclude that PsyCap is influenced by organizational environment and that influences several

positive and negative outcomes in the organization. Citing from Luthans (2001) different

organizational phenomena have impact on the employee, specifically on the characteristics

that assemble their PsyCap (See Figure 2.1). Accordingly, high PsyCap employees observe

and contribute to the organization, while low PsyCap employee absence from work vice versa.

According to Luthans (2008), PsyCap has developed mainly since 2005 and therefore all

findings should be considered as preliminary and need further research. Thus, PsyCap

indicates the state of employees ‗s positive expressive status during the process of

advancement in the organisation and it aids individual‘s to recognize their responsibility as

well as withstands positive insight of well-being. PsyCap is categorized by four topographies

and they are Hope, Resilience, optimism, and efficacy and they are elucidates as follows:

Hope draw from the work of positive psychology and was defined as ‗‗positive

motivational state that was based on an interactively derived sense of successful a) agency

(goal-oriented energy) and b) pathways (Planning to meet goals)‘‘ (Snyder, Irving, &

Anderson, 1991, p.287).

Resilience is another component of PsyCap and it is compose with three constituents,

including organisations principles that employees can deal with challenges in the

organisational environment, similarly, employees with high resilience capacity might not

only rebuild from the complications, but also accomplish tasks, and find significant value

during work (Luthans & Youssef, 2004). Moreover, Luthans and Youssef (2004), define

resilience as ‗‗the capacity to bounce back from adversity, uncertainty, failure, or even

positive but seemingly overwhelming changes‘‘ P.152).

Optimism is another very important dimension of PsyCap applied and its definition

derived from attribution theory in terms of employee‘s experiences of negative and positives

happenings (Seligman,1999). Thus, optimism helps employees to achived objectives of the

Organisation.

17

Self-Efficacy is defined as ‗‗one‘s convention about employees abilities to mobilize the

motivation, cognitive resources, and courses of action needed to successfully execute a

specific tasks within a given context‘‘ (Stajkovic & Luthans, 1998, p.66). Employees with

self- efficacy are prepared to be more committed on tasks and are likely to take demanding

tasks. Likewise, they generally continue to the end no matter how many hindrances they meet

in the work environment (Luthans &Youssef, 2004).

Figure 2.1.Pychological Capital Model. Adapted from ‘‘An Integrated Model of PsyCap in the

Workplace‘‘ by Luthans, F. (2008), Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology and Work.

Available at http://wpedia.goo.ne.jp/enwiki/Psychological_capital. Copyright 2008 by NTT

Resonant Inc.

Organizational Commitment

Commitment phenomena have been widely investigated because it affects individual

attitudes and behaviour towards the workplace (Dockel, 2003). Many definitions of

Hope

Optimism

Self-Efficacy Supportive

Organization

al Climate

PsyCap Positive

Organizational

Emotion Resiliency

Positive

Organizational

Outcomes Work Performance

Work Commitment

Work Satisfaction

Positive

organisational

change

Negative

Organizational

Outcomes Cynicism

Work Absenteeism

18

organization commitment exist due to the fact that many researchers define it their own way

to suit their investigation purposes. Kanter (1968) viewed commitment as the willingness of

social actor to give energy and loyalty to the organization. Sheldom (1998) too define it as

being positive evaluation of organization and the organizations goals.

Through the years Buchanan (1974), define commitment as being a bond between an

employee and an employer. Porter, steers, Mowday and Boulian (1974) discussed three major

components of commitment as being a strong belief in and acceptance of organization‘s goals,

willingness to exert considerable effort on behalf of the organization, and a definite desire to

maintain organizational membership. Bateman and Strasser (1984) stated that the reasons

of studying organizations commitment were generally related to employee behaviors and

performance, effectiveness, attitudinal, affective, and cognitive construct such as job

satisfaction, characteristics of employee such their age and the number years they spend in

the organizations. Bateman and Strasser (1984) further stated that organization commitment

had been operationally defined as multidimensional in nature, involving and employee‘s

loyalty to the organization, willingness to exert effort on behalf of the organization, degree of

goals and value congruency with the organization, and desire to maintain membership.

Furthermore organization commitments are a significant construct in predicting organization

performance and intention to quit (Mathieu & Zajac. 1990; Tett & Meyer, 1993). Summaries

of the definitions highlighted are taken from organizational commitments literature:

Table 2.1

Definitions of Organizational Commitment

Author Definitions

Organizational

Commitment

Kanter (1968) viewed commitment as the willingness of

social actor to give energy and loyalty to the

organization

Burchana (1974), commitment as being a bond between an

employee and an employer

Mowday and Boulian

(1974)

View commitment as being a strong belief in

and acceptance of organization‘s goals,

willingness to exert considerable effort on

behalf of the organization, and a definite

desire to maintain organizational membership

Allen& Meyer (1990) The employee psychological state that

attached him/her to the organizations

19

This research agreeing with Meyer & Herscovitch, (2001) and Dockel (2003) that

commitment influences attitude autonomously of other drives or behavior and, might lead to

the persistence in a course of action even in the face of conflicting interest and attitudes.

Therefore, it can results in employees exhibiting behaviors which might be in contrast with

their own interest. In this vain employees uphold the values and goals of the organization and

upon achievement; they receive reward which eventually transforms into certain type of

commitment. As Dockel (2003), puts it,‗‗ most social behavior is predicted on the individual

expectation that one‘s actions with respect to others will results in some kind of

commensurate return‘‘ (p.31). According to Robinson (1996), Employee constantly gauge

whether the organization has met the employees‘ perpetual belief of what they are entitle to

have in the organization. Additional Robinson noted that ‗‗when employees feel that their

employers have failed to fulfill their obligations, the employees tend to reduce their

obligation by showing withdrawal behavior…decreased level of commitment and turnover‘‘

(Dockel, 2003, p. 42)

Previous organizational commitment researchers have classified commitment into

different constructs. These examine the various perspectives studied and documented and

how they are expressed within the setting of the organization. Mowday, Porter, and steers

(1982) divided commitment into attitudinal commitment and behavioral commitment.

Attitudinal commitment specifically, represents the degree of loyalty an individual had for an

organization. This commitment emphasized an individual‘s identification and involvement in

the organization. However, behavioral commitment reflected the process which individuals

linked them to an organization and also it also focused on the actions of the individuals.

Other previous researcher like Etzioni (1961) examined commitment into three

perspectives Moral (which is the acceptance of organizational goals), calculative (employees

receiving inducements to match contributions) and Alienate (represents an affective

attachment to the organization.

This study looks at the organizational commitment from the perspective of Meyer and

Allen‘s (1991) three component model namely, affective commitment, continuance

commitment, and normative commitment. This model is widely adopted in most

organizational commitment studies and their measurement scale widely used. The three

component model are further explain below and their applications in previous studies

Affective Commitment

20

Affective commitment is defined as the emotional bond, identification, and involvement

that employees have with an organization (Meyer& Allen, 1993; O‘Reily & Chatman, 1986).

It is a state of mind that develops when an employee becomes involved in, recognizes the

value-relevance of his attachment with an organization or course of action. Earlier in 1990s,

Allen and Meyer (1993) had defined affective commitment as an employee‘s emotional

attachment to, identification with and involvement in the organization. They further reiterate

that individual retained their membership choice and this was their commitment to the

organization. According to Ahmad and Bakar, (2003) study findings on training and

commitment among white collar worker in Malaysia elucidates that support for training is

strongly correlated with affective commitment, motivation to learn, is found out to

significantly and positively correlated with affective commitment. The more motivation

given to employees to learn in training, the higher the affective commitment will be.

Continuance Commitment

Continuance commitment is the willingness to remain in an organization because of the

investment that an employee have with the ‗‗nontransferable‘‘ investments. Nontransferable

investments consisted of things such as retirement, relationships with other employees, or

things that are special to the organizations (Reichers, 1985). Continuance commitment also

included factors such as years of employment or benefits that the employee might receive that

were special to the organization (Reichers, 1985). According to Allen and Meyer (1990)

defined continuance commitment as commitment based on costs that employee associated

with leaving the organization. Employees who shared continuance commitment with their

employer often made it very difficult for an employee to quit.

Therefore, continuance commitment is related to the willingness to remain in the

organization. There were many studies used with continuance commitment to examine the

relationship between employees and their organizations. In the research of Ahmad and baker

(2003), support for training and motivation to learn had no association with the continuance

commitment.

However, training environment and the benefits of training had a positive and significant

relationship with continuance commitment. Therefore, employee will take into consideration

of the cost associated with leaving the organization

Normative Commitment

21

Meyer and Allen (1991) define normative commitment as being a feeling of obligation.

However, it was argued that normative commitment is natural and steps from an individual

background or society. According to Weiner (1982), normative commitments represent a

generalized value of loyalty and duty to the organization. Since normative commitment

represents an individual‘s obligation, many variables were found to be associated in

normative commitment

Table 2.2

Organizational Commitment Model

Model Description

Mowday, Porter, and steers

(1982)

Attitudinal commitment specifically, represents the

degree of loyalty an individual had for an organization.

This commitment emphasized an individual‘s

identification and involvement in the organization.

Behavioral commitment reflected the process which

individuals linked them to an organization and also it

also focused on the actions of the individuals.

Meyer and Allen‘s (1991)

three component mode

Affective commitment the emotional bond,

identification, and involvement that employees have

with an organization (Meyer& Allen, 1993; O‘Reily &

Chatman, 1986). ,

Continuance commitment, willingness to remain in

an organization because of the investment that an

employee have with ‗‗nontransferable‘‘ investments.

Normative commitment. feeling of obligation

Etzioni (1961) Moral (which is the acceptance of organizational

goals),

Calculative (employees receiving inducements to

match contributions)

Alienate (represents an affective attachment to the firm)

22

Employee Job Satisfaction

Employee job satisfaction is a concept that is widely study in organizational behavior

research, and it started as early as 1912 when F.W Taylor introduced the concept of scientific

management, and emphasizes the important of mechanical production system as the solutions

to increasing productivity and efficiency in the work place. Originally, the feelings and

attitudes of workers caught employers‘ attention, but people were still treated as a tool, not an

asset. Even though, the concept was in its early stages, Taylor found out that there is a

positive correlation between satisfaction and productivity. Since then, job satisfaction concept

has been widely research, and it is central variable in both research and theory of

organizational phenomenon (Spector, 1997). Thus, employee job satisfaction definitions

differ from one researcher to another (Khan & Riaz, 2011). To sum, Table 2.3 gives a

summary of some of the common definitions of job satisfaction

In addition, job satisfaction illustrates the degree of fulfillment and pleasure an employee

feels towards their engagement (Spector, 1997). It has been proven to be essential factor for

organizational performance, as Robbins, Millett, Cacioppe, and Waters- Marsh (2003) found

that presence of satisfaction with job offers significant outcomes like; reduced absenteeism,

increased effectiveness, and reduced turnover intention in the organization. It is also highly

agreed among researchers that employee job satisfaction offer higher returns, and help

organizations to achieve desired outcomes, because it has direct effects on organizational

commitment, motivation, absenteeism, deviant behavior, turnover, organization citizenship

behavior, and life satisfaction of the employees (Kreitner & Kinicki, 2006).

23

Table 2.3

Definitions of Job Satisfaction

Author (s) Definitions

Herzberg, Mausner &

Synderman, (1959)

Job Satisfaction is related with an employee‘s interest in

the work, pay, and the opportunity to gain achievement,

recognition, responsibility and /or advancement.

Locke & Henne, (1986)

Spector,( 1997)

It is pleasurable or positive emotional state that results

from the job experiences and job appraisal of the

employees at work

Job satisfaction is the extent to which people like or dislike

their jobs, or, with a global approach, as the employees‘

feelings and emotions towards their work experiences.

Schermerhorn, Hunt &

Osborn, (2004)

The degree to which individuals feel positively or

negatively about their work engagement

Mckenna , (2000) An individual‘s evaluation of how well the job meets the

personal expectations and needs

Employees‘ job satisfaction could also be explored within a facet approach as the attitude

of employees towards various aspects of their job. Taris and Feij (2001) illustrate two aspects

of standards in work: Intrinsic and extrinsic values. Extrinsic values refer to material work

aspects, such as salary and opportunity for promotion. While intrinsic values refer to

immaterial aspects of the job, such as job variety and independence.

Therefore, an organization human resources officer have huge potentials to increase

satisfaction of employee; however some poor strategies have the potentials to lead to job

dissatisfaction and subsequently intention to leave as certain employers deliberately lure job

seekers with expectation which they end up not meetings. Therefore, to avoid such situations

organizations need to satisfy employees‘ as a means to achieve the organizational goals.

According to Hassan et al, (2011), some employees contribute to their own success in

organization as they believe the achievement of organizational performance is part of

personal goals. Thus, employees tend to motivate themselves to meet their personal goals, in

order to achieve that, they put a lot of efforts to achieve the objectives of their organizations.

This further reiterated that organization employee development is positively related to job

24

satisfaction and commitment (Pati &Reilly, 1997). Thus one of the best ways to enhance job

engagement is to strengthen the shared goals of employees.

In public organizations, where employees play a major role to provide revenue due to

Government in a fair and transparent manner, the management and satisfaction of the human

resources is proving to be very imperative in achieving the organizational goals, as it will not

only boost performance of public enterprises employee but also affects the growth and

performance of the country economy at large.

With that significant benefit derive from employee job satisfaction, Bradley (2007)

highlighted some factors that affect and ensure satisfaction and retention of employees and

they are: employee work engagement, compensations, promotions, and overall job security.

The study conducted by Bartlett (2009) on health workers training and organization

commitment established that majority of the employees are satisfied with the job and willing

to stay if the organization invest on them. The study findings went on to elucidates that

employee training, positive working conditions, and rewards increase employee commitment

behavior. According to Colquitt et al, (2009) Hackman and Oldham‘s job characteristics

theory proposes that high motivation is related to experiencing three psychological states

whilst working and they are: meaningful of work, responsibility for outcomes, and knowledge

of results.

Many researchers measured employee job satisfaction in various dimensions. This

research looks at job satisfaction in the perspectives of Hackman, (1974). According to

Hackman and Oldham (1974), jobs that are likely to motivate performance and contribute to

employee satisfaction exhibit five core job characteristics: which are satisfaction with skill

variety, task identity, task significant, autonomy, and feedback.

The Job Diagnostics Survey (JDS) questionnaire by Hackman and Oldham (1974, 1975)

has been selected to measure employee job satisfaction, as it measures overall and specific

facets of job satisfaction as related to satisfaction with skills, task and results. The theory also

argues that job satisfaction is linked to an individual‘s perception of their job, indicating the

aspects of job they value (Colquitt et al., 2009). Accordingly, people assess their job

satisfaction according to specific facet of the job and it impacts on personal and work

outcomes, as highlighted in the figure below.

25

Core Job Dimensions Critical Psychological States Personal and Work Outcomes

Figure 2.2. Hackman and Olham‘s Job Satisfaction characteristics model. Adapted from

Development of the job diagnostic survey by Hackman, & Oldham, G. R. (1970 p.78). Copy

right 1980 by Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Ltd

These dimessions established from the hackman theory emphasizes that employees gain

overall satisfaction when their job provides these five aspects. Abeit, researchers cannot reach

at a consession on which variable has the high correlation, weak, and moderate respectively

(Ironson et al. 1989). Below are the 5 dimensions explained in the table 2.4

Responsibility

for outcomes

Knowledge and

Results

Meaningful of

work

High intrinsic

motivation

High job

performance

Low Absenteeism

& Turnover

Autonomy

Feedback

Skill variety

Task Identity

Task Significant

Employee growth need

and development

26

Table 2.4

Brief Description of the FIVE Facets of Hackman Job Description Index Satisfaction

Facet Description

Meaningfulness of work

Skill variety

Task Identity

Task Significance

This implies that work must be experienced as meaningful to

the employees. Meaningfulness is derived from:

Employees gaining variety of their skills and talents, through

on-the- job training and formal training from the company.

Job satisfaction can be gain when the employees is being able

to identify with the work at hand , hence enabling more pride

to be taken in the outcome of that work

Satisfied with the ability to contribute to organization over

and beyond the self. For example, ‗‗the Hackman theory

suggests that employees will be more motivated and satisfied,

if they are contributing to the organization performance than

one self.

Responsibility

Autonomy

Responsibility is derived from autonomy, when the job

provides substantial freedom, independence and discretion to

the employees in scheduling the work and in determining the

procedures to be used in carrying out the job.

Knowledge of outcomes

Feedback

This is derived from satisfaction from feedback employees

receive. It implies an employee awareness of how effective is

converting effort into performance. This can be anything from

perfromance appraisal results through to the public

satisfaction scores. The point is that the feedback offers

information that once you know, you can use to do things

differently

Source: Adapted from Development of the Job Diagnostic by Hackman (1980)

Relationship between the Variables

This section explores the relationship between the variables under study based on prior

studies. The relationship between training and development and employee job satisfaction,

training and development and organizational commitment, training and PsyCap, and the

27

mediating role of PsyCap and employee job satisfaction on training and development –

organizational commitment relationships are also presented.

Training and Development and Employee Job Satisfaction

Numerous researchers relating to training and development suggest positive correlation

between training and employee job satisfaction (Lok, & Crawford, (1999); Bartlett, 2001).

As evidenced by the surveys regarding workplace learning opportunities Traut, Larson, and

Fiemer, (2000) noted that, those feelings are important enough for employees to carry them

into the workplace, important enough even to consider a career decisions. Researchers have

come to similar conclusions as Bartlett (2001) found a positive relationship between

workplace training and job satisfaction and recommended that ‗‗human resource development

professionals should adapt training and development in order to make an informed decision

and contributes to desired workplace attitudes‘‘.. (p. 349). Other training programs like on

the job training , a form of training in which longer-term workers introduce newer workers to

the organization and teach specific tasks, have been recommended to improve job satisfaction

in older workers (Traut, Larson, & Fiemer, 2000).

Similarly, train-the-trainer programs have been shown to have a positive effect on job

satisfaction (Hatcher, 1999). Other researchers like Oosterbeek, (1998); Pate and Martin,

(2000) have reported on the benefits of training, that trained employees are realising the

rewards of increased skill-sets, motivation, job satisfaction, higher productivity and

knowledge transfer to other organization members. In particular, job-related training

increases an employee's ability to perform job-related tasks (Acton and Golden, 2003).

Accordingly, organizations that provide training send a strong signal to employees regarding

management's commitment to their career development (Babakus et al., 2003). A study

by Burke (1995), found that participation in internal and external courses are beneficial for

the organisations and their employees. Staffs perceiving greater value in formal training

courses are relatively more satisfied with their jobs, which leads to them feeling better about

their organisation (Burke, 1995). Similarly, on this literature and in accordance with the

purposes of this study, a positive relationship between training and development and

employee is found. Stated formally:

Hypothesis 1: Training and development is positively related to employees job

satisfaction (Employees with a higher propensity to training and development are

more likely to exhibit stronger propensities of job satisfaction)

28

Training and Development and Psychological Capital

Few researchers relating to PsyCap investigate the relationship between training and

development and PsyCap (Luthans, Avey, & Patera, 2008; Luthans, et al., 2006). Training as

an antecedent of PsyCap has not been widely research. However, Luthans and Avolio (2003)

pointed out that, both PsyCap and training are needed for human resources to achieve

sustainable growth and commitment. Over the years, other organisational behaviour

researchers have taken different paths. Some have considered PsyCap as an individual

development equation, which includes a multiplicative combination of ability, support and

effort (Schermerhorn, Gardner, & Martin, 1990). That is, employees‘ commitment is the

product of their ability, the support received to adequately perform in their job, and the

motivation to perform at high levels.

Therefore, one key component of employees‘ PsyCap is the amount of training and

support they receive. Similarly, Rogg, Schmidt, Shull, and Schmitt (2001) found that career

development of employees was related to desired employee self-efficacy such as increase

PsyCap, and satisfaction. Although, Rogg et al. (2001) study was conducted at many

organizational levels rather than at the individual level of analysis as examined in this

research, their results offered the initial foundation for follow up studies to examine the

impact of a supportive organizational initiative such as training on other desirable outcomes

such as positive PsyCap

Citing from, Eisenberger and Armeli (2001), examined training in terms of the amount of

perceived organizational support that one believes is present. Similarly, some theoretical

models assert that the values of training support reinforced within an organization, influence

employee PsyCap level. Drawing from previous research, perceived employees support from

their immediate co-worker, and supervisor can help them to successfully perform work duties

which increase PsyCap level.

A conceptual linkage between training support and PsyCap can be drawn from Renn and

Vandenberg (1995), research, their study examined Hackman and Oldham‘s (1980) job

characteristics model. Specifically, they examined the mediating role that the critical

psychological states (CPS; such as experienced meaningfulness, experienced responsibility

for outcomes of the work, and knowledge of the results of one‘s work) has between the core

job dimensions. However, if someone does not have the ability and individual capacity to

perform a mission, the support possible would not necessarily generate a consistent level of

success.

29

Therefore, though the relationship between training and development and PsyCap has

some evidence, the results have not been consistent and the process needs further

investigation for better understanding and prediction. Research by, Gardner & Schermerhorn,

(2004) concludes that employee training, develop and influence employee PsyCap Level.

This research concluded that training and development relates to desired behaviour outcomes

and influence employee PsyCap.

Accordingly, this study posits that employees that receive training support from work are

more likely to exhibit positive work behaviour propensity. Stated formally:

Hypothesis 2: There is positive relationship between training and development

and psychological capital. (Employees with higher orientation to training are more

likely to exhibit stronger propensities of positive psychological capital)

Training and Development and Organizational Commitment

Training as an antecedent of organizational commitment has been studied in recent years.

Although findings of studies have provided some evidence to suggest that organization

training and development influences organizational commitment (Al-Emadi & Marquardt,

2007), the investigation of the relationship is in its early stages and the exact nature is not

clear

Notwithstanding, the benefit of training in the organization is numerous and can influence

organizational commitment behavior. According to Noe and Wilk (1993), that there are three

significant of training benefits employees receive from an organization training, including;

personal benefits, career benefits, and job–related benefits, that encourage positive work

behaviors.

This assertion, is supported by Barlett (2001), the benefits of training is significantly

related to affective commitment, continuance commitment, and normative commitment. Thus,

the more support and benefits employees receive for training, the higher organizational

commitment attained. Moreover, the research of Ahmad and Barkar (2003) in Malaysia

concludes that training significantly and positively correlated with affective commitment,

continuance commitment, and normative commitment. The results of these researchers‘

despites in a different cultural and organizational background are consistent with Barlett

(2001) study.

In addition, Noe and Wilk‘s (1993) classification of the important of training, was apply

in the research of Al-Emadi & Marqurdt (2007). The results elucidates that there is a

30

significant positive relationship between affective commitment, personal benefits and career

benefits of training. Therefore, employees who acquired more personal and career benefits of

training incline to be more engaged in the organization. Furthermore, the training and career

benefits of training both had a positive relationship with normative commitment. Employees

acquired more personal and career benefits from training, they inclined to have an obligation

to remain in the organization. Consequently, employees acquired these benefits they have no

intention to quit the organizations. From the above discussions the hypothesis proposed in

this study was empirically tested and found to be positively significant. Stated formally

H3: Training and development is positively related to organizational

commitment (Employees with a higher orientation to training and development are

more likely to exhibit stronger propensity of organisational commitment behaviour)

Employee Job Satisfaction and Organizational Commitment

Many researches relating to organizational commitment suggest a positive correlation

between job satisfaction and organizational commitment (Becker, 1992); Mosadeghrad,

Ferlie, & Rosenberg, 2008a; Mowday, et al., 1982; Williams & Hazer, 1986). Empirical

evidence shows the employee job satisfaction is highly correlated with affective commitment,

emphasizing that when employees are satisfied with their jobs, they are most likely to stay

with the organization (Cooper-Hakim&Viswesvaran, 2005; Harrison et al., 2006; Herscovitch,

& Topolnytsky, 2002).

In addition, other authors found out that employees job satisfaction is strongly correlated

with normative commitment as satisfied employees feel more obliged to stay with the

organization as well as feel the need to ‗‗repay the organization for whatever it is that makes

them so satisfied, whether good pay, interesting job tasks, or effective supervision‘‘ (Colquit

et al‘., 2009, p 128). However, the authors highlighted that job satisfaction is not correlated to

continuance commitment although they emphasized that when taken together, job satisfaction

does have a strong correlation with organizational commitment. This argument has been

supported by Vandenberg and Lance (1992). Who studied the casual relationship between job

satisfaction and organizational commitment, and found that employee job satisfaction leads to

organizational commitment. This was reiterated by Chen (2008) who stated that employees

with higher levels of job satisfaction exhibit higher levels of organizational commitment.

31

Psychological Capital and Organizational Commitment

As mentioned earlier, the relationship between PsyCap and organizational commitment is

not widely research as job satisfaction and organizational commitment. However, according

to Abraham (2000), social relationships within the organization increase employee loyalty

commitment and PsyCap, this is related to having, economic capital, human and social capital

of individuals/ employees. Possession of these capitals and the abilities embedded in high

PsyCap will help employees build strong relationships with the organization which in turn

may influence their commitment to the organization. In line with this, employee with

negative/ low PsyCap is less likely to exhibit organizational commitment behavior, as

Luthans (2009) point out. Also employees with high PsyCap have high performance at work.

In Avey, Luthans and Jensen (2009) study, positive correlations were found between

PsyCap, commitment and lower intentions to quit. Similarly, these researchers stated that,

self-efficacy, hope, and resiliency are a key factor increasing the commitment of employees.

In another study on PsyCap and management of stress by Luthans (2009), the researcher

concludes that understanding todays employees need to draw from heretofore unrecognized

and largely untapped positive resources, such as PsyCap, to help them combat the

dysfunctional effect of stress, such as turnover and commitment issues. Supporting this

impact, the study findings also indicate that employees‘ PsyCap has a significant negative

relationship with both their intentions to quit and commitment behaviors. They reiterate the

important of human resource training and development efforts that recognize and enhance the

underemphasized positive resources of efficacy, hope, optimism, and resilience and core

constructs of PsyCap may help employee to be more commitment and reduce the intention of

leaving.

In addition, Tannenbaum, Mathieu, Salas, and Cannon-Bowers, (1991) studied the

relationship between self-efficacy and commitment and found that relationship exists

between self-efficacy, work attitudes, and organizational commitment. In support Luthans.

Norman, Avolio, & Avey (2008) after first providing the background and theory of Psycap,

they reports a study of manufacturing employees (N = 74) that found a ‗‗significant

relationship between PsyCap and job satisfaction (r=.373) and organizational commitment

(r=.313)‘‘ (p.227). Importantly, the employees' PsyCap had a significant added impact over

human and social capital on work attitudes. An employee who possess positive PsyCap as

Luthans et al, (2008) noted will not hold the organization accountable for some negative

feelings of frustration as the employees is capable of placing him or herself in a positive

32

affective state and be able to experience negative affective states that have insignificant

destructive consequences.

However, hope, resilience, optimism and self-efficacy are indispensable part of an

employee that should not be ignored. Interestingly, very few researchers have look at the role

of PsyCap in workplace and specifically, PsyCap as an antecedents of organizational

commitment especially in public organizations (Gardner, 2003). Thus, PsyCap is significant

particularly to employees in the public sector who are faced with rendering services on behalf

government to all citizens; meetings target set by government. Thus, based on this literature

review and in accordance with the purpose of this study, positive relationship between

psychological capital and organizational commitment is found.

The Mediating role of Employee Job Satisfaction on Training and

Development and Organizational Commitment Relationships

Job satisfaction remains one of the most studied work-related variables (Spector, 1997),

and is frequently defined as an individual‘s satisfaction or behaviour toward his or her job

(Moorhead & Griffin, 1997). The association between job satisfaction, training and

development and organizational commitment is strong, although conflicting data exist on the

causal direction of the relationships. Williams and Hazer, (1986), studies on organisational

commitment have concluded that job satisfaction is an antecedent of organizational

commitment and some studies have supported the idea that commitment increases job

satisfaction vice versa (Vandenberg and lance, 1992). Researcher like Barlett (2001) and

Brief (1998) have concluded that training and development cannot do it alone, training

influence job satisfaction, while job satisfaction increases commitment. Barlett, further

suggests that more research is required to unmask the nature of the job satisfaction –training

and organisation commitment relationship.

More agreement is found for job satisfaction having potential effects on organizational

commitment Becker, (1992), Mosadeghrad, Ferlie, & Rosenberg, (2008), Mowday, et al.,

(1982), Williams & Hazer, (1986), absence (Steers and Rhodes, 1978), and turnover (Mobley,

Griffeth, Hand, and Meglino, 1979). In addition, research has shown that job satisfaction has

significant moderating relationships with many important construct, including extra- role

performance (Organ and Konovsky. 1989, Turnover (Blau, 1993), and physical health and

psychological wellbeing (Spector, 1997). However the relationship between training and

development and commitment is still not clear (Al-Emadi & Marquardt, 2007; Ehrhardt,

33

Miller, Freeman, & Hom, 2011). As researchers‘ ague that training and development cannot

do it alone without employee being satisfied with their job, that will boost commitment to the

organization.

To sum up, it is clear from the review of the literature that researchers have been

attempting to identify leading edge indicators of commitment. Lack of organizational

commitment tends to be higher in organizations where employees feel they are taken

advantage of, where they feel undervalued or ignored, and where they feel they feel helpless

or unimportant going by the bulk of existing literature on the subject. It is also clear that

many employees look for the type of jobs in which they could enjoy career development.

Fewer employees are willing to work on excessive period of hours, cope with unusual

working conditions, or tolerate highly demanding situations. They time for more involvement

in and therefore, seek for organisations that provide the appropriate training program.

Although this relationship still applies in many situations satisfied employees leave for a

variety of reason; satisfaction data alone are not necessarily a valid leading –edge indicator.

There exist positive factors that make people not to be commitment. At times people select

those actions or activities that they feel they are capable of doing best (Deci & Ryan, 2000).

For the purpose of this study, the researcher concludes that if a relation between training and

organizational commitment does exist, it is mediate by employee job satisfaction.

H4. Employee Job satisfaction positively mediates the relationship between training

and development and organizational commitment. (On average, when employees

perceive a higher degree of training, the extent to which employees‟ job satisfaction

contributes to their propensities of organisational commitment is more likely

stronger).

The Mediating role of Psychological Capital on Training and Development

and Organizational Commitment Relationships

In relation to influencing organizational commitment, Lifeng (2007) found out that

PsyCap provides an opportunity for security, autonomy as well as self-worth. In support

employee in possession of PsyCap has also been found to result in facilitating the updating of

skills, increasing professionalism and increasing organizational commitment as organizations

seek ways to help employees navigate the ever-changing work environment (Bushardt &

Fretwell, 1994; Cotton &Tuttle, 1986).

34

Hoverer, the relationship PsyCap have on training and commitment has not been

consistently demonstrated in the past, prior research has shown a direct relationship between

psychological capital and other desirable individual and organizational outcomes. For

example, the research previously mentioned by Luthans and colleagues (Luthans et al., 2001)

verified the importance of training in developing PsyCap. Eisenberger et al. (1990) found a

relationship between perceived training support and measures of employee diligence,

commitment, and innovation. Barlett (2001) reported a relationship between organizational

training and commitment to the organization but it still need further investigation. However,

this research also proposes that training and development create the positive conditions

necessary for PsyCap to flourish.

Thus when employees feel supported, they are more likely to use the pathway generation

characteristic of hope to try unproven or new methods to accomplish tasks within the

organizational context. Likewise, when a setback occurs due to an employee mistake, those in

a supportive organisation are more likely to experience higher levels of resiliency as they

would not be in fear of reprisal due to their mistake. They can remain focused on the task at

hand, putting the setback behind them and effectively responding in a positive way following

a setback. Training also contributes to individual levels of PsyCap in terms of optimistic

attributions. For instance, if employees are supported, they will continue to feel supported in

terms of their abilities allowing them to attribute failures to external circumstances versus

low personal knowledge, skills and abilities.

Likewise, training couple with PsyCap can enhance organizational commitment

behaviour. By the same token, there is also empirical evidence of convergent validity among

them (Luthans, et al., 2007; Youssef & Luthans, 2007). A proposed benefit of combining

these similar, yet distinct capacities is that they likely share an underlying component or

psychological resource that allows for individuals that possess higher levels of these resource

capacities to perform at consistently higher levels and higher levels of organisational

commitment can be attained (Luthans, Avolio, et al., 2007).

Furthermore, training and PsyCap construct reflect unique cognitive and behavioural

manifestations. For example, following Ajzens‘s (1991) theory of planned behaviour, lack of

commitment or intention to quit (behavioural intentions), can be as a results of lack of self-

efficacy, hope and resilient. Whereas employee‘s behaviour reflects actual behaviour

contributing towards intention quit. Given the week relation often found between

behavioural intentions and actual behaviour, both outcomes were deemed unique and

appropriate. Employee with higher levels of PsyCap may be more likely to be committed

35

than to quit (Luthans &Jensen, 2005).Moreover, few links among training and development

and PsyCap have been demonstrated in a number of studies (Coomber & Barriball, 2007;

Luthans 2007), and the connection with organizational commitment behaviour.

Finally, Renn and Vandenberg,(1995) findings generally supported the mediating role of

CPS and may provide some support for our proposed mediating role that PsyCap plays

between training and organisational commitment. Renn and Vandenberg (1995) study on

PsyCap conclude that the amount of support that individuals receive from their organization

will increase PsyCap and PsyCap can directly lead to higher commitment since training

cannot do it alone. Some research has indeed shown a direct relationship between these

variables (Lifeng, 2007) .For the purpose of this study, this research assume that if a relation

between training and organizational commitment does exist, it is likely to be mediate by

PsyCap

H5: Psychological capital mediates the relationship between training and development

and organizational commitment.( on average, when employees perceive a higher

degree of psychological capital, the extent to which employees training and

development contribute to organisational commitment is more likely stronger)

Overview of Training and Development of the Gambia Revenue Authority

This research is focus on the Gambia Revenue Authority in the Gambia. The Gambia is a

small independent republic in West Africa and its population stands at 1.78 million. It is

composed of a narrow strip of land on both sides of The Gambia River and is almost

surrounded by Senegal. The capital city is Banjul and its official language is English.

Recently, the Gambia Pubic Sector has been growing and out of the public institutions, GRA

has been mandated to collect revenue/ tax due to Government, since, the Gambia is a tax

based economy (PSRICD, 2009).

With this responsibility, GRA laid emphasis on training and development of employees,

and capacity building of employees. The organisation does conduct training especially

orientation program for new employees instructed by senior officers while formal trainings

are normally organized outsides the organization. For short term training and on job training,

employees are selected to participate; the HR units in consultations with department heads

select employees for training programs. In addition, GRA has been sponsoring diploma

programs based on employee‘s request and in return employees sign surety bond to ensure

that they come back to work for the organisation after the training or course.

36

Furthermore, GRA has trained employees in the domain of tax administration, audit

manual, structural adjustment program, and financial management among others. These

priorities have been rationalized on the basic of clear- cut needs of Authority to compliment

the aims and objectives each department. The rationale behind all these training and

development activities has been to provide the needed resources for employees‘ personal

development to carry out their job effectively and to enhance socio economic development

and sound economic management strategies.

GRA‘s formulation and implementation of training and development policy shows its

commitment to ensure that sufficient resources are allocated to the development of employees

for the ultimate purpose of creating a strong workforce capable of performing effectively and

efficiently. The challenge now is to put in place mechanisms to ensure that training and

development is well-planned and implemented, and to be empirically analysed in order to

ascertain its maximum benefits. GRA also exploits opportunities offered by multi- sectorial

and bilateral donor agencies such as International Monetary Fund (IMF). The projects

training are aim to strengthen the capacity of public service employees in order to formulate

policies, allocate resources to implement those policies for effective public service delivery

(World Bank Report, 2010) .

However, with GRA investing in training, there is need for empirical research to

determine the training and development activities and how it foster greater commitment

among employees of GRA. Adequate analysis of training and development programmes is

crucial for the decisions that must be made about HRD interventions, (Werner &DeSimone,

2009). This will also help in the decision of how to improve, sustain or discontinue the

particular training programmes (Steensma & Groeneveid, 2010).

.

37

CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHODS

This study used a quantitative research paradigm to measure the effects of the

independent variables towards the dependent variable. Pilot study and expert review were

performed to confirm the factorial validity, face validity and construct reliability of the

constructs. This chapter includes six sections, specifically research framework, research

procedure, data collection technique, instrumentation, and data analysis technique.

Furthermore, it describes the different constructs that were use and their associated reliability

estimates, showing that they meet the requirement for academic purpose.

Research Framework

Relying on the review of literature, research purposes and questions, the research

framework for the study was developed (see Figure 3.1, p.37). This research analysed the role

of psychological capital and employee job satisfaction on the relationship between training

and development and organizational commitment.

Firgure 3.1. Reseach framework

H2

H3

H4

H1

H5

Training and

Development

Psychological capital

Organizational

Commitment

Employee Job

Satisfaction

38

Research Hypotheses

Based on the framework above and to answer the research questions, the following

hypotheses were formulated:

Table 3.1

The Research Hypotheses

Hypothesis content

H1: Training and development is positively related to employee job satisfaction.

(Employees with a higher orientation to training and development are more likely to

exhibit stronger propensities of job satisfaction)

H2: Training and development is positively related to psychological capital. (Employees

with a higher orientation to training and development are more likely to possess

higher psychological capital).

H3: Training and development is positively related to organizational commitment.

(Employees with a higher orientation to training and development are more likely to

exhibit stronger propensity of organisational commitment behaviour)

H4: Employee Job satisfaction positively mediates the relationship between training and

development and organizational commitment.(on average, when employees perceive

a higher degree of job satisfaction, the extent to which employees training and

development contribute to organisational commitment is more likely stronger)

H5: Psychological capital mediates the relationship between training and development and

organizational commitment. (On average, when employees have a high

psychological capital, the extent to which employees training and development

contribute to organisational commitment is more likely stronger)

Research Procedure

In carrying out this research, the process was done in three majors path, identification,

execution and completion. The research procedure path is illustrated in Figure 3.2 and

described in detail as follows:

Identification of Research Topic and Research Population

The research topic was identified based on the literature review conducted and was

carried out on the basis of the researcher‘s interest which is centered on public organizations

39

and on various key topics which included training and development, organizational

commitment, employee job satisfaction and psychological capital. Given that the topic is not

well researched in public enterprises in the Gambia, all the constructs were identified and

described. Moreover, the relationships among the constructs was also addressed so as to form

a clear idea about the research objectives and the questions to have a comprehensive research

framework.

The research population/ sample was selected on the basis of limited literature on the

population. The researcher use convenience and purposive sampling to select participants.

Convenience sampling were used as the researcher was unable to reach all the employees in

all branches of GRA, thus samples were selected based on accessibility and willingness to

participate in the survey. Purposive sampling was adopted given the fact that the targeted

participants for the study have important information which can answer the research

questions.

Data Collection, Research Questionnaire and Data Analysis

Once the research population and sampling was identified, a survey methodology was use

as it is an effective tool for data collection. In order to ease the burden of the survey

participants and maintain their interest while completing the survey, considerable attention

was paid to the design of the survey. The measurement for all research constructs were

extracted solely from the work of previous researchers that have carried satisfactory

reliability and validity analyzes on the selected constructs.

Once the survey questionnaire was collected, participants‘ answered was input in excel

and analyzed in SPSS 22.0. The current study used a two-stage process for analyzing data.

First, the adequacy of the measurement instrument was assessed and in the second stage, the

descriptive statistics for each construct and the relationships among constructs was examined.

Research Results , Discussions and Conclusion

Finally after analyzing the data and assessing the implications, the researcher draw the

conclusions for the research and provide some recommendations for GRA and future

researchers. After the results was then used to make appropriate conclusions that answer the

40

reseach questions posed in the study and put forward recommendations drawn from the

conclusions. The Simplied research procedure is shown below

Figure 3.2 Research Procedures

Research Design

This research employed a quantitative approach that followed a self-reported survey

methodology to gather the data and examined the relationship among the variables. A case

study method was used to enable the researcher to closely examine the data within a specific

context which is, in this case, a public organization in The Gambia. In addition, the strength

Identification of

Research Population and

Literature Review

Research Results and

Discussions

Data Collection for

Analysis and

Interpretation

Transform Data for Analysis and

Interpretation

Analyze the Data and Assess

their Interpretation

Draw Conclusion and Provide

Recommendations

Research Topic

Identification

41

of a quantitative case study is found in its capacity to describe, illustrate, and explore a given

phenomenon (Yin, 2003). Survey was employed for several reasons. First, a major advantage

is that they are readily analyze and interpreted, as they are structured around key items and

topics. Second, they ensured confidentiality for the respondents who may be more inclined to

provide honest feedback if their identity remains undisclosed. Third, the quantitative results

can also be compared across the periods and group (Debowski, 2006, p.278). Fourth, they are

efficient data collection method when the researcher has a precise idea of what is required

and how to measure the variables (Sekaran, 2003). Since the researcher is interested in

determining the relationship between training and development and organizational

commitment, PsyCap and employee job satisfaction, self-reported measures was used as it

allow respondents to record their own perceptions of reality. Finally, the method represents

the most suitable methodology for the study of individuals‘ behaviour (Howard, 1994;

Spector 1994).

Lending support to this design is the fact that previous studies highlighted in the literature

review chapter used the same research design. This quantitative study, focus on a single case

public organization in The Gambia. Whist case studies lead to results that cannot necessarily

be generalized, but can be a basis of developing a relationship between variables (Colorado

State University, 2011)

Research Instrument

The research instrument used consists of a self-reported survey questionnaire to collect

the required data and to test the established hypotheses. The research instrument adopted was

developed by applying good practices and design principles as follow:

I. A cover letter was used to introduce the study and its purposes are clearly stated.

II. The questions are grouped into sections on the basis of their relevance and relationship.

III. Simple instructions were provided at the beginning of the questionnaire and at each

section.

IV. The questions are free from subjective tones in order to prevent bias.

The questions are applicable and answerable by participants.

V. Items were mixed together to reduced common bias methods

On the basis of the research purposes, the questionnaire consists of four sections: A)

training and development; B) organizational commitment; C) employee job satisfaction and

42

D) psychological capital. The participant background section was added as a fifth section in

order to provide a descriptive analysis of the survey respondents. This section contains

demographic information such as participants‘ age, gender, tenure, education and formal and

informal training receive. Given that this section was included merely for informative

purpose, the related questions are located at the end of the research instrument. This allowed

the researcher to begin the questionnaire with items which are the primary focus of the

research.

This survey questionnaire were measured using a 5–point Likert scale questionnaire over

the 6–point due to the following reason. Survey respondent might truly feel neutral about a

particular topic, presenting to these respondents a scale without a neutral midpoint can

introduce a bias as they are forced to choose a more positive or negative response. Some

researchers point out that in many cases, respondents accentuate the negative in an

experience (Gwinner, 2010). With a 5 point Likert scale is important for a legitimate opinion

that exists among respondents, and finally the scale has a midpoint which indicates neutrality

or mixed opinion. When calculating the mean weighted average, there is a standard point of

comparison. One will know that an average rating of 3.4 is above neural and a 2.8 is below

(Gwinner, 2010).

Measures

Table 3.2 gives the items that were used to measure the variables in this study. Each item

was given a code that is used in the statistical analysis of the data. The operational measures

of each construct are presented in (p.44). The texts of items for all scales are provided in

Appendix A.

Training and Development

Training and Development is the independent variable and divided into four sub variables

to reflect the complex role and influences on HRD practice. A scale were adapted from

Bartlett (2001) all variables included in the study are selected from well-established and

validated scales. These include four items to determine training motivation ((a=.76)

(Tharenou & Conroy, 1994), a shortened three–item scale from the perceived support of

training from colleagues scale (a=.83) and the six–item management training support scale

43

(a=.87) developed by Noe and Schmitt (1986,), and the five–item ―Training Benefits‖ scale

(a=.82) (Noe & Wilk, 1993).

Organizational Commitment

The study measured organizational commitment variable using Allen and Meyer‘s (1990)

questionnaire. The instrument was developed to measure organizational commitment as a

multidimensional concept which includes affective commitment, normative commitment and

continuous commitment (Meyer & Allen, 1997). This questionnaire comprises 24 structured

questions with 8 items in each dimension. The researchers established the reliability estimates

(internal consistencies) for this instrument as follows: .85 for affective, .79 for continuance

and .73 for normative, and its validity and reliability is evidenced in international samples

(Coleman, Irving, & Cooper. 2000; Yousef, 2000). Employees were instructed to rate , on the

basis of their personal observation, the extent to which their organisational commitment

regarding the described conditions on a 5 point Likert –type scale with scale anchors ranging

from ‗‘strongly agree to strongly disagree.

Psychological Capital

To measure psychological capital, the researcher adopts the measurement scale developed

by Harms and Luthans (2013). There are 24 items which includes three reverse-coded items

divided into four dimensions which are hope, resilience, optimism, and efficacy. Employees

were instructed to rate, on the basis of their psychological capital regarding the described

condition on 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).

The high score of scale indicates that people have higher level of psychological capital

(PsyCap). The Cronbach‘s alpha reliability of the PsyCap instrument is 0.87.

Employee Job Satisfaction

In measuring employee job satisfaction, attitude surveys are often used as they have

proven to be more effective and accurate since they provide a picture of how satisfied

employees are as well as explore the effectiveness of major job changes in attitude (Colquitt,

2010). Employee job satisfaction is used as a dependent and mediating variable in this study.

It was measured using the 15-item shortened version of the Job Diagnostic Survey (JDS)

(Hackman & Oldham, 1976). The JDS was originally developed for the social service sector

but it was shown to be adequate to use in other sectors as well (Roelen, Koopmans, &

44

Groothoff, 2008). The scale consists of five facets with three items in each facet. A 5-point

Likert type response was use and this format ranged from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly

agree). According to Loher, Noe, Moeller., & Fitzgerald, (1985), JDS is among the job

satisfaction measures that meet the quality criteria for reliability and validity. This is also

evident from the internal consistencies or coefficient alphas drawn from a sample of 3,067

individuals who completed the JDS. The coefficient alphas ranged from satisfaction of skill

variety to feedback of results subscale to 0.91 for the total scale (Hackman 1974).

Table 3.2.

Established Reliability of Variables

Dimension Factor Cronbach’s α Source

Training and

Development

Motivation of training .76 Tharenou and Conroy (1994)

Management Training

Support

.87 Noe and Schmitt (1986)

Training Benefits .82 Noe and Wilk, (1993)

Training support from

colleagues

.83 Noe and Schmitt (1986)

Organizational

Commitment

Affective .85

Meyer & Allen (1997) Continuance .79

Normative .73

Psychological

Capital

Efficacy

.87

Harms and Luthans (2013) Hope

Optimism

Resilience

Job Satisfaction Skills Variety

Task Identity

Task Significant

Autonomy

Feedback from Results

.

91

Hackman & Oldham, 1975

45

Reliability and Validity of the Instrument

This research adopted the same validity standard as the previous researchers on the

subject under study. The cultural setting in which the research is conducted also led this

researcher to adopt additional validity standards. The standard reliability methods adopted for

this research are given in Table 3.3, while validity methods are shown in Table 3.4.

Table 3.3.

Reliability Methods for this Research

Reliability Type Meaning How the Study Achieve Reliability

Reliability Test Refers to the probability that

an item will consistently

perform a required function

without failure under stated

conditions (Field, 2006)

Cronbach‘s alpha was computed for

each of the set of variables to provide

evidence for reliability. According to

Nunnally (1959) above 0.70 is generally

considered acceptable which both the

pilot and formal study attained. .

Table 3.4.

Validity Methods for this Research

Validity Type Meaning How the study achieves validity

Content and Face

Validity

Content validity is based on expert

judgments about the relevance of

the test content of a particular

behavioural domain of interest and

about the representativeness with

which item (Messick, 1990).

The instrument was examined by

two subject matter expert

Observational

Meaningfulness

The relationship between

theoretical constructs and their

operationalization (Bagozzi, 1980)

Previously validated measures are

used

46

Data Collection

Sampling

A target population is the group of people, objects, or events that the researcher wishes to

study (Cavana et al., 2001). The data collected from the Gambia Revenue Authority was

based on convenience sampling. The present study adopts the sampling strategy because the

researcher anticipated that theoretical and empirical linkages between, training and

development, employee job satisfaction, PsyCap, and organisational commitment would

remain robust, although in the case, considering the factor and organization type.

In addition, convenience sampling was used in order to retrieve a larger number of

completed responses quickly and efficiently as convenience sampling is a non-probability

method. This means that respondents are chosen in a non-random manner, and some

members of the population have no chance of being included. When time or cost is a factor,

convenience sampling becomes a useful sampling method (Kahl, 2010),

Numerous studies regarding organisational commitment conducted in a context of

various industries but this research is limited to The Gambia Revenue Authority and the

study was not conducted before. Against this backdrop, The Gambia is a suitable choice for

this research because of limited study conducted on these variables in public organizations.

Another reason is the remarkable changes public institutions are faced with. Thus, there is a

great need to identify and elucidates how organizations can handle the different processes

that occur within them.

Sample for the Study: The Gambia Revenue Authority

Specifically this research target one case organization, the Gambia Revenue Authority

(GRA). GRA is a semi-autonomous body corporate with a partial 'de jure' and de factor'

autonomy, providing its legal mandate to perform its inherent responsibilities, as a national

agency for the assessment, collection and enforcement of revenue collection due to

government in a fair and transparent manner. By and large, GRA was created by an Act of

the National Assembly called the Gambia Revenue Authority Act 2004. Distinctively, this

national institution is a combination of two renowned and distinct revenue departments, i.e.

the Customs and Excise Department (CED) and the Domestic Taxes Department (DTD),

formerly Central Revenue Department (CRD) - Income Tax Division, who are merged

47

together under one unified platform with a common purpose geared towards enhancing, and

channelizing effective domestic revenue mobilisation for a sustainable economic growth and

development. The GRA, as of 2014, the office has 615 employees on its payroll. GRA has a

training section under the HR unit and has been functional since 2007. This organization,

because of its accessibility and size, is a suitable representation of the target population.

Sample Size and Criteria Selection

The population for this study consist of full-time employees working at GRA for the

following reasons. Employees are the most important source of organization knowledge

because they possess the expertise necessary for managing organization successfully. The

sample size targeted for this study was 300 employees. To be eligible for this research the

sample had to meet general criteria for sampling which are;

I. Respondents must be fully employed within GRA. This means that part-time

employees and interns are not included in sample population.

II. Secondly, respondents must have at least one (I) year experience and receive

training (formal or on-the-job training).

These criteria are chosen because work experience is a good predictor of job knowledge

(Longoria, 1997).

Data Collection Procedure

The data used to conduct pilot and formal study were collected using various stages

through hand deliver and email survey. The researcher provided gift (pen, notebook and

headscarf) to enhance response rate. Data collection was carried out in various stages. In the

first stage, the researcher sends a letter to the participants explaining the purpose of the study

and requesting permission to be interview. In the second stage, after acceptance to conduct

the survey, paper-based surveys was hand-delivered to the case organization by the

researcher. The researcher was able to count with the assistance of a Human Resource

employee designated by the organization in helping with the distribution of the questionnaire.

In addition in order to facilitate access to all employees, the survey was also email to the

employees during the formal study

48

The email first assured confidentially of the information, followed by instruction of how

to participate in the survey. The next phase, participants were asked to complete the

questionnaire items for assessing training and development (TD), followed by psychological

capital (PsyCap), employee job satisfaction (JS), organizational commitment (OC) and

demographic characteristics by underlining or highlighting the response chosen.

The pilot study data was first collected from July through August and the formal study

data collected follow after establishing the instrument suitability.

Method of Data Analysis

The data analyses were carried out by using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS)

version 22.0 based on the following steps:

Descriptive Statistics

The primary function of descriptive statistics is to present research results clearly and

concisely (Healey, 2008). Thus, the researcher conducted descriptive statistics in order to

organize the data into a more presentable and interpretable form by summarizing sets of

numbers such as the means and standard deviation of the data. Furthermore, the descriptive

statistics assisted to demonstrate the relevance and the importance of the study

Confirmatory Factor Analysis.

The method of SPSS was used to perform confirmatory factors analysis (CFA) for testing

the factorial validity of the variables. The CFA conducted using Amos 2.2 was, based on the

covariance structure analysis, were one item per construct was fixed at 1 .0 and a simple

structure maintained. The validity was confirmed by showing that the fit indexes fell within

an acceptable range. The criteria are explained in p.63.

Correlation Analysis

Correlation analysis was conducted to examine the relationship between the independent,

mediator and dependent variables respectively. It was also carried out because it is the

primary test procedure required by Baron and Kenny (1986) in handling hierarchical

regression analysis. Based on their guidelines, the correlations among the independent

49

variables (i.e. training and development) should be significantly associated to the mediator

variables (i.e. psychological capital and employee job satisfaction).

Regressions Analysis

In order to analyze the mediating role of psychological capital and job satisfaction on the

relationship between training and development and organizational commitment, a

hierarchical regression approach was adopted. The hierarchical regression approach is a

three-step process as described by Baron and Kenny (1986). In the first step, the mediating

variables are regressed on the independent variables; second, the dependent variables are

regressed on the independent variables; and then the dependent variables are simultaneously

regressed on both the independent and mediator variables. On this basis, psychological

capital and job satisfaction should be considered as significant mediators when the following

conditions are met:

I. The independent variables (i.e. training and development) are significantly related to the

mediating variables (psychological capital and job satisfaction) in the first test;

II. The independent variables are significantly related to the dependent variables (i.e.

organizational commitment) in the second test;

III. The mediating variables (i.e. psychological capital and job satisfaction) are significantly

related to the dependent variables (i.e. organizational commitment).

Full mediation applies when an independent variable becomes insignificant

In the final test. Partial mediation exists when an independent variable is still significant in

the final test for mediation procedure. Multiple regressions were used to analyze the data for

the following reasons.

1. Multiple regressions extend analysis to encompass two or more Xs (predictor or cause)

variables. This capability helps analysts to both predict Y values, by explaining a larger

fraction of Y‘s variance.

2. It helps to study the relationship between Y and X while adjusting or controlling for the

effects of other X variables (Cohen et. al, 1983). Furthermore, multiple regressions are

especially an attractive procedure as the researcher is interested in investigating relationships.

Consequently, they are deemed to be the most suited methodology to carry out the research

purposes.

50

Pilot Study

A pilot study, also called a pilot experiment, is highly recommended for a researcher to

conduct before proceeding with a formal study. The pilot experiment can reveal deficiencies

in the design of a proposed research procedure, and these can then be addressed before the

large scale studies (Cohen et al., 2013). In case of this research, the pilot study was conducted

using convenience sampling to collect the data, in order to access the understand-ability,

language accuracy of the questions, and the time to complete the questionnaire. In addition it

was use to establish the validity and reliability of the survey instrument to show that it is

adequate for use in the formal study. The questionnaire went through the process of face

validity. It was then given to participants manually to fill. Construct validity was then

established after the questionnaire were collected from participant of the study and reliability

of the scales was also computed. The detailed process is formally stated below.

Face Validity

Face validity is a technique which verifies that the instrument measures what it is

supposed to, and whether the instrument ‗‗looks valid‘‘ to those who use it (Schiavetti et al.,

2011). The willingness of the respondents to complete the instrument is related to their

perception that the instrument measures the content they agreed to provide. Verifying the

understand-ability of the instrument is not an end in itself but it is generally seen as the means

to ensure items equivalence (Holden &Ronald 2010). Subject Matter Experts in the field of

human resource management and a management lecturer review the questionnaire on the

20th July 2014 to gauge whether the questionnaire measures the working environment. One

of those consulted had management expertise of more than eight (8) years with extended

knowledge of HR and research; the second expert had an extensive knowledge of research,

Language, and Management. The expert suggested the questionnaire of 122 items is a lot for

the study and might affect the reliability. The comments and feedback obtained from the

expert was use to refined the questionnaire.

As a result of the feedback obtained, the approximate time stated for completing the

questionnaire was adjusted to 30 minutes. Training and development and organisational

commitment construct were reduced to 21 and 23 respectively since the expert argue that

there a similar items in the training construct which they suggest should be deleted. Later the

final version was send to the respondents. From the proposal defence the committee

51

recommended Hackman and Oldham job satisfaction questionnaire and that was used to

replace the Job Satisfaction Survey (JSS) instrument by Spector, (1985)

Pilot Study Participants

The pilot study participants were 40 employees from three department domestic tax,

custom and excise duty and finance. 36 participants filled out the questionnaire and returned

to the researcher. Using this data , the results of the reliability test for the 4 constructs,

namely training and development (21 items), organizational commitment (23items),

psychological capital(24 items), and employee job satisfaction (15 items) indicates the

internal consistency of the constructs ranging from .70 and .92 was acceptable. Thus, the

reliability of the construct of one dimension on training (assess to training) (3 items)

indicated a reliability of .238 which was not acceptable. This low Cronbach‘s alpha value

may be explained by the possibility that that the questions were not appropriate thus resulting

to divergent internal consistency. Also some respondent know they have access to training

but the organization do not provide a clear career path for the employees. Therefore, the

assess to training was dropped from further analysis.

Construct Reliability

Now, the researcher established the construct reliability to justify the use of the survey

instrument and modify the scales. Table 3.5 gives the reliability of the scales as found by

analysis of pilot study data. Except for access to training, each dimensions reliabilities is

more than 0 .7 and therefore it is generally acceptable and suitable for the formal study

52

Table 3.5

Reliability of Variables

Dimension Factor No.of Items Cronbach’s α

Training and

Development

1)Training Support from college

2)Management Training support

3)Motivation of Training

4)Benefit of Training

5)Assess to Training1

3

6

4

5

3

0.772

0.903

0.891

0.812

0.238

Psychological

capital

1).Self-Efficacy

2) Hope

3) Resilience

4) Optimism

6

6

6

6

0.882

0.789

0.919

0.922

Job Satisfaction

1)Skills Variety

2)Task Identity

3)Task Significant

4) Autonomy

5)Feedback from Result

3

3

3

3

3

0.817

0.868

0.841

0.765

0.748

Organisational

Commitment

1) Affective commitment

2) Continuance Commitment

3)Normative Continuance

8

8

7

0.917

0.838

0.894

In summary, this phase outlined the methodology and sampling of the pilot study. It also

outlined the validity and reliability of the survey instrument before and after the pilot study

and thus justified the use of this instrument for the main study. Therefore with this

satisfactory statistical base, the researcher now proceeds to conduct the main study

1 The grey colour indicates it below the minimum acceptable reliability standard and was dropped from further analysis.

53

CHAPTER IV RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

This chapter presents the finding of this study, descriptive statistics about the sample, and the

psychometric characteristics of the measures. It then proceeds to present statistical methods for

confirmatory factor analysis to increase the accuracy of the analysis presented. The third part

illustrates the statistical analysis of the data collected, specifically bivariate correlation analysis,

linear and multiple regression analysis. Finally, the chapter presents a summary of the research

findings and discussions of the results.

Descriptive Statistics

Sample Characteristics

After modifying the instrument through reliability and validity procedures in the research

methods part, the formal study was conducted by distributing 300 questionnaires with in The

Gambia Revenue Authority. Out of the number of questionnaires received, 257 are valid and 6

invalid. This led to a response rate of 85.6%. The sampling characteristics of the variable are given

in Table 4.1. The 257 data collected, 132 respondents were completed by male (51.4%) and female

116(45.1%). As indicated, most respondents are between the ages of 20 to 30 years (42%) and have

at least diploma / advance diploma (42%). This indicates that GRA have a young population

compare to older population. Almost all the respondent received some type of informal training and

formal training, at least 117 (45.5%) of respondent receive training once or twice, while 145 (56.4%)

received some formal training. from the Authority at least once. Though there are some percentages

that do not receive training (7.4%), there is an indication that the Authority does organized formal

training to employees.

The percentages in the sample do not add up to 100%, because there are some invalid responses

in the demographic questions. This could simply be because respondents missed the question, did

not give a valid response or choose not to answer the question. Table 4.1 indicated the

demographics variables of the sample and the valid and invalid responses for each category.

54

Table 4.1

Demographic Characteristics of the Sample

Variable Category Frequency Percentage%

D1-Gender Male

Female

Invalid

132

116

9

51.4

45.1

3.5

D2-Age Less than 20 years

20-- 30 years

31—40 years

41-50

Above 50 years

Invalid /Missing

0

109

82

37

6

23

0

42.4

31.9

14.4

2.3

8.9

D3-Education Certificate

Diploma

Bachelors

Masters

PhD

Missing/Invalid

72

115

53

4

0

13

28.0

44.7

20.6

1.6

0

14

D4-Work Experience Less than 1 year

1year to 5years

6 to 10years

11 to 15years

More than 15years

Missing

0

113

97

38

3

6

0

44.0

37.7

14.8

1.2

2.3

D5-Informal Training 0

1-2 times

3-4 times

5-6times

7-8 times

More than 8 times

Missing

0

117

103

19

11

0

7

0

45.5

40.1

7.4

4.3

0

2.7

D6- Formal Training no formal training -0

1-2 times

3-4 times

5-6times

7-8 times

Missing

19

145

71

13

0

9

7.4

56.4

27.6

5.1

0

3.5

55

Psychometric Characteristics of the Measures

This section describes the mean scores and standard deviation of the each dimension in the

study. During the data inputting there are some reversed coded items which have been positively

coded and interpreted before the analyses were conducted. Most researchers generally accepted that

the higher the mean value, the more likely employees viewed the related attribute important in

affecting the constructs. While a high standard deviation means that there was a lot of variation in

the answers (Bland & Altman, 1996).

In addition, this study conducted a confirmatory factor analysis to examine and confirm the

appropriateness of the factor loadings for the questionnaire items and the factorial validity of the

measures. The CFA was conducted base on covariance structure analyses, where the first observed

variable of a latent variable was fixed at 1 and a simple structure maintained. The factorial validity

was confirmed by showing that the goodness-of fit indexes fell within an acceptable range. The

analysis of the mean scores, standard deviations and confirmatory factor analysis of variables were

illustrated as follows.

Descriptive Statistics of Training and Development

Training and development was measured using 18 item of 5-point Likert scale ranging from

strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5). Table 4.2 gives the descriptive analysis of training and

development. From the table, the highest mean score was found to be ‗‗TD-PMT13: I am willing

to invest effort to improve skills and competencies in order to have career progression (M= 4.05).

This means that on average participants agree that they are willing to improve their skills. The

lowest mean score was found with ‗‗TD-BT17: training will result in more opportunities to pursue

different career paths (3.29). This indicates that on average participants were fairly ‗‗neutral‘‘ on

this items. The items for perception of training and development ranged from neutral (3)‘‘to agree

(4). Respondents were more consistent in answering items ‗‗TD-PMT10: I try to learn as much as I

can from training programs‘‘, since it had the lowest standard deviation (SD=0.638). Employees

were also least consistent in answering item ‗‗TD-BT17: training will result in more opportunities

to pursue different career paths (SD=1.066).

Finally, motivation of training had the highest mean score (M=3.96) indicating that personal

motivation of training had the highest rating among the four dimensions of training and

development.

56

Table 4.2

Descriptive Statistics for Training and Development

Construct Code Questionnaire Items Mean Std. Dev

Training support from colleagues 3.65 .926

TD-TSC1 I can count on my co-workers to provide me with help and

services needed to complete my job assignments. 3.69 .920

TD-TSC2* My co-workers tend to resist my efforts to apply new

knowledge or skills on the job 3.56 .887

TD-TSC3* More experienced co-workers are usually reluctant to give

me guidance 3.72 .968

Management Training Support 3.59 .868

TD-TSS4 I feel comfortable discussing my skill weaknesses with my

manager. 3.46 .925

TD-TSS5 My manager is supportive of my efforts to acquire new

knowledge and skills 3.53 .717

TD-TSS6 My employer values development of new skills or

acquisition of new knowledge. 3.92 .774

TD-TSS7 When I make a mistake, my manager usually treats it as a

learning experience that can prevent failure and improve

performance in the future.

3.54 .956

TD-TSS8 My manager shares information with me about problems or

trends in the company that can influence my career plans. 3.63 .918

TD-TSS9 My manager makes sure I get the training needed to remain

in the organization and be effective in my job. 3.51 .919

Motivation of Training 3.96 .764

TD-PMT10 I try to learn as much as I can from training programs. 3.89 .638

TD-PMT11 I am usually motivated to learn the skills emphasized in

training programs. 3.90 .669

TD-PMT12 I am willing to invest effort to improve skills and

competencies related to my current job.

4.02

1.04

Continued

57

Table 4.4 (Continued)

Construct Code Questionnaire Items Mean Std. Dev

TD-PMT13 I am willing to invest effort to improve skills and

competencies in order to have career progression 4.05 .708

Training Benefits 3.58 .872

TD-BT14 Participating in training programs help my personal

developing 3.44 .864

TD-BT15 increase my chances of performing better 3.57 .778

TD-BT16 result in having to do extra work that would add value 3.97 .681

TD-BT17 Result in more opportunities to pursue different career path 3.29 1.066

TD-BT18 Help me stay up-to-date on new processes and products or

procedures related to my job.

3.65 .974

Note: 1. N=257

2. TSC= Training Support from Colleague; MTS= Management Training Support; PMT=

Personal Motivation of Training; TB=Training Benefits

3. The 5-pont Likert-type scale is used (lowest scores indicate strongly disagree (1) and

high scores means strongly agree (5) to each statement)

4.*represent training and development reverse coded items

Descriptive Statistics for Organisational Commitment Scale

Table 4.3 illustrated for the organisational commitment measure, most of the respondents

showed a high agreement with affective and normative commitment than continuance commitment.

However the respondents agree with item OC-N20 (Mean 4.04), implying that they feel one of the

major reasons they continue to work in this organization imply they believe loyalty is important and

therefore feel a sense of moral obligation to remain. The lowest mean score was found to be a

continuance commitment item ‗‗OC-C 13: Right now, staying with my organization is a matter of

necessity as much as desire‘‘ (M=3.39). This indicates that on average participants were fairly

‗‗neutral‘‘ on this items. All responses to organisational commitment items therefore ranged from

neutral (3) to agree (4)

The respondents were more consistent in answering item ‗‗OC-A8: I do not feel a strong sense

of belonging to my organization‘‘ since it had the lowest standard deviation (SD= 0.726). Persons

58

were also the least consistent in answering items ‗‗OC-13: Right now, staying with my organization

is a matter of necessity as much as desire‘ (SD=1.204 follow by ‗‗OC-C11: Too much in my life

would be disrupted if I decided to leave my organization now‘‘ (SD=1.148

Finally, normative commitment had a higher mean score (M=3.78) indicating that it could

possibility be the more dominant reason for organisational commitment of employees.

Table 4.3

Descriptive Statistics for Organisational Commitment

Construct Code Questionnaire Items Mean Std. Dev

Affective Commitment (OC-A) 3.69 .898

OC-A1 I would be very happy to spend the rest of my career in this

organization 3.43 .977

OC-A2 I enjoy discussing about my organization with people outside it 3.81 .838

OC-A3 I really feel as if this organization‘s problems are my own 3.48 .866

OC-A4* I think that that I could easily become as attached to another

organisation as I am to this one 3.67 .904

OC-A5* I do not feel like ―part of the family‖ at my organization 3.86 .962

OC-A6 I do not feel ―emotionally attached‖ to this organization. 3.71 1.064

OC-A7 This organization has a great deal meaning for me.5 3.87 .854

OC-A8* I do not feel a strong sense of belonging to my organization. 3.73 .726

Continuance Commitment 3.53 1.038

OC-C9* I am not afraid of what might happen if I quit my job without having

another one lined up. 3.61 1.040

OC-C10 It would be very hard for me to leave my organization right now,

even if I wanted 3.80 .950

OC-C11 Too much in my life would be disrupted if I decided to leave my

organization now 3.45 1.148

OCC12* It wouldn‘t be too costly for me to leave my organization now. 3.56 1.110

OC-C13 Right now, staying with my organization is a matter of necessity as

much as desire. 3.19 1.204

OC-C14 I feel that I have very few options to consider leaving this

organization. 3.51 .932

59

continued

Table 4.3(Continued)

Construct Code Questionnaire Items Mean Std. Dev

OC-C15 One of the few serious consequences of leaving this organization

would be the scarcity of available alternatives 3.65 1.005

OC-C16 One of the major reasons I continue to work for this organization is

that leaving would require considerable personal sacrifice—another

organization may not match the overall benefits I have here.

3.54 .915

Normative Commitment 3.78 .884

OC-N17 I think that people these days move from company to company

too often 3.95 .905

OCN18* I do not believe that a person must always be loyal to his or her

organization 3.84 .927

OCN19* Jumping from organization to organization does not seem at all

unethical to me 4.05 .813

OC-N20 One of the major reasons I continue to work in this organization is

that I believe loyalty is important and therefore feel a sense of moral

obligation to remain

3.79 .802

OC-N21 If I got another offer for a better job elsewhere I would not feel it was

right to leave my organization 3.59 1.067

OC-N22 I was taught to believe in the value of remaining loyal to one

organization. 3.67 .891

OC-N23 Things were better in the days when people stayed in one

organization for most of their careers 3.61 .783

Note: 1. N=257

2. TOC-A= Affective Commitment; TOC-C= continuance commitment; TOC-N= normative

Commitment

3. The 5-pont Likert-type scale is used (lowest scores indicate strongly disagree (1) and

high scores means strongly agree (5) to each statement))

4 *represent organisational commitment reverse coded items

60

Descriptive Statistics for Employee Job Satisfaction

Regarding employee job satisfaction measure indicated in Table 4.4, that most of the

respondents showed a high agreement to ‗‗JS-TI 4 :I feel satisfied with my job as it allows me with

the opportunity to complete the work I start‘‘ indicates that employees feel a sense of pride as they

are allow to complete task they started. The Lowest score ‗‗JS-TS7: The work is arranged so that I

have a chance to do things for other people (M=3.38).

The respondents were more consistent in answering item ‗‗JS-FR14: My job provides me with

the opportunity to find out how well I am doing (job evaluation)‘‘ since it had the lowest standard

deviation (SD= 0.734). Employees were also the least consistent in answering items ‗‗JS-FR13: I

am Satisfy with feedback provided on how well I am performing at work‘‘ (SD=1.007), follow by

‗‗JS-TI5: My job is arranged so that I have a chance to do the job from one stage to the other‘‘

(SD=0.964)

Table 4.4

Descriptive Statistics for Employee Job Satisfaction

Code Question Items Mean S.D

JS-SV1 I am satisfy with my job as it provide me with opportunity that

improve my skills 3.68 .866

JS-SV2 It provide me with a variety of work 3.79 .818

JS-SV3 Give me an opportunity to do different tasks 3.63 .862

JS-TI 4 I feel satisfied with my job as it allows me with the opportunity to

complete the work I start 3.93 . 800

JS-TI 5 My job is arranged so that I have a chance to do the job from one

stage to the other 3.57 .964

JS-TI6 The task is arranged so that I may see work assignment through to

their final completion 3.74 .839

JS-TS 7 The work is arranged so that I have a chance to do things for other

people. 3.38 .907

JS-TS 8 The task is relatively significant in the organization 3.83 .806

JS-TS9 The task is very significant in the broader scheme of things 3.47 .817

JS-A 10 I am Satisfied with the autonomy to do my own work 3.65 .889

Continued

61

Table 4.4(continued)

Code Question Items Mean SD

JS-A 11 Provides the opportunity for independent thought and action 3.56 .827

JS-A12 My job gives me considerable opportunity for independence and

freedom in how I do my work 3.61 .908

JS-FR13 I am Satisfy with feedback provided on how well I am performing

as I am working 3.66 1.007

JS-FR14 My job provides me with the opportunity to find out how well I am

doing (job evaluation) 3.78 .734

JS-FR 15 Provides me with feeling that I know whether I am performing

well or poorly (performance appraisal 3.60 .905

Note: 1. N=257

2. Employees Job Satisfaction (JS-SV= Skill Variety; JS-TI=Task Identity; JS-TS=Task

Significant; JS-A= Autonomy; JS-FR= Feedback of Results

3. The 5-pont Likert-type scale is used (low scores indicate strongly dissatisfy (1) and high

scores means very satisfied (5) to each statement)

Descriptive Statistic for Psychological Capital

In relation to psychological capital, ‗‗PC-SE1, I feel confident analysing a long-term problem to

find a solution (M=3.89‘‘ and ‗‗PC-SE 5: I feel confident contributing to discussions about the

company's strategy‘‘ (M=3.89). These showed GRA employees agree that they have confident in

contributing to the organization and will participate to find a solution to long-term problem of the

authority. However, PC-R 17 ‗‗I feel that I can handle many things at a time at this job‘‘ gathered

the lowest mean (M=3.28). This suggests that employees are rather neutral towards handling many

tasks at the same time. All response to PsyCap ranged from neutral (3) to agree (4)

From the table 4.5, employees were more consistent in answering items ‗‗PC-SE1: I feel

confident analysing a long-term problem to find a solution‘‘ since it had the lowest standard

Deviation (SD=O.691). The respondents were also the least consistent in answering ‗

‗‗PC-O23: In this job, things never work out the way I want them to‘‘ (SD=1.047. Overall self-

efficacy had highest average mean score (M=3.815) indicating that it could possibly be the more

dominant factor in psychological capital.

62

Table 4.5

Descriptive Statistics for Psychological Capital

Code Question Items Mean SD

PC-SE1 I feel confident analysing a long-term problem to find a solution 3.89 .691

PC-SE2 I feel confident in representing my work area in meetings with

management. 3.75 .804

PC-SE3 I feel confident helping to set targets / goals in my work area 3.83 .800

PC-SE4 I feel confident contacting people outside the organisation (e.g

suppliers, customers) to discuss problems 3.74 .883

PC-SE5 I feel confident contributing to discussions about the company's

strategy 3.89 .810

PC-SE6 I feel confident presenting information to a group of colleagues 3.77 .817

PC-H7 If I should find myself in a jam at work, I could think of many

ways to get out of it. 3.67 .899

PC-H8 At present time, I am energetically pursuing my work goals. 3.78 .843

PC-H9 There is a lots of ways around any problem 3.85 .803

PC-H10 Right now I see myself as being pretty successful at work. 3.76 .816

PC-H11 I can think of many ways to reach my current work goals 3.51 1.020

PC-H12 At this time, I am meeting the work goals that I have set for

myself. 3.68 .923

PC-R13* When I have set back at work, I have trouble recovering from it ,

moving on 3.66 .905

PC-R14 I usually take stressful things at work in stride. 3.61 1.002

PC-R15 I can be ―on my own‖ so to speak at work if I have to. 3.76 .941

PC-R16 I can get through difficult times at work because I've experienced

difficulty before. 3.68 .932

PC-R17 I feel that I can handle many things at a time at this job 3.48 .985

PC-R18 I usually manage difficulties one way or another at work 3.74 .927

PC-O19 When things are uncertain for me at work, I usually expect the

best 3.74 .860

Continued

63

Table 4.5 (continued)

Code Questionnaire Items Mean Std. Dev

PC-020* If something can go wrong for me work-wise, it will 3.70 .892

PC-O21 I always look on the bright side of things regarding my job. 3.76 .832

PC-O22 I‘m optimistic about what will happen to me in the future as it

pertains to work. 3.61 .916

PC-O23* In this job, things never work out the way I want them to 3.62 1.047

PC-O24 I approach this job as if ‗‗ every cloud has a silver lining‘‘ 3.69 .941

Note: 1. N=257

2. Psychological Capital (PC-SE= Self efficacy; PC-H= Hope; PC-R= Resilience; PC-Optimism

3. The 5-pont Likert-type scale is used (lowest scores indicate strongly disagree (1) and

high scores means strongly agree (5) to each statement)

4. *represent Psychological capital reverse coded items

Confirmatory Factor Analysis Results

The Method of SPSS Amos was used to compute the confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) in

order to test the factorial validity of the constructs. Generally, models with lower Chi/DF, RMSEA

(Root mean square error of appropriation) and χ 2 are better values while higher IFI (Incremental Fix

index), CFI (Comparative fix index), NFI (normed fit index), and TLI (Tucker Lewis Index-Non

normed fit index) values are better models. χ 2 /df values between 0 <2 or 3 and GFI (Goodness Fit

Index) 90 and above are said to be the best fitting models for a given data. In addition, good models

have an RMSEA of 0.5 or less (Kenny, 2010). IFI, CFI and TLI greater than 90, in some instances

80 are acceptable and are indicated as a good fit. However, the closer they are to 1 the better the

variables fit. This study base the analysis on the criteria shown in table 4.6. There after the CFA for

the different variables are presented:

64

Table 4.6

Criteria for Evaluating CFA Results

Evaluating Results: Which Fit indices & What Values

Decision

Goodness of Fit

χ 2/df CFI

Badness of fit

RMSEA SRMR

Good >.5 >. 95 < .05 <.06

Acceptable >.5 >.90 <.08 <.08

Marginal >.01 .85-89 <.10

Reject <.01 <.85 >.10 >.08

Source: Good fit criteria Adapted from Fan, and Sivo, (2007). Multivariate Behavioral

Research, 42(3), 509-529. Copyright 2007 by Taylor & Francis.

Training and Development

The analysis results of sampling adequacy for training and development data (n=257) results

showed the suitability of the data for analysis. The table 4.7 presents the CFA results for the

training and developments scale. The factor loading χ 2/ /df values were explained and reported. The

training and development factor loadings for the four variables range between .34 and .87 (p <.001).

Although, the reliability of individuals subscales should be further enhanced, such as MTS =0. 34.

Overall, the quality of the factor loading was acceptable (R2

> .5) (Tabachnick &Fidell, 2007). The

chi-squared value (χ 2/df = 2.4), goodness-fit indices (NFI=.823, IFI=889, GFI= 882, RMSEA=073)

indicated that the variables items need to be further enhanced but it can be acceptable in the criteria

of Hu & Bentler (1999). The Cronbach‘s coefficient alpha of the 4 sub scale were 0 .85(TSC), .768

(MTS), 0 .796 (PMT), 0 .845(TB), and that overall Training and development scale was 0.81,

indicating acceptable internal consistency.

Table 4.7

Confirmatory Factor Analysis Results for Training and Development

Factor Item noa. λ α χ 2/df RMSEA CFI NFI IFI TLI GFI

TSCb

3 .87 .851

MTSc

6 .34 768 2.4 .073 .887 .823 .889 .866 .889

PMTd

4 .57 796

TBe

5 .65 845

Note. a = number of question items on the scale;

b =Training Support from Colleagues; c

=Management Training Support; d

= Motivation of Training; e = Training Benefit; λ=Standardized

Factor Loadings; n=257; α=Cronbach‘s Alpha

65

Organizational Commitment

This variables (affective, continuance, normative), aims to access the extent of employees

commitment in GRA. As shown in the table 4.8, the results of the confirmatory factor analysis

(CFA) for the organizational commitment scales indicated that all parameter of the dimension

estimates of the factor loadings ranging between .61 and 82 were significant (P< .001). The

χ 2/df=1.21 and the goodness-of –fit indices and alternative indices (GFI= 0.91, NFI= 0.90, RMSEA

= 0.037) indicated that the data was acceptable

The Cronbach‘s Alpha as for the 3 subscales was 0.829 (Affective), 0.713 (Continuance), 0.89

(Normative) and that for an overall OC scale was 0.80, Indicating satisfactory internal consistency.

Table 4.8

Confirmatory factor Analysis for Organisational Commitment Scale

Factor Item noa. λ α χ 2/df RMSEA CFI NFI IFI TLI GFI

ACb

8 .78 0.829

CCc

8 .61 0.713 1.21 .037 .917 .891 .917 .901 .91

NCd

7 .82 0.89

Note. a = number of question items on the scale;

b =Affective Commitment; c =continuance

Commitment; d

= Normative Commitment; λ=Standardized Factor Loadings; n=257;

α=Cronbach‘s Alpha

Psychological Capital

This variable aims to assess the extent of employee‘s psychological capital. As shown in the

table 4.9, the results of the confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) for the PsyCap scales indicated that

all parameter of the dimension estimates of the factor loadings ranging between .32 and 79 were

partly significant (P<.001). The Chi- square test was 288.732 p < .001) and the χ 2/df 2.46. The

goodness-of –fit indices are alternative indices (GFI=0.836, NFI=758, RMSEA =0.08) indicated

that the data can be acceptable

The Cronbach‘s coefficient Alpha as for the 4 subscales was, 0 .829 (self-efficacy), 0. 765

(hope), 0.701 (optimism), 0.788 (resilience), and for the overall PsyCap scale were 0. 78. Indicating

satisfactory internal consistency

66

Table 4.9

Confirmatory factor Analysis for Psychological Capital

Factor Item noa. λ α χ 2/df RMSEA CFI NFI IFI TLI GFI

SEb

6 .79 .829

Hc

6 .47 .765 2.46 .082 .845 .758 .849 .814 .836

Rd

6 .32 .701

0e 6 .68 .788

Note. a = number of question items on the scale;

b =Self-Efficacy;

c =Hope ;

d =Resilience;

e =

Optimism; λ=Standardized Factor Loadings; n=257; α=Cronbach‘s Alpha

Employee Job Satisfaction

This variable aimed to access the extent of employee‘s satisfaction at the GRA and as shown in

the table 4.10, the results of the confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) for Job satisfaction scale

indicated the parameter of the variable estimate of the factor loadings is 0.79 was significant (P

<.001). The Chi- square test was (χ 2=131.450). The goodness-of –fit indices are alternative indices

(GFI=0.952, NFI=0.97, RMSEA =0.013) indicated that the data is acceptable

The Cronbach‘s Alpha coefficients for employee job satisfaction was 0.907, indicating

satisfactory internal consistency.

Table 4.10

Confirmatory Factor Analysis for Employee Job Satisfaction

Factor Item noa. λ Α χ 2/df RMSEA CFI NFI IFI TLI GFI

EJSb

15 .79 0.907 1.21 .013 .945 .931 .97 .946 .952

Note. a = number of question items on the scale;

b=Employee Job Satisfaction; λ=Standardized

Factor Loadings; n=257; α=Cronbach‘s Alpha

In addition, CFA was tested to gauge the internal consistency and accuracy of the data in order

to improve the validity and quality of the data under study. However, before the formal study, the

researcher adopt additional validity standards, to reduce the potential threat of Common Method

Variance (CMV) which leads to Type 1 and Type 11 errors (Spector & Brannick, 2010), which

might happen as a result of self-report, because all variables were measured using the same Likert-

type scale. CMV happens when measures of two or more variables are collected from the same

67

respondents and are assessed with the same method. This study follows some strategies to reduce

the treats of CMV (Podsakoff & Organ 1986) and they are;

I. The question items scale were mixed in random order

II. The names of the variables were not shown in the questionnaire and the questionnaire was

filled anonymously.

III. The researcher used a common language to determine information required from the

respondents

Hypothesis Tests

This section presents the information of the analysis results of the bivariate correlations,

followed by the multiple and linear regression establishment and the results of the hypothesis

verification. Further details are provided in the following paragraph.

Correlation among the Variables

Correlation analysis was conducted to examine the relationship between the independent

variables, dependent variable and demographics variables respectively. These relationships between

all variables in the current study were investigated by using Pearson coefficients (see Table 4, 11).

Citing from Kenny‘s (1986) data analysis guidelines, this research considered correlations

between .10/ -.10 and .29/-.29 as low correlation; .30/-.30 and .49/.-49 as moderate correlations

between .50/-.50 to 1.00/-1.00 as high.

According to Table 4.11, there is a significant correlation between informal training and work

experience (r= .504, p< 0.01). This might be due to the fact that GRA train employees on the job

especially, those that are confirm after six months. In addition, work experience is positively

correlated with age(r= .178, p < 0.05). This might indicate that middle age employees have more

work experience in the authority

Formal training was found to be positively correlated with work experience (r= .246, p<0.05).

This might indicate that the number of years in the organization can determine the likelihood of

experiencing formal training. Moreover, formal training was found to be negatively correlated with

informal training (r= -.096, p < 0.01). This might indicate that the number of times an employee

received informal training does not determine participation in informal training. Training support

from colleagues has a negative relationship with work experience (r= -.009, p<0.1), and has high

positive correlation with informal training (r= .546, p <0.1), and a negative correlation with formal

68

training (r=.-0.22, p<0.01). From these relationships, it can be assumed that training supports from

colleagues have a positive relationship with work experience and informal training.

In addition, training support from colleagues indicate a low positive significant correlations

with Job satisfaction (r= .255, p < 0.05), PsyCap (r= .181, p < 0.05), and affective commitment

(r= .215, p < 0.01). It also has moderate correlation with continuance commitment (r= .457, p <

0.01) and high positive correlation with normative (r= .72, p < 0.01). From these relationships, it

can be assumed that training supports is positively related with the organisational commitment

variables, job satisfaction, and PsyCap.

Management training support also shows a negative correlations with age (r= -.028, p < 0.01),

whereas it has it low positive significant correlation with work experience (r= .212, p < < 0.05) and

PsyCap (r= .228, p<0.05). In addition, the results indicate that management training support has

positive significant correlations with training support from colleagues (r=.369, p < 0.01), job

satisfaction (r= .57, p<0.01), affective commitment (r=.472, p < 0.01), Normative commitment

(r= .266, p <0.01) and continuance commitment (r= .380, p<0.01). Therefore, it can be concluded

that management training support is positively associated with years of experience, training support

from colleagues, Job satisfaction, PsyCap and organisational commitment variables

Personal motivation of training shows a low positive significant relationship with employee job

satisfaction (r=.225, p < 0.01), and PsyCap (r=.145, p <0.01). The results also found a moderate

positive significant relationship with affective commitment (r=.361, p < 0.01), continuance

commitment (r= .378, p < 0.01), and a high significant positive relationship with normative

commitment (r=.592, p< 0.01). Based on these results, personal motivation training is positively

related with organisational commitment variables, employee job satisfaction and PsyCap.

Training benefits shows a low positive significant relationship with PsyCap (r=.294, p < 0.01),

continuance commitment (r=.247, p <0.05). Furthermore, training benefits has a moderate positive

correlation with normative commitment (r=.485, p < 0.01), employee job satisfaction(r=.468, p <

0.01), and a high positive correlation with affective commitment (r=.504, p< 0.01). Therefore, one

can conclude that training benefits is positively related with organisational commitment, job

satisfaction and PsyCap.

Finally, employee job satisfaction shows a moderate positive association with normative

(r=.464, p ≤ 0.01), and continuance commitment (r=.316, p < 0.01). A high positive correlation

with affective (r=.523, p<0.01) and PsyCap (r=.625, p<0.01). In addition, PsyCap shows a low

positive significant relationship with affective (r=.208, p < 0.05), continuance (r=.186, p < 0.01),

69

and normative (r=.236, p < 0.05). At last, the correlations among certain independent variables are

relatively high as for example, the correlation (r=.72, p < 0.01) between training support from

colleagues and normative commitment is acceptable on the basis of Kennedy (1979) which stated

that for hypothesis testing, multicollinearity is not considered problematic until correlations reach

0.75. In addition, in order to rule out the possibility that significant multicollinearity might exist

between these two variables, the tolerance and variance inflation factor (VIF) values were

examined for evidence of collinearity. As a rule of thumb tolerance values less than 0.3 and VIF

values greater than 4.0 are indicative of multicollinearity problems (Hair et al., 2006). The

Tolerance value for training support from colleagues and normative commitment was below this

cut-off criterion since it was .72. With respect to the variance inflation factor (VIF), the respective

VIF value was 1.947 and since it was lower than 4, it can be concluded that multicollinearity is not

an issue for the study. The findings from the correlations are pertinent to provide significant

findings of the study. Therefore table 4.11 Present correlation analyses of the variables;

70

Table 4.11

Correlations Analysis

Measures a 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

1 AGE

2. W.E .178*

3. INF T .162* .502**

4. F.T .056 .246* -.096

5.TSC -.166* -.009 .546** .022 .

6.MTS -.028* -.212

* .020 .003 .468

**

7.PMT -.052 .110 .022 -.059 .369**

.414**

. .

8 .TD-TB -.086 -.075 -.008 .026 .274* .358

** .413

** . .

9. 0C-A -.046 -.095 .226* -.068 .215

* .472

** .361

** .504

**

10. OC-C -.022 -.104 .029 -.055 .457**

.380**

.378**

.247**

.402**

11. TOC-N -.124 -.080 -.017 .007 .723**

.266* .592

** .485

** .444

** .329

**

12. TTPC .025 -.031 -.007 .050 .181* .228

** .145* -.232

** .208

** .186

* .237

*

13. TEJS -.097 -.126* -.030 .136* .255**

.571**

.225* .468

** .523

** .316

** .464

** .625

**

Note. a WE= work experience; INF.T=Informal Training; FT= formal training; TSC= Training Support from Colleague; 6. MTS= Management Training Support;

PMT= Personal Motivation of Training; TB=Training Benefits; TOC-A= Affective Commitment; TOC-C= continuance commitment; TOC-N= normative

Commitment; PC=Psychological Capital; EJS= Employee Job Satisfaction. n= 257. ** p <.01; * p < .05Two tailed test

71

The Relationship between the Variables

The Pearson product moment correlation analysis supports a significant relationship

between the variables under this study, thus since correlation does not simply imply causation

and the study are concern with the relationships between the variables. The researchers

conduct a linear and multiple regressions to find the influence training and development, job

satisfaction, PsyCap on organisational commitment and the mediating effect of job

satisfaction and PsyCap on training and organisational commitment relationship are explored.

The researchers examined this hypothesis below;

Training and Development and Employee Job Satisfaction

The first hypothesis of this study tested whether the relationship between training and

development and employee job satisfaction exists and if it is positive. To examine this

relationship, job satisfaction was set as the dependent variable with training and development

variables as the independent variable. Based on the results, the overall fit of the model is R2=

0.247 meaning the training construct explained approximately 25% of the variation in the

employee job satisfaction variable. Furthermore, the F value of 13.80 (p <.001), indicates that

the relationship between training and development and employee job satisfaction are

positively significant

Table 4.12

Multiple Regression Analysis Summaries of Training and Development dimensions and job

satisfaction

Model

Unstandardized Coefficients

Standardized

Coefficients

T Β Std. Error Β

1 (Constant) 2.380 .220 10.807

TTD-TSC .035 .046 060* .755

TTD-MTS 1.04 .172 .724*** 5.68

TTD-PMT .133 .053 .211* 2.488

TTD-BT .237 .048 .393** 4.989

Adjusted R2= .

247

F 13.809***

Note: 1. Predictors: (Constant), training and development dimensions (TSC= Training

Support from Colleague;. MTS= Management Training Support; PMT=

personal Motivation of Training; TB=Training Benefits)

2. Dependent Variable: Employee job satisfaction

3. *p< .05, **p< .01, ***P <.001

72

Additionally, the results indicate the probability of the t-value (.75) for the Beta

coefficient (p<.05) for this relationship between training support from colleagues and job

satisfaction is positively significant. Therefore the hypothesis that there is a positive

relationship between training support from colleagues and job satisfaction is supported. This

results is similar to the findings by Mowday, et al (1979), Becker (1992), who highlighted a

positive correlations that exists between co-worker support and job satisfactions

Furthermore, testing management training support is positively related to job satisfaction,

the statistics indicate that the probability of the t-value (5.68) for the β coefficient (p<.001)

has a positive and significant relationship with job satisfaction and the β coefficient (.72) is

also positive. This supports the hypothesis that management training support is positively

related to job satisfaction and thus the hypothesis is supported. This is consistent with the

findings of Aurthus,(1994) and Baron,(2000) that the employees who receive support from

work are more likely to be satisfy with their jobs.

In addition the employees personal motivation to training indicate the probability of the t-

value (2.48) for the β coefficient (p < .01) for this relationship between employees whose

personal drive to training and job satisfaction is positively significant. Therefore the

hypothesis that there is a positive relationship between; personal motivation of training and

job satisfaction is supported. This result is similar to the findings by, Becker (1992).

Finally, training benefits is also positively correlated with job satisfaction. As the results

indicate the probability of the t-value (4.98) for the β coefficient (p<.001) for this relationship

between benefits employee receive from training and job satisfaction is positively significant.

The overall training and development dimensions have indicated the probability of the t-

value (2.42) for the β coefficient (p <.01). Therefore is positively related.

Training and Development and Psychological Capital

The relationship between training and PsyCap was tested by regression analysis of

training dimensions to PsyCap. The results are shown in table 4.13 and indicated training

explained 4.5% of the variance in PsyCap which is positively significant, also indicated by

an F value of (F= .4.550; p < .001) and adjusted R2

of .083. This means that 8.3 % of variance

in PsyCap might be explained by training and development of employees working at GRA. A

summary of the analysis is presented in below:

73

Table 4.13

Multiple Regression Analysis Summaries of Training and Development Dimension and

Psychological Capital

Model

Unstandardized Coefficients

Standardized

Coefficients

T B Std. Error β

1 (Constant) 2.988 .184 16.243

TTD-TSC .028 .039 .064* .732

TTD-MTS .057 .045 .120** 1.284

TTD-PMT .111 .040 .242** 2.786

TTD-BT -.009 .037 -.022* -.242

Adjusted R2 =

.083

F = 4.5**

Note: 1. Predictors: (Constant), training and development dimensions (TSC= Training

Support from Colleague; MTS= Management Training Support; PMT=

personal Motivation of Training; TB=Training Benefits)

2. Dependent Variable: Psychological Capital

3. *p <.05, **p < .01, ***p< .001

Hence, an inspection of the individual predictors revealed that the training and

development variables are significant predictors of PsyCap. Thus, testing management

training support is positively related to psychological capital, the statistics indicate that the

probability of the t-value (1.28) for the β coefficient (p<.01) has a positive and significant

relationship with PsyCap and the β coefficient (.12) is also positive.

In addition the employees‘ personal motivation to training indicated the probability of the

t-value (2.786) for the β coefficient (p <.01) for this relationship between personal motivation

of training and PsyCap is positively significant.

Finally, as indicated training benefits is negatively significant with PsyCap. As the results

indicate the probability of the t-value (-.242) for the β coefficient (p < .01) for this

relationship between benefits employee received from training and PsyCap is negatively

significant. However, the overall training and development dimension have indicated the

74

probability of the t-value (3.52) for the β coefficient (p < .01). Therefore, the study concluded

that training and development relationship with PsyCap is positively significant

Training and Development and Organizational Commitment

The third hypothesis (H3) of this study tested whether the relationship between training

and development and organisational commitment exists and if it is positive. To examine the

relationship between these two variables, the organizational commitment was set as the

dependent variable and the training and development as the independent variable. Based on

the results, the overall fit of the model is adjusted R2= 0.159, meaning the training construct

explained approximately 16% in the organizational commitment variable. In addition as

indicated by F value of 30.53 (p < .001), there is a positive significant relationship between

the two variables

Table 4.14

Linear relationship between Training and Organizational Commitment

Model

Unstandardized

Coefficients Standardized

coefficients

t

B Std. Error β

Adjusted R2

F

1 (Constant)

2.270 .308 7.375

.

.159

30.53***

TTD .429 .078 .406** 5.525

Note: 1. Predictors: (Constant), Training and development

2. Dependent Variable: Organizational Commitment

3. *p< .05, **p<.01,*** p< .001

Additionally, the results indicate the probability of the t-value (5.525) for the β

coefficient (p < .001) for this relationship is highly significant. Moreover, the Beta

coefficient (.406) is positive thus implying a direct relationship, wherein training and

development results in higher organizational commitment of employees. Therefore the

hypothesis that there is a positive relationship between training and development and

organizational commitment is supported. This results is substantiated by Mowday, et al

(1979), Barlett (2001) who highlighted that employees who are supported with training are

less likely to leave there jobs and are more committed to jobs

75

Multiple Regression Analysis of the Variables

Base on the guidelines provided by Baron and Kenny (1986) on mediation analysis, the

meditational model for this study was judge to be valid due to the following reasons. The first

condition is when there is significant relationship between the independent variable (s) and

the dependent variables. In the case of this study, this requirement was met through

hypothesis 3, training and development positively related to organizational commitment.

The second condition is met when the independent variables significantly related with the

mediator. These criteria‘s was met since hypothesis 1 and 2 are positively, significant.

Training and development had a positive relationship with employee job satisfaction and

psychological capital. Thirdly, when the criteria of mediating variables affect the dependent

variable in a regression of both the independent variables (s) and the mediating variable on

the dependent variables are met.

In hypotheses 4 and 5, on a regression of individual factors, training and development,

employee job satisfaction, PsyCap and organizational commitment, it was found that

employee job satisfaction and PsyCap have a partial positive impact on organizational

commitment, as the beta scores for training and development decreased on the third equation

in model 3 as shown in Table 4.15 and 4.16. The following elucidates the results of the

analysis.

Analysis for Hypothesis 4

In analysing the above association and to ascertained the mediating role of employee job

satisfaction, multiple regression was adopted and the analysis was done in three separate

stages. In the first model, training and development was entered as the independent variables

and organizational commitment dependent variable. The first model explained 16.5% of the

variance in organizational commitment which is significant as indicated in table 4.15 all

values were found to be significant and had gradually increased in the second model and

decrease in level 3. In addition, the results showed that the values of R2 increased in model 1

and decrease in level 3. This can be an indicative of the explaining power of a mediator in a

model. R 2 value of model 3 was lower than those in model 1. In the third model, the F value

was (F=22.592, P<.001) and the adjusted R2

(Adj R2=.209, p<.05).

76

Moreover the beta weight for training and development in model 1 (β=409; p<.01)

decrease in model 3 (β=.328; P<.01), however it remained significant. This decrease in beta

score can be attributed to the mediating effect of employee job satisfaction which was added

in model 3 together with training and development and organisational commitment. The beta

weight for employee job satisfaction in model 3 is significant (β=.256; p<.05). From these

results, it can be concluded that employee job satisfaction partially and positively mediates

the relationship between training and development variables and organisational commitment.

Therefore hypothesis 4 was partially supported.

Table 4.15

Results for Job Satisfaction Mediation on Training and Organisational Commitment

relationship

OCa (Y) J S

b (Y) OC (Y)

Model 1 Model 2 Model 3

Independent variables

Training and development .406** .439** .328**

Mediator

Job satisfaction . .256*

R .406 .516 .468

R2 .165 .267 .219

R2adj .159 .247 .209

F 30.531*** 13.809*** 21.592***

N 257 257 257

Note a OC= organizational Commitment

b EJS Employee Job Satisfaction

*** P<.001, ** p<.01, *p <.05

Analysis for Hypothesis 5

In analysing the mediating role of PsyCap, multiple regressions were conducted and

the analysis was done in three separate stages. In the first model, training and development

and organizational commitment were analysed. The first model explained 16.5% of the

variance in organisational commitment which is significant as indicated in table 4.15. All

values were found to be significant; however, the findings showed that the R2

value gradually

decrease in the second model and further decrease in third model. In addition, indicative of

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the explaining power of the mediator in model 3 as the R2 value of model 3 were lower than

those in model 1, as elucidates in the third model, the F value (F=15.831, P<.001) and the R2

(R2=.167, p<.05) respectively.

Moreover the beta weight for training and development in model 1 (β=406; p<.01

decrease in model 3 (β=.294; P<.01) remained significant. This decrease in beta score can be

attributed to the mediating effect of PsyCap which was added in model 3 together with

training and development on organisational commitment. The beta weight for PsyCap in

model 3 is significant (β=.113; p< .05). From these results, it can be concluded that PsyCap

partially mediates the relationship between training and development variables and

organisational commitment. Thus, hypothesis 5 was partially supported.

Table 4.16

Results for Psychological Capital Mediation on Training and Organisational Commitment

Relationship

OCa (Y) PsyCap (Y) OC (Y)

Variables Model 1 Model 2 Model 3

Independent variables

Training and development .406** .357** .294**

Mediator

PsyCap . .113*

R .406 .327 .409

R2 .165 .107 .167

R2adj .159 .083 .156

F 30.531*** 4.55 15.431***

N 257 257 257

Note: Y=Dependent Variable; a OC= organizational Commitment

; b PsyCap = Psychological

Capital

*** P<.001, ** p<.01, *p <.05

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Summary of the Analysis Results

Table 4.17 presents the summary of the analysis results for hypothesis verification. The

results of the research indicated training and development is significantly correlated with

employee job satisfaction, psychological capital and organizational commitment (Hypothesis

1, 2, and 3, respectively). The results of Hypotheses 4 and 5 elucidates partial mediation

employee job satisfaction and PsyCap have on training and organizational commitment

relationship. In sum, all the hypotheses are accepted. Next section conducts the discussion of

the results.

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Table 4.17

Summary of Analysis Results

Relationships a

Models Results

Accepted Rejected

H1: Training and development is positively related to

employee job satisfaction.

XTD YEJS

x

Supported

H2: Training and development is positively related to

psychological capital

XTD YPsyCap

x

Supported

H3: Training and development is positively related to

organizational commitment.

XTD YOC

X

Supported

H4: Employee Job satisfaction positively mediates the

relationship between training and

Development and organizational commitment

XTD, MEJS YOC

X

Partially

Supported

H5 Psychological capital mediates the relationship

between training and development and

organizational commitment.

XTD, M psyCap YOC

X

Partially

Supported

Note: the hierarchical regression analysis for hypotheses H4, H5 is a partial mediation

Note. a; TD=Training & Development ; OC = Organizational Commitment; PsyCap=Psychological Capital ; EJS= Employee Job

Satisfaction.

n= 257.

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Discussions of the Findings

Results from the statistical analyses confirmed the formulated hypotheses for the research.

The findings showed the following:

Training and Employee Job Satisfaction

Hypothesis 1 is corroborated in this study as the entire dimension on training and

development are associated positively with employee job satisfaction propensity. More

specifically, employees with a higher orientation to training are more likely to exhibit

stronger satisfaction propensities. The results could be interpreted based on Amabile,(1993)

theory of work motivation which elucidates that support and benefit employee received (such

as training) are considered part of their orientation to organisational citizenship, that will

reflect in employee primary satisfaction with job, and can be used to explain and predict their

behaviours.

Similarly, the same theory applies to the positive relationship between training and

employee job satisfaction, namely, when employees are motivated and satisfied with their job,

they consider the job as instruments for obtaining desired rewards to match their satisfaction

orientation. Therefore, if an organization supports and invest in employees, the employees

will perceive it as recognition, as a result of the investment. In this case, employees are more

likely to exhibit desirable work behaviour such as organizational commitment and

satisfaction.

In addition, according to findings by Stevens, Beyer and Trice (1978), training support

and benefits can reduce the inclination of employees to feel dissatisfied. Support for this is

also found with the social identity theory which holds the view that by increasing the

satisfaction of employees, it can increase their self-worth and in turn benefits the

organizations.

In sum, the results are consistent with the interactionist framework of job behaviour

and task identification (Woodman et al. 1993), where the model illustrate that support and

benefit of training may influence employee job satisfaction. The theory of motivational

synergy (Amabile, 1993) also elucidates that certain types of management and colleagues

support can be perceived as synergistically stimulus, such as informal training, mentoring,

feedback receive about job performance, and task significant may results to higher job

satisfaction

In addition, Bartlett (2001) found a positive relationship between workplace training and

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job satisfaction and recommended that human resource development professionals can

ascertained employee job satisfaction through training and development programs. That

finding is compatible with this research finding, even though it is conducted in a different

organizational settings and country.

Training and Development and Psychological Capital

Hypothesis 2: the result shows that training and development correlated positively with

PsyCap2. More specifically, employees with more training support and benefits are likely to

exhibit stronger PsyCap. The theoretical foundations that elucidates the association between

the two could be based on the Luthans PsyCap model (Luthans et al., 2001), who proposes

that training and development create the positive conditions necessary for PsyCap to flourish.

Thus, when employees feel supported, they are more likely to use the pathway generation

characteristic of hope to try unproven or new methods to accomplish tasks within the

organizational context. Likewise, given that resiliency is defined in terms of assets and

resources, therefore, a supportive management will likely act as a contextual resource for

individuals to quickly ‗‗bounce back‘‘ after setbacks. Training support can help employee

remain focused on the task at hand. Contributing to individual levels of PsyCap can be

understood in terms of optimistic attributions. This emphasizes that, when employees are

supported and benefitted through training, it would allow them to attribute failures to external

circumstances versus low personal knowledge, skills and abilities.

This result is consistent with the theoretical foundation for PsyCap, compatible with the

psychological resource theories, from the positive psychologist Fredrickson‘s (1998, 2001)

broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. She has found that, basic research on

positivity builds out not only intellectual (e.g., problem solving and creativity) but also

physical conditions (e.g., coordination, coping with stress). Thus, training and PsyCap

construct reflect unique cognitive and behavioural manifestations. Following Ajzens‘s (1991)

theory of planned behaviour, lacking PsyCap (behavioural intentions), might be as a results

of lack of training support and benefits for employees.

Like previous empirical findings, the study found a positively relationship between

training and PsyCap. Unlike previous empirical findings that were mostly conducted on

different variables and country. This researcher provides supportive evidence that training

2 The psychological capital that was adapted from Luthans (2006) four dimension measuring PsyCap is

corroborated as a single variable. The interpretations indicated a positive relationship between training and

PsyCap in the study. This elucidations showed a positive results based on the overall constructs

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and development has a significant impact on PsyCap and the results is impressive because it

conducted in an organization and country that it was not studied before. This finding

contributes to the literature of training and development and PsyCap relationship.

Discussion on Relationships between Training and development and

Organizational Commitment

Hypothesis 3: This study investigated the relationship between training and development

and organizational commitment and the results show positive significant relationship exists

between the two variables. The results are supported by empirical evidence from Iverson,

1996; Mowday, Porter, and Steer (1982) studies, who found that satisfaction with employee

capacity building leads to organizational commitment. Additionally, considering the

relationship between the variables are also supported by the Social Resource Theory (SRT).

The theory ague that social capital is the value resources embedded in social network that can

be borrowed through direct social ties and be utilized to facilitate people‘s action and or

behaviours with the workplace (Coleman et.al, 2000). Receiving this social capital leads to

greater organizational commitment if employees receive benefits and the reverse if no

benefits is receive.

Furthermore, the perspective of the signalling theory by Connelly, Certo, Ireland, and

Reutzel (2011), illustrated that training can be viewed as the signal which conveys

organizations‘ intention to employees about their job behaviours. Extending this rationale

therefore, a supportive organization conveys the behavioural expectation of commitment to

the employees. Thus, when employee expectations and values are met, positive emotions

toward the organization and feelings of loyalty to the organizational are expected.

Another theory which underlines the conclusions of this relationship is the social

exchange theory (SET), the social exchange theory Blau, (1964) posits that every interaction

among people can be understood as form of reciprocal exchange of rewards. Although, the

theory is based on individual social interaction, recent studies have attempted to

conceptualize the relationship between an organization and its employees as a kind of social

exchange relationship (Griffin, 2006). Receiving benefits from the organization, employees

are more likely to be more commitment and thereby, exhibit a strong motivation to remain in

the organization.

Likewise, the expectancy theory underlies the conclusion of this relationship (Mowday et

al., 1982). This theory ague that employee joined workplace with their own expectation and

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values about an organization (Mottaz, 1988). Thus when expectation and values are met,

employees feelings of loyalty are expected. Therefore, based on the results of this study and

prior research conducted on some of the variables, empirical evidence provide support for

positive relationships between training and development and organizational commitment

(Iverson, 1996; Mowday, Porter, &Steer, 1982).

Finally, the theory proposed by Lawler (1992) posits the affective attachment theory that

offers a theoretical linkage between these two variables under review. The bases of this

theory outline a conceptual distinction between more transitory approach such as training and

more enduring affect such as commitment. This assumption are further extended by Mueller

and Lawler (1992), and argue that to improve working conditions, support from college and

supervisor couple with self-motivation usually results and leads to greater organizational

commitment(Mueller & Lawler, 1996). Thus the availability of training programs for

employees has the upper hand on organizational commitment for employees in GRA.

Therefore, the number of diploma / advance diploma qualification holders are growing, and

with the number of job requirement, employees especially whose training are progressing are

better off holding onto their jobs at the authority, which offers them job security , job

satisfaction and training opportunities‘.

Therefore, based on results of the study and prior research conducted on the relationship

between these two variables, some proof that the relationship is not clear (Al-Emadi &

Marquardt, 2007; Ehrhardt, Miller, Freeman, & Hom, 2011) and require further investigation.

This research conducted in a different country and settings, provide evidence that training and

development and organizational commitment relationship is not only significant but

positively related.

Discussions of the Mediating Variables

Hypothesis 4: Mediating role of Employee Job Satisfaction

The result shows that employee job satisfaction partially mediates the relationship

between training and organizational commitment. Based on the previous research, it was also

agreed that job satisfaction can serve as a mediator between human resource development

practices and desirable work outcomes; this is found to be positive. This study analysis

confirms employee job satisfaction is another factor to determine employee commitment

behaviour. However, the relationship between training and organizational commitment is

highly significant which is partly in disagreement with Ahmad and Bakar, (2003); Conway

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and Monks, (2009) who found the relationship between training and commitment not clear

and need a mediator to clarify the relationship.

Thus, the results implies that employee that receive training and development lead to

higher job satisfaction and that satisfaction drives them to perform better at work. In order

words, the training and job satisfaction of employees is crucial as it enforce employee‘s

commitment behaviour.

The results also indicated that the training and development of employees play an

imperative role than situational context does, in terms of encouraging organizational

commitment. In order words, the reasons why employees are committed are primarily

because of training support, benefits, personal motivation and employee job satisfaction

provided by the organization. The result indicates that the better training employees have, the

higher they will be committed to their job. This results is in agreement with Blau and Kahn

(1981); Bartlett (2001), who found a positive relationship between workplace training and job

satisfaction and recommended that human resource development professionals should adapt

and increase employee satisfaction through training and employee capacity building

initiatives.

Hypothesis 5: Mediating role of Psychological Capital

According to the results, training and PsyCap had positive and significant impact on

organizational commitment. It is concluded that these variables are essential for

organizational commitment to flourish. This suggests that PsyCap is another factor to

determine employees‘ organizational commitment which was not tested before according to

the researcher‘s knowledge. On the basis of these results, it can be claimed that supporting

employees by training and increasing their PsyCap level is crucial for the attainment of

organizational commitment.

The ability to trained organizations members is agued to be a key lever for achieving

organizational performance Bartlett,( 2001), likewise the possession of PsyCap (Luthans,

1998). This study‘s results indicated that PsyCap partially mediates the relationship between

training and organizational commitment and as such stressed the importance of having

training programs in the organization. These are compatible with Blau (1986) study which

found investment in employees help increase their self-worth that might help to decrease

employees‘ intention to leave the organization.

Much of the organizational commitment literature have been conveying in the greater

85

value of job satisfaction over training. For example Barlett (2001) found job satisfaction to be

highly correlated to organizational commitment than training. This argument is partly

sustained given that, according to their respective beta weigh, employees job satisfaction

(β=259) and PsyCap ( β= 113) have less score compared to training (β=.406) that was found

to have a stronger influence on organizational commitment.

Finally, findings from this study found PsyCap to partially mediate the relationships

between training and organizational commitment. This is surprising considering that this

relationship was not studied before. Therefore, the variable was found to partially intensify

the desire of employees to remain with their current employer with the presence of training

and development. Likewise the variables were found to partial reinforce the desire of

employees to be committed to GRA with the presence of PsyCap

In sum, the relationship between training and commitment has not been consistently

demonstrated in the past, prior research has shown an unclear relationship between variables.

However, PsyCap and other desirable individual and organizational outcomes were proves to

be important for employees and organizational commitment. For example, the research

previously mentioned by Luthans and colleagues (Luthans et al., 2001) verified the

importance of training to developed PsyCap. Eisenberger et al. (1990) found a relationship

between perceived training support and measures of self-efficacy, Bartlett (2001) reported a

relationship between organizational training and commitment to the organization but it still

need further investigation. However, this research also provides evidences that training and

development created the positive conditions necessary for PsyCap to flourish which will

increase organizational commitment.

Demographics Variables Relationship with Study Variables

In additions, from the findings, it is evident that not only are the variables used in the

study related to each other, but some factors that affect these variables are personal or base on

the organization. Although their effect on organizational commitment variables is relatively

weak according to Karim (2009)‘s guidelines, the model is acceptable on the basis of Kenny

(2002)‘s guidelines, the relationship is acceptable on the impact of few demographics

variables on some dimension of training, employee job satisfaction, PsyCap, and

organizational commitment, the results of the bivariate correlation confirmed with some

previous studies results and arguments on their relationship.

In relations to age, the results showed low positive association between age and

normative commitment. This is in accordance with Blau and Kahn (1981), and Watson and

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Hewett (2006) studies, all found a causal relationship between age and normative

commitment. However, it somewhat contradicts Gumus ( 2007) study which founds that age

had an impact on all organizational commitment variables and revealed that individual

between the ages of 31-39 are not commitment to the job as most of them feel they can move

from one organization to the other anytime.

When it comes to work experience, there is a causal relationship between work

experience and formal training and job satisfaction. This is also compatible with Barron

(2001), Mottaz (1986), study that report positive associations between these two variables. In

addition, it does not provide support for research conducted by Bartlett (2001) which

indicated that work experience may have an effect on all organizational commitment

variables.

Furthermore, informal training was found to be positively correlated with affective

commitment this is supported by Blau and Kahn (1981) who found that employees who

receive on-the-job-training in organizations are less likely to leave. Thus employees who

receive such training have a very strong affective attachment because of the strong ties

between the organizations members. Therefore, those with relatively high support for training

have affective commitment because of the support they receive. This goes to show that

retaining some employees may be less costly than retaining others; therefore it is important

for organizations to isolate cases by providing formal training and informal training to

different groups of employee‘s base on needs.

Furthermore, with respect to formal training, this study found a significant and positive

relationship with employee job satisfaction. This finding is compatible with Chiang, Back

and Canter, (2005) study results indicated that formal training to be strongly associated with

employee job satisfaction and employee intention to stay. Also, they suggest that increasing

training satisfaction leads to employee job satisfaction, and intention to stay among

employees.

Finally, no demographics variable was found to be related to PsyCap. This is contrary to

prior findings by Earley and Peterson (2004), Macnab and Worthley (2012) all of whom

found a positive correlation between some of the demographic variables (age, work

experience) with PsyCap.

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CHAPTER V CONLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

This study presented and explained the relationships between training and development,

employee job satisfaction, PsyCap and organizational commitment. The theoretical

foundations and the hypothesis were elucidated in chapter two and the empirical hypothesis

derived tested in chapter four. This chapter is divided into five phase. The first phase presents

the conclusions of the study. Phase two discusses the theoretical and managerial implications

of the results. Third phase elucidates the recommendations for both Researchers and Human

Resource Development practitioners. The fourth phase outlined the limitations of this study

and the suggestions for future research. Final considers are illustrated in the fifth phase of the

chapter.

Conclusions

This study sought to bring out to the academic spot light the varied important of the key

factors of training and development, employee job satisfaction, PsyCap, and organizational

commitment of a public organization employees. As public organizations in The Gambia are

one of the main employers, there is a need to create a positive organizational environment, in

order to saves its best hands that create the key element for achieving its vision in today's

dynamic and changing organizational environment. Thus, creating such environment, which

cares about the welfare of employees, is thought to be imperative. Since, it is through that the

organizations‘ expectations of employees‘ commitment and endeavour to undertake

additional roles in the organizational processes will be attained. Consequently, employee

willingness to remain in the organization may be actualised when they perceive a higher

degree of supportive work setting. .

According to the results and discussions, training and development is associated with

organizational commitment and the mediating role of PsyCap and employee job satisfaction

is found to be positively significant. To sum, the variables under study are critical factors

enhancing employees‘ commitment behaviour. The detailed conclusions are presented below.

Training and Development has effect on Employee Job Satisfaction

The first hypothesis elucidates that training and development has an impact on employee

job satisfaction. The results indicated that employee‘s training (Supports, benefits and

personal motivation) orientations are associated with their job satisfaction. This suggest that

when employees‘ feeling towards the support received from management, training benefits,

88

and personal motivation to training are negative, they may developed undesirable feeling

towards the organization, and vice versa. The study concludes that training affect employee

job satisfaction which can have an indispensable impact on their level of performance,

commitment, and productivity. Considering that employee who have no or little affection for

the organization will not feel inclined to put in much effort into the organization without

reservation.

Psychological Capital Dependent on Training and Development

The second hypothesis that training and development affect employee PsyCap is found to

be positive. The results of the correlations and regressions analyses indicated that employee

with higher orientation to training might be more likely to have higher level of PsyCap; these

conclusions might suggest that employees with support for training are more adept at using

their PsyCap to facilitate positive organizational outcomes. Hence, the ability for PsyCap to

flourish could possibly imply that employees who receive training are more aware of the

factors that could contribute to their own personal development. As Badran and Youssef

(2015) posits that awareness of the factors that elicit PsyCap and understanding the benefits

of PsyCap components could help employees to take the appropriate actions that influence

positive organization citizenship behaviours. Consequently, if the employees level of PsyCap

drops, limited training support and benefits are likely to be some of the factors leading to

such a situation. Similarly, if employees PsyCap increase, they are more likely to contribute

to the organization. Accordingly, organizations with positive PsyCap employees tend to be

more effective than with employees with little or no PsyCap (Luthans, 2007). Thus, these

conclusions will have implication for public organizations such as the Gambia Revenue

Authority.

Training and Development has impact on Organization Commitment

The results of the data analysis confirmed that the research prediction in hypothesis 3 is

positive and indicate that employees who receive high levels of training tend to have a higher

level of organizational commitment. This study also designates that employees allocate

differing values to the aspects of training like supports, motivation, and benefits, rather than

addressing training and development as an all-or-nothing concept. This may mean numerous

things to employees, researchers, and to the organization. Results of surveys noted in the

introduction are a testament to the importance of training and development in the minds of

employees. This study confirm that employees value training as it is the dominant factor that

leads to organizational commitment behavior.

89

To examined on another level, employees in revenue administration that are in constant

communication with tax payers might be often motivated by the ability to be trained on tax

payer services and in return organizational commitment may be attained.

Mediating role of Employee Job Satisfaction and Psychological capital

The last two hypotheses 4 and 5 elucidated the mediating role of PsyCap and employee

job satisfaction on relationship between training and development and organizational

commitment. The hierarchical regressions results showed that training have not only have an

effect on employee job satisfaction and PsyCap but have a significant impact on employee

organizational commitment. With that been said, this study laid the groundwork for future

studies in the Gambia to further examine factors that affect employee job satisfaction and

PsyCap in order to unveil their potential influence or for organizational commitment.

The hierarchical regression results also showed that employee job satisfaction partially

mediated the relationship between the two variables. Referring to this association, the results

confirmed that training and development (training support from colleague, management

training support, personal motivation of training, and training benefits), couple with PsyCap,

employee job satisfaction had an impact on organizational commitment. The result further

elucidates that training and development had a greater effect on organizational commitment.

Thus, the Gambia Revenue Authority should consider all these variables when promoting

employee committed behavior.

In addition, this result also lent empirical support from Tansky and Cohen, (2001)

argument which emphasized that employees‘ satisfied with job training are more committed

to their organizations, and employees who are satisfied in their jobs are more willing to

accept organizational goals and values. Therefore, employees who posess higher PsyCap are

also more willing to exert effort in the organizations (Luthans 1996; Hatcher, 1999). These

results are important implications for HRD practitioners in GRA to take into consideration.

Theoretical and Practical Implications

This study makes several theoretical contributions to training and development, employee

job satisfaction, PsyCap, and organizational commitment literatures. Based on the research

conclusions, the corresponding theoretical and practical implications were discussed as

follows:

90

Implications from hypothesis 1 Training and Development and Employee

Job Satisfaction

As shown in table 4.12 in chapter IV, hypothesis 1 ‗‗there is a significant relationship

between training and development and employee job satisfaction‘‘ was fully supported. This

means that within the context of the GRA there is a significant positive relationships between

training and employee job satisfaction

Theoretical Implications.

This research has very important implications for researchers in the field of human

resource development, as it adds on the literature of training and development and employee

job satisfaction in the Gambia. For instance, despites the importance of training and

development, there is very limited research on its impact on satisfaction related in the

Gambia. Moreover, the study found the relationship between training and employee job

satisfaction to be positive. The results expand the factors influencing employee job

satisfaction. However, given the exploratory nature of the results, any interpretations

provided based on this findings should be treated circumspectly.

Practical Implications.

These results have numerous implications for GRA management and for HRD

practitioners. It is suggested that HRD practitioners consider desired work-related attitudes

such as employee job satisfaction to be an additional outcome of training and development

activities. Results indicating that training can play a role in the development and maintenance

of employee job satisfaction should encourage GRA management to further explore the role

of training and its relationships to improvements in retention and productivity of employees.

This could also suggest that HRD professionals adopt a broader perspective towards training

outcomes.

The results of this study also illustrate that HRD practitioners can play a significant role

in establishing a positive perception toward training and development within organizations.

Employee attitudes toward access to training, perceived benefits of training, and the social

support for training from colleagues and senior management staff can be influenced by

management actions. The results that these attitudes are related to employee job satisfaction

should encourage those responsible for recruitment, selection, and initial socialization of

newly hired employees to add information on the amount and type of HRD provided and the

level of managerial support toward training and development. Thus, in order to develop

91

appropriate positive organizational outcomes out of training and development, GRA can do

the following:

I. Training needs assessment: Employee skills assessment first need to be done in order

to create a vibrant public enterprise that triggers positive organization outcomes

behaviors. The needs assessment is a process for figuring out how to close a learning or

performance gaps. It involves determining what the important needs of employees are

and how to address them (Gupta 2011). This different components couple with the

training support and benefit will immensely help in employees‘ capacity building and

job satisfaction. However, the needs valuation is supposed to identify and address the

following:

I. What are the organization current learning and performance gap that will determine

future action?

II. What interventions (assets or resources) GRA can do to improve the skills and

competencies of employees

III. Employees relationships with colleagues and management that affect the delivery of

informal training and formal training

IV. Examine department work culture and employee behavior within the organization to

gauge what factors affects employee job satisfaction.

II. Identify implementation focus. After the needs valuations are done, GRA needs to

decide what to focus on in order to help both employees and the organization. As the

needs audit are implemented in complex systems, a change in one levels or element of

the system can affect other levels. Moreover, the assessments within the organization

can produce results that contribute to the larger shared vision of GRA (Kaufman, 2012)

III. The next stage is to review what thematic areas is contributing to employee job

satisfaction and what needs to be improved. In consideration, GRA need to do

performance evaluation/appraisal, taking into account the human resources, the tax

payers‘ needs and the infrastructures available.

IV. Finally, employee job satisfaction is imperative in any organizational development, thus,

the HRD practitioner should not alienate the strategic objectives of GRA. In all training

interventions, strategies made must be aligned to the objectives of the organization.

This steps highlighted are not an ends in itself and a more detailed, well planned

implementations steps are needed to guide the executions stage.

92

Implications from Hypothesis 2 The relationship between Training and

Psychological capital

As shown in table 4.13 in chapter IV, hypothesis 2 ‗‗there is a significant relationship

between training and development and psychological capital‘‘ was fully supported. This

means that within the context of GRA, training has a significant effect on PsyCap. These

findings have both theoretical and practical implications:

Theoretical Implications.

The hypothesis 2, being supported, has made some important contributions to the

theoretical relationships between training and development and PsyCap. As Psychological

capital is a model characterised by the dimensions that assist in measuring human

contribution to the organizations in subtly distinct ways. Firstly, as PsyCap concept is in its

early stages, the premise requires rigorous explorations. However, this study looks at

organizations invention such as training impact on employee PsyCap development. As

indicated, PsyCap has been determined to be a second-order factor comprising of hope,

optimism, resilience, and efficacy (Luthans, Avolio, et al., 2007). This means that PsyCap

incorporates the mechanism(s) that these four discriminant constructs have in common. To

explained, the PsyCap literature has utilized the notion of ―theory borrowing,‖ mainly

drawing from psychological resource theory (Hobfoll, 2002). Some argue that PsyCap levels

differ from one employee to another and the individual background can influence it.

However, one aspect of this research is that it suggests some constructs are best

understood as indicators of broader underlying factors. That is, while an individual construct

(training support) may be valid, it may be more beneficial to consider it as an indicator of

PsyCap. Therefore, this study elucidates that support given through training is imperative to

improving employee PsyCap than the training benefit they (employees) received.

Secondly, this research found very few studies that measured the development of PsyCap.

In other words, few have considered PsyCap to be the antecedents in a theoretical model.

Recent research has suggested that PsyCap can be enhanced by developmental interventions

(Luthans, Avey, et al., 2010). However, there has been no systematic method of examining

antecedents to PsyCap, which suggests this may be a fruitful area of future research.

Finally, the analysis revealed the relationships between development interventions (such

as training) and employee PsyCap were strongest in studies conducted in the United States

93

and in the service sector (Hobfoll, 2002).This study results provide a strong evidence-based

that training and PsyCap relationship are strong in a public organization in the Gambia. Thus,

it is recommended training affect PsyCap and the theoretical contributions for HRD conclude

in this research that PsyCap can be an antecedent of training and development

Practical Implications.

There are also a number of practical implications, primarily revolving around HRD. As

previously mentioned, PsyCap has been empirically found to be developable (Luthans

&Avey, 2010) even in relatively short training interventions though informal or formal

trainings. Since the results from this study suggest PsyCap to be related to important

employee behaviors, and organizational commitment, then HRD interventions such as

training in this study, may be applied in HRD programs for potential increase in desirable

behavioral outcomes back to the job.

In addition to desirable attitudes, research has found PsyCap to be negatively related to

undesirable employee attitudes, such as cynicism toward change or turnover intentions.

Specifically, based on the optimistic expectancies of future events as well as resilience to

setbacks, those higher in PsyCap have reported being more open and less cynical about

change in their organizations. Further, Avey, Luthans, and Youssef (2010,) note:

‗‗…―PsyCap has a motivating impact that can enhance internalization, determination,

and pathways thinking, which contradict with ‗giving up‘ and despair associated with

cynicism. Related to being less likely to give up is the notion that those high in PsyCap

are less likely to have turnover intentions‘‘ (p. 439)

The Gambia Revenue Authority is no exception to this affirmation and thus, developing

employees PsyCap levels might have some potential benefits to the organization. As the

higher levels of optimism regarding the future and confidence in their ability to succeed in

their current job will motivate them to take charge of their own destinies (Seligman, 1999),

self-select into challenging work endeavors (Bandura, 2000), engage the necessary efforts,

resources, and persevere in the face of obstacles (Stajkovic & Luthans, 1998b)

Therefore, The Gambia Revenue Authority may want to consider development of PsyCap

through training and development programs. The following practices are recommended:

I. Socialization: Process of becoming an Insider

Employee socialization or‗‗onboarding‘‘ will be an important practice to develop employee

PsyCap, as it is a process by which an individual acquires the social knowledge and skills

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necessary to assume an organizational role. To become organization member, GRA can help

employees establish relationships and learn behaviors, procedures, expectations and values.

However, learning new things, new employees may also need to unlearn things that helped

them succeed in previous settings, but would be maladaptive in their new settings (Werner &

Desimone, 2011). During this phase, GRA can conduct orientations; realistic job previews

(RJP) and on-job-training immediately new employee join the organization. As according to

Werner and Desimone, (2011), successful socialization of employees is critical to both

individuals and the organizations. At stake are:

I. The employee‘s satisfaction, performance, and commitment to the organizations

II. Lower PsyCap which might impact the organization negatively, as employees with

higher PsyCap expect good things to happen at work (optimism), believe they create

their own success (efficacy and hope), and are more impervious to setbacks

(resilience) (Luthans, 2010)

III. Start-up costs invested in the employee (Such as recruitment, selection, training and

the time employee will be fully settle)

IV. The likelihood that the employee will remain with the organization

V. The costs of replacing the employees if they leave

2. Team Training/ Team Building.

Another very important practice GRA can adapt is team building, since the authority has

many different departments with different mandates. Adapting this approach of training might

be much more meaningful than joining trainees‘ from different unit. As Fortune and Utley

(2006) viewed team building as efforts to unify varied individual energies, direct these

energies towards valued goals and outputs, and these efforts are link to organizational results.

This intervention can help build the confidence, hope and resilience of individual employees

as they work with groups they affiliated to. Thus, GRA should consider team training under

the following conditions:

I. A specific training goal needs a multifaceted group of people with complementary

talents.

II. A broad- based perspectives are needed to develop and carry out the vision of

growing each departments

III. HRD professionals may rely on the HRD process model among other (Example.,

ADIE: assess, design, implement, evaluate) in designing and delivering team

training programs (Desimone, 2007)

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Having elucidates the implication of research results 1&2, the researcher now proceed to

discuss the implications of the research results 3.

Implications for Research Hypothesis 3: Training and Development and

Organizational Commitment

The main question of the study: ‗‗what is the relationship between training and

development and organizational commitment?‘‘ this was asked in an attempt to fullfill a part

of the research purpose and in an attempt to address Ahmad and Bakar, (2003) study that

claim the relationship between the variables is not clear and need further investigations.

Recall also that that the results for Hypothesis 3 (Table 4.14) showed that the overall

dimensions of training and development had a positive impact on organizational commitment.

These results have both theoretical and practical implications discussed as follows;.

Theoretical Implications.

The study provides empirical evidence that training and development correlates positively

with organizational commitment. This outcome gives researchers an understanding of the

concept in The Gambia, as it has not been studied. In addition, the results elucidates that

training was preferred predominantly by employees in this study as it has a higher impact on

organization commitment

Practical Implications.

The relationships between training and development and organizational commitment have

already been established to some extend in profit organizations, especially service enterprises.

This research has established this relationship in a public enterprise. Nonetheless, in terms of

practicality of the relationship, the organization type does not matter. The motive of training

and development is to increase the competencies of employees and enhance positive

employee behaviours.

Even though organizational commitment is a diverse construct with a large body of

theoretical and empirical literatures, HRD managers can focus on key elements. First, it

appears that affective and normative commitment is most important to foster within

organizations. Second, HRD practitioners should concentrates on, not only the job-related

antecedents to commitment but personal or situational characteristics even though they have

little control on them. With support from colleagues and management it can be attainable.

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The HRD practitioners can do it by adapting the summary of relevant job- and organization-

related antecedents of high levels of organizational commitment from Pinks (1992)

suggestion that, HRD managers could play a role in increasing job challenge, role clarity, and

encouraging employees‘ engagement in training participations and decision makings. They

could also communicate with employees that the organization depends on the continued

efforts of every employees to achieve its objectives.

Finally, it should be noted that HRD is one of many organizational processes that can

assist in the development and maintenance of organizational commitment. However, the

relationship between training and commitment explored in this study should not result in

HRD professionals believing that training alone has a relationship with organizational

commitment. In fact, these results highlight that HRD is one component of a complex set of

management practices that together influence the attitudes and behaviours‘ of employee.

The Gambia Revenue Authority may want to consider detailed planning in training and

development process to meet the intended purpose. Thus, GRA may want to take into

considerations the activities mentioned below in supporting training program that influence

positive outcomes. One may ask how this can be actualized. To answer this question, GRA

can consider the following implications in turn

.

1. Participation and Involvement

One of the oldest and most effective strategies for overcoming commitment challenges is

to involve organization members directly in planning and implementations processes. As

employees engagements and participations can leads the organization delivering high quality

services to the tax payers and overcome lack of commitment behaviours. In addition,

employees can provide a diversity of information and ideas, which can contribute to making

the organizations interventions effective and appropriate to the situation. This can also

contribute to identify pitfalls and barriers to implementation.

Thus, the involvement of employees increases the likelihood that employee‘s interest and

needs, will be accounted for during training (Werner & Desimone, 2007). Consequently,

employees will be committed to implementing the changes because doing so will suit their

interests. Moreover, for employees having strong needs for involvement, the act of

participation itself can be motivating, leading to greater efforts to achieve desirable

organizational outcomes.

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2. Management Development

Reviewing through the data analysis, management training support is very essential to

positive organizational outcomes, thus, the researcher deem it necessary for GRA to further

explore into it, as the benefits can be numerous. While many believed that the ability to

manage or to lead is primarily an inborn capability, the current prevailing view is that most of

the KSAOs (Knowledge, Skills, abilities, and other characteristics) required to be an effective

manager can be learned or enhanced. Therefore management development can and should be

practiced in GRA and the following definition captures the essence

‗‗ …an organization‘s conscious effort to provide its managers (and potential

managers) with opportunities to learn, grow and change, in hopes of producing over

the long term a cadre of managers with the skills necessary to function effectively in

the organization‘‘(Desimone 2007, P.443)

Thus, this study suggests the following to GRA

I. The management development should be seen as specific to GRA needs, since

each organization is unique and therefore, its goals should be to develop

individuals that have the intention to serve the organization.

II. The development should consist of providing employees with opportunities for

learning, growth and change. While there is no guarantee that particular

individuals will take advantage of it, it cannot occur unless opportunities are at

least provided.

III. The management training must be a conscious effort on the part of GRA as

leaving development to chance greatly reduces the likelihood that the

organization will achieved the kinds of behaviour changes it needs and desires

IV. Like all HRD activities management development should be directly linked to

the organization‘s strategy, that is, it must meet GRA mandates if it is to yield

good returned on investment

The researcher deems these steps necessary and can serve as a benchmark for GRA‘s

management to use in order to improve organizational commitment behaviours.

Hierarchical Linear Model of Organizational Commitment

In addition, the study did not only theoretically develop the hierarchical model of

organizational commitment by integrating the research on training and development, but also

98

empirically showed the mediating role of PsyCap and employee job satisfaction. Although

partial research findings of this study are in accordance with the previous studies on the

mediating role of employee job satisfaction (Bartlett 2011), the research findings of previous

and current studies, however, complement each other, the compatibility of the results is all

the more impressive.

Likewise, the results that PsyCap partially mediates the relationship can play an

indispensable role in helping employers to developed employees PsyCap in order to inspire

their propensities of organizational commitment behaviours. As employees with training

support, may be likely to have higher PsyCap to increase work related behaviours. Research

elucidates that PsyCap was not use as a mediator before, the results of this study is

impressive and add to the current understanding of this organizational behaviour research.

Practical Implications.

Furthermore, the result of this study reveals that job satisfaction and PsyCap partially

mediates the relationship between training and organizational commitment

In line with this, the results suggest that in order to create a work environment that

encourages employees to be committed to the organization, training development, PsyCap

and employee job satisfaction are all very important factors, particularly in public

organization. Therefore, GRA management should ensure training and development to

increase employee satisfaction and PsyCap, which can in turn lead to a reciprocal attachment

from employees. This is echoed by Stewart, Carson, and Cardy, (1996) whom stated that if

employees are not supported, it can negatively affect all strata of the organizations, since

human capital continues to be one of the most important resources that can results in public

organizations contributions to national development.

In addition, given the general expectancy of success derived from optimism and the belief

in personal abilities derived from efficacy, those high in PsyCap report being more committed

with their job (Luthans, Avolio, et al., 2007) and committed to their organizations (Luthans,

Norman, Avolio & Avey, 2008). PsyCap can be argued to be related to organization

commitment, because the organizations fulfill needs for efficacy and accomplishment for

those high in PsyCap. In turn, they are more likely to embed themselves and be enthusiastic

about their work (engagement).

Above all, since training and development, PsyCap and employees job satisfaction are

found to be important factors for organizational commitment. What leads to employees being

99

all committed to their organizations should be a subject of interest for GRA and other

employers.

Research Recommendations

Recommendations for GRA and HRD Practitioners

This study provided evidence on the importance of training and development (i.e. training

support from colleagues, management, training benefits and motivation of training) for

nurturing organizational commitment behavior and increasing employees‘ job satisfaction

and positive PsyCap in a public organization such as GRA. Although, the organization has a

centralized structure which supposedly would be expected to inhibit policies, training, and its

positive impact to the organization should not be altered but enhanced. As Blau (2001)

suggested that, an organization‘s hierarchical structure can be maintained while participations

and engagement of employees can be added so as to encourage commitment behavior among

organizational members

In relation to descriptive statistics results for training, the question‘ training results in

more opportunities to pursue different career path‘‘ gathered the lowest mean scores,

therefore, giving more training opportunities to employees and engage them in decision

making process will greatly help, since GRA‘s employees are not ready to take a different

career path, and subsequently that will promote organizational commitment behavior. It has

been reported by Blau (2001) that an organization characterized by training support from

management, ease positive organizational behavior to flourish. In addition, study conducted

by Bartlett (2011), indicated that the higher the degree of employee training couple with

satisfactory employment conditions, the greater propensity of organizational commitment

Thus, increasing employee‘s commitment, employee right to participation and support is

even more important if the organization‘s goal is to retain employees. Research has shown

that being able to involve employees is imperative to the organizational success (West&

Anderson, 1996). Thus, to attain this, it is recommended that, HRD practitioners and policy

makers at GRA should welcome employees‘ opinions, particularly to those issues that are of

concern to them, and nurture collegiality as a platform to invite individuals to help each other

to commitment and increase competencies. While all these suggestions could be effective

ways to encourage positive organizational outcomes, GRA management in collaboration with

HRD practitioners needs to understand employees‘ needs and organizational objectives in

order to tailor effective policies that may be susceptible to trigger organizational commitment

behavior.

100

When it comes to employee job satisfaction, the question JS7‗‗the work is arranged so

that I have a chance to do things for other people‘‘ gathered the lowest mean scores.

Accordingly, it is recommended that management organize periodic meetings across

organizations units in order to promote collaborations between departments and units. That

may be an important step couple with training to build employee job satisfaction. Moreover,

building the capacity of organization‘s members will help to build the relationships between

people, increase employee job satisfaction, and enhance employee loyalty to the organization

Furthermore, GRA management, Policy makers and HRD practitioners, through training

and development opportunities offer, can be influential in the overall job satisfaction of the

employees. They are also influential in shaping workplace attitudes and organizational

commitment, which are important to the entire organization. These connections to the larger

organizational picture are important for practitioners to remember. HRD practitioners

interested in improving these variables in the organizations should, in part, focus on training

and development of employees as one of the ways to do so.

With regards to PsyCap, it is recommended that HRD practitioners articulate and

formulate a training system that develops employee PsyCap level. According to the results, it

seems like the employee favor a personalization strategy as shown in the findings, personal

motivation to training have a higher influence on PsyCap. Therefore employee engagement is

crucial while personalization strategy may be adopted; it is recommended that some degree of

codification strategy should be embraced. The codification of training for employees is not

only necessary for employee satisfaction and PsyCap but will also be imperative for GRA. As

department members with the skills from the training can re-use it to coach or mentor other

organizational members. Thus, it is also recommended for management to offer their support

through the development and implementation of training programs necessary to enhance

individuals‘ skills and competency to boost PsyCap level.

Furthermore, studies such as the present research are important because it enables HRD

practitioners and policy makers in public organizations to improve organizational

commitment by investigating factors that can improve it. As the results of this study showed

that there is a strong relationship between training and organizational commitment in The

Gambia. Policy makers should work at improving the work environment that affects these

behaviors. Thus, if these conditions are affected negatively, their output will be affected;

above all attaining organizational commitment will consequently become a challenge.

101

Finally, GRA management should not only focus on the contextual factors discussed in

this study. It is highly recommended that they take into account other factors outside the

scope of this research that may influence organizational commitment behavior. Researchers

like De Long and Fahey (2000) identify work motivation, compensation satisfaction,

individual and organizational counterproductive behavior as important factors enhancing

commitment behavior. The result of the study elucidates training and development r2

to be

only 25% this shows GRA could also consider factors proposed by Delong and Fahey in

addition to the variables studied in this research. Similarly the variables selected for this

study are important and applicable to GRA environment. Therefore, GRA HRD practitioners

can use the conclusions drawn from this study when designing theirs policies to influence

higher desirable work behaviors among employees.

Recommendations for Researchers

This study suggests that organizational behavior and HRD researchers can capitalize on

existing empirical work, as well as adopt new research methods to demonstrate to

organizational decision makers that training and development contributes to desired

workplace attitudes, employee job satisfaction and PsyCap. This researcher has identified

some recommendations for researchers as follows;

Firstly, a large sample can be used to investigate the current model or research

framework. Another independent study can look at comparing public to private or non-profit

organizations to see if the relationship between the variables given in this study would be the

same or if the mediating variable has a greater impact in determining organizational

commitment in public organization as opposed to private organization vice versa.

Secondly, a different set of variables can be used as explained in the recommendations

part for HRD practitioners. This researcher chooses the variable based on the review of

literatures. However, this does not necessarily mean that they were the best set of variables

but they were never been studied in the organization‘s under study. Future researchers can

focus on using a different combination of organizational behavior variables. This can be done

to optimize the research model for a given situations

Thirdly, choosing other mediators between training and development and organizational

commitment relationships is doable. This research used employee job satisfaction and

PsyCap as mediators, however, multiple research questions are left unanswered such as in

what other contexts, levels of analysis (group, organizational, and community), and even

102

gender or work-life balance issues does this variables matter most. Another area of omission

is alternative methods (e.g., qualitative or mixed) and systematic theory linking primary

antecedents of all the variables use in the study. Example, while previous research has

effectively articulated what PsyCap is, how and why it manifests in the workplace (Luthans

& Youssef, 2007); it has not been consistently linked in a theoretical architecture to other

variables (such as PsyCap relationships with other variables) or underlying mechanisms and

processes. While the researcher is aware this theory-building is in progress, more contribution

is needed.

Finally, if any researcher chooses to pursue these recommendations, they must be aware

of the time and difficulty involved in the analysis of this sort of exploratory research.

Therefore, care must be taken into consideration in conducting such research.

Limitations and Future Research

Although, this study endeavoured to perfect the design of the research, it still had some

limitations and the results should be viewed within the research‘s limitations.

First, the researcher recognized that the self-reported nature of the data precludes us from

drawing casual influences about the relationship between the variables. To draw better

inferences on the relationship between training and development, employee job satisfaction,

PsyCap, and organizational commitment, a cross sectional study and multi-waves will be

recommended. Such approach will allow a better understanding on how training and

development affect positive organizational outcomes overtime in The Gambia. Despites this

limitation, this study provides an interesting glimpse of how training, PsyCap and job

satisfactions affect organizational commitment. The researcher hopes that the finding can

serve as a basis to fuel interest in this topic in Africa and encourage other scholars to adopt

other research design in examining these issues.

Secondly, the data study did not include interview and observations in each department

within GRA. Whether the findings and suggestions provided by this study can be applied to

other populations in other sectors requires further discussions. Given the exploratory nature

of this results that training and development correlates positively to organizational

commitment, this study suggest that further researchers undertake large-scale research using

quantitative and qualitative methods to address this issue that whether different occupational

categories (different social resources) correlate with organizational commitment propensity in

various degree.

103

Thirdly, the researcher have to acknowledge some challenges in adapting prior validated

scales, in particular, training and development and employee job satisfaction to our study. As

the original Hackman employee job satisfaction scale was design for job design. To adapt the

scales, the researcher modifies the items to measure employee job satisfaction. In addition,

assessing training and development company training was deleted, this argument are

supported by the Cronbach‘s alpha and correlated item to item–total correlation, which

suggest that all items correlate well with overall scales. The validity and confirmed validity

of the adapted scales scale lends confidence to the researcher‘s effort to delete the dimensions.

Moreover, the CFA of PsyCap and training and development are less than 90 but

researchers like Brown & Cudeck, (1993) approve that above 80 can be application and

accepted. During data analysis apart from training and development, all other variables are

corroborated as a single variable. Future researcher can further explore each dimensions

relationship with organizational commitment and compare the findings with this study.

Overall, with regards to PsyCap, the substantial numbers of empirical studies conducted

in a short period of time have been relatively narrow in scope. This leaves ample opportunity

for future research to expand with other positive psychological resources such as wisdom (see

Luthans, Youssef, & Avolio, 2007, that suggest other such resources for inclusion in PsyCap)

and examine the extremes of those with especially low or high PsyCap and whether, as has

been found with organizational commitment, there may be a curvilinear relationship between

PsyCap and positive organizational outcomes.

Furthermore, despites the fact that Common Method Variance (CMV) was taken care of

during the questionnaire design, the study may have undergone CMV. The questionnaire was

sent to some participants via email to fill on their own, CMV might have already taken place.

Thus, the data was collected via self-reports from the respondents and responses may have

been overestimated or underestimated which could have affected the results of the

relationship between the variables

Finally, as the research drew the sample from a public organization, in different

department and sector within GRA, one sector training might be more proactive than the

other in the organization. To better test this model of training and development and

organizational commitment, future research should adopt a random sampling approach that

taps a wider spectrum of employees in all sectors in The Gambia. This will allow for a robust

test of research framework or model.

104

Despites these limitations, the results of this research expand current understanding of the

factors that have relationship with organizational commitment in the Gambia Revenue

Authority.

Final Considerations

This research contributes on public organizations literature, even more in training and

development, organizational commitment, employee job satisfaction and PsyCap study in

The Gambia. Further studies are needed to extend the findings of this study by taking into

account a broader set of factors (e.g work motivation, individual and organizational

counterproductive behavior), how these factors affect employee‘s commitment behavior

remains an interesting issue in research. Future studies may also focus on other occupations

or professions and on the meaning of training satisfaction as it pertains to employees,

employers, and customers (Tax payers). Researchers can investigate and bring these issues in

the academic spot light of The Gambia and Africa at large.

105

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119

APENDIX A: QUESTIONAIRE

Cover Letter

Dear Respondent

Thank you for your taking part in this survey. This questionnaire is part of a research project

being conducted by Awa Sillah, a student of the Graduate Institute of International Human

Resource Development at the National Taiwan Normal University in Taipei, Taiwan. The

study focused on investigating what relationship training and development, psychological

capital and employee job satisfaction have on Organizational commitment. The study aim to

contribute to the human resource development practices of GRA as well improve

organisational commitment

The first section of this questionnaire contains questions on demographic data while

subsequent sections contain the main questions of this research. It will not take more than

thirty minutes of your time to fill out. You are not required to identify yourself in any way

throughout this process. You are assured of the highest level of confidentiality as a result of

this survey will strictly be used for academic research purposes.

You cooperation in filling out the attached questionnaire is highly appreciated.

For any inquiry about this study, please do not hesitate to contact the researchers

Name: Awa Sillah, Wei-Wen Chang Ph.D

University: National Taiwan Normal University

Department: Graduate Institute of International Human Resource Development

Email: awasillah@gmail.com

Thank you very much for your valuable time and thoughts in completing this questionnaire

120

QUESTIONAIRE

Section A Below are statements about your perception of training and development. Using the

following scales, indicate your level of agreement or disagreement

1= Strongly Disagree (SD) 2=Disagree (D) 3=Neutral (N) 4=Agree (A) 5= Strongly

Agree (SA)

SN Items SD D N A SA

1 I can count on my co-workers to provide me with help

and services needed to complete my job assignments.

1 2 3 4 5

2 My co-workers tend to resist my efforts to apply new

knowledge or skills on the job.

1 2 3 4 5

3 More experienced co-workers are usually reluctant to

give me guidance

1 2 3 4 5

4 I feel comfortable discussing my skill weaknesses with

my manager.

1 2 3 4 5

5 My manager is supportive of my efforts to acquire new

knowledge and skills

1 2 3 4 5

6 My employer values development of new skills or

acquisition of new knowledge.

1 2 3 4 5

7 When I make a mistake, my manager usually treats it

as a learning experience that can prevent failure and

improve performance in the future.

1 2 3 4 5

8 My manager shares information with me about

problems or trends in the company that can influence

my career plans.

1 2 3 4 5

9 My manager makes sure I get the training needed to

remain in the organization and be effective in my job.

1 2 3 4 5

10 I try to learn as much as I can from training programs. 1 2 3 4

11 I am usually motivated to learn the skills emphasized

in training programs.

1 2 3 4 5

12 I am willing to invest effort to improve skills and

competencies related to my current job.

1 2 3 4 5

13 I am willing to invest effort to improve skills and

competencies in order to have career progression

1 2 3 4 5

Participating in training programs will..

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14

15

16

17

18

help my personal developing 1 2 3 4 5

increase my chances of performing better 1 2 3 4 5

result in having to do extra work that would add value 1 2 3 4 5

Result in more opportunities to pursue different career

paths.

1 2 3 4 5

Help me stay up-to-date on new processes and

products or procedures related to my job.

1 2 3 4 5

Section B Please read each statement and respond to the following questions. Use the scale

below to reflect your view by circling the number that best represent your opinion. The scale

ranges from strongly disagree to strongly agree

1= Strongly Disagree (SD) 2=Disagree (D) 3=Neutral (N) 4=Agree (A) 5= Strongly

Agree (SA)

Items SD D N A SA

1 I would be very happy to spend the rest of my career

in this organization.

1 2 3 4 5

2 I enjoy discussing about my organization with

people outside it

1 2 3 4 5

3 I really feel as if this organization‘s problems are my

own

1 2 3 4 5

4 I think that that I could easily become as attached to

another organization as I am to this one

1 2 3 4 5

5 I do not feel like ―part of the family‖ at my

organization.

1 2 3 4 5

6 I do not feel ―emotionally attached‖ to this

organization.

1 2 3 4 5

7 This organization has a great deal meaning for me. 1 2 3 4 5

8 I do not feel a strong sense of belonging to my

organization.

1 2 3 4 5

9 I am not afraid of what might happen if I quit my job

without having another one lined up.

1 2 3 4 5

10 It would be very hard for me to leave my

organization right now, even if I wanted to.

1 2 3 4 5

11 Too much in my life would be disrupted if I decided 1 2 3 4 5

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to leave my organization now

12 It wouldn‘t be too costly for me to leave my

organization now.

1 2 3 4 5

13 Right now, staying with my organization is a matter

of necessity as much as desire.

1 2 3 4 5

14 I feel that I have very few options to consider

leaving this organization.

1 2 3 4 5

15 One of the few serious consequences of leaving this

organization would be the scarcity of available

alternatives

1 2 3 4 5

16 One of the major reasons I continue to work for this

organization is that leaving would require

considerable personal sacrifice—another

organization may not match the overall benefits I

have here.

1 2 3 4 5

17 I think that people these days move from company

to company too often

1 2 3 4 5

18 I do not believe that a person must always be loyal

to his or her organization

1 2 3 4 5

19 Jumping from organization to organization does not

seem at all unethical to me.

1 2 3 4 5

20 One of the major reasons I continue to work in this

organization is that I believe loyalty is important and

therefore feel a sense of moral obligation to remain.

1 2 4 5

21 If I got another offer for a better job elsewhere I

would not feel it was right to leave my organization

1 2 3 4 5

22 I was taught to believe in the value of remaining

loyal to one organization.

1 2 3 4 5

23 Things were better in the days when people stayed in

one organization for most of their careers

1 2 3 4 5

24 I do not think that to be a company man/ woman is

sensible

1 2 3 4 5

Section D

Please read each statement and respond to the following questions. Use the scale

below to reflect your view of satisfaction by circling the number that best represent your

123

opinion. The scale ranges from very dissatisfied to very satisfy

1=very dissatisfied (VD) 2= dissatisfied (D) 3- Neural (N) 4= Satisfied (S) 5= Very

Satisfied

Items VD D N S VS

1 I am satisfy with my job as it provide me with

opportunity that improve my skills

1 2 3 4 5

2 It provide me with a variety of work 1 2 3 4 5

3 Give me an opportunity to do different tasks 1 2 3 4 5

4 I feel satisfied with my job as it allows me with the

opportunity to complete the work I start

1 2 3 4 5

5 My job is arranged so that I have a chance to do the

job from one stage to the other

1 2 3 4 5

6 The task is arranged so that I may see work

assignment through to their final completion

1 2 3 4 5

7 The work is arranged so that I have a chance to do

things for other people.

1 2 3 4 5

8 The task is relatively significant in the organization 1 2 3 4 5

9 The task is very significant in the broader scheme of

things

1 2 3 4 5

10 I am Satisfied with the autonomy to do my own

work

1 2 3 4 5

11 Provides the opportunity for independent thought

and action

1 2 3 4 5

12 My job gives me considerable opportunity for

independence and freedom in how I do my work

1 2 3 4 5

13 I am Satisfy with feedback provided on how well I

am performing as I am working

1 2 3 4 5

14 Provides me with the opportunity to find out how

well I am doing (job evaluation)

1 2 3 4 5

15 Provides me with feeling that I know whether I am

performing well or poorly (performance appraisal

1 2 3 4 5

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Section E

Finally, we are interested in demographic information about you. Once again, your

responses will be kept confidential.

1. Gender

□ 1.Female □ 2. Male

2. Age

□ 1. Less than 20 years □ 2. 20-- 30 years

□ 3. 31—40 years □ 4. 41-50

□ 5 Above 50 years

3. What is your educational level (highest level completed)?.

□ 1 Certificate □ 2. Diploma □ 3. Bachelor degree □ 4. Master Degree

□ 5. Doctórate Degree

4.How many years work experience do you have ?

□ 1. Less than 1 year □ 2. 1year to 5years

□ 3. 6 to 10years □ 4. 11 to 15years

□ 5. More than 15years

5. How many times in the past year have you participated on-the-job training? ______times

6. How many times in the past year have you participated in formal training/education

programs run by Gambia Revenue Authority ? __________times

Thank you for your co-operation. We greatly appreciate the time you have to complete

this survey

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APPENDIX B: QUESTIONNAIRES ITEMS CODING

Training and organizational Commitment

SN Question Training Support from Colleagues

1 I can count on my co-workers to provide me with help and

services needed to complete my job assignments. TD-TSC1

2 My co-workers tend to resist my efforts to apply new knowledge

or skills on the job. TD-TSC2

3 More experienced co-workers are usually reluctant to give me

guidance TD-TSC3

4 I feel comfortable discussing my skill weaknesses with my

manager. TD-TSS4

5 My manager is supportive of my efforts to acquire new knowledge

and skills TD-TSS5

6 My employer values development of new skills or acquisition of

new knowledge. TD-TSS6

7 When I make a mistake, my manager usually treats it as a learning

experience that can prevent failure and improve performance in

the future.

TD-TSS7

8 My manager shares information with me about problems or trends

in the company that can influence my career plans.

TD-TSS8

9 My manager makes sure I get the training needed to remain in the

organization and be effective in my job. TD-TSS9

10 I try to learn as much as I can from training programs. TD-PMT10

11 I am usually motivated to learn the skills emphasized in training

programs. TD-PMT11

12 I am willing to invest effort to improve skills and competencies

related to my current job. TD-PMT12

13 I am willing to invest effort to improve skills and competencies in

order to have career progression TD-PMT13

Training Benefits: Participating in training and development

programs will...

14 help my personal developing TD-BT14

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15 increase my chances of performing better TD-BT15

16 result in having to do extra work that would add value TD-BT16

17 Result in more opportunities to pursue different career paths. TD-BT17

18 Help me stay up-to-date on new processes and products or

procedures related to my job. TD-BT18

Organizational commitment OC

Affectiv

e

I would be very happy to spend the rest of my career in this

organization. OC-A1

I enjoy discussing about my organization with people outside it OC-A2

I really feel as if this organization‘s problems are my own OC-A3

I do not feel like ―part of the family‖ at my organization. OC-A4

I do not feel ―emotionally attached‖ to this organization. OC-A5

This organization has a great deal meaning for me. OC-A6

I do not feel a strong sense of belonging to my organization. OC-A7

I think that I could easily become as attached to another

organization as I am to this one OC-A8

Continu

ance

I am not afraid of what might happen if I quit my job without

having another one lined up. OC-C9

It would be very hard for me to leave my organization right now,

even if I wanted to. OC-C10

Too much in my life would be disrupted if I decided to leave my

organization now OC-C11

It wouldn‘t be too costly for me to leave my organization now. OC-C12

Right now, staying with my organization is a matter of necessity

as much as desire. OC-C13

I feel that I have very few options to consider leaving this

organization. OC-C14

One of the few serious consequences of leaving this organization

would be the scarcity of available alternatives OC-C15

One of the major reasons I continue to work for this organization

is that leaving would require considerable personal sacrifice—

another organization may not match the overall benefits I have

OC-C16

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here.

NORM

ATIVE

I think that people these days move from company to company

too often OC-N17

I do not believe that a person must always be loyal to his or her

organization OC-N18

Jumping from organization to organization does not seem at all

unethical to me. OC-N19

One of the major reasons I continue to work in this organization

is that I believe loyalty is important and therefore feel a sense of

moral obligation to remain.

OC-N20

If I got another offer for a better job elsewhere I would not feel it

was right to leave my organization OC-N21

I was taught to believe in the value of remaining loyal to one

organization. OC-N22

Things were better in the days when people stayed in one

organization for most of their careers OC-N23

Employee job satisfaction

Constructs Code

1 I am satisfy with my job as it provide me with opportunity

that improve my skills

JS-SV1

2 It provide me with a variety of work JS-SV2

3 Give me an opportunity to do different tasks JS-SV3

4 I feel satisfied with my job as it allows me with the

opportunity to complete the work I start JS-TI 4

5 My job is arranged so that I have a chance to do the job

from one stage to the other JS-TI5

6 The task is arranged so that I may see work assignment

through to their final completion JS-TI6

7 The work is arranged so that I have a chance to do things for

other people. JS-TS7

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8 The task is relatively significant in the organization JS-TS8

9 The task is very significant in the broader scheme of things JS-TS9

10 I am Satisfied with the autonomy to do my own work JS-A10

11 Provides the opportunity for independent thought and action JS-A11

12 My job gives me considerable opportunity for independence

and freedom in how I do my work JS-A12

13 I am Satisfy with feedback provided on how well I am

performing as I am working JS-FR13

14 Provides me with the opportunity to find out how well I am

doing (job evaluation) JS-FR14

15 Provides me with feeling that I know whether I am

performing well or poorly (performance appraisal JS-FR15

Demographic Questions Items Coding

1 Gender : D1

2 Age: D2

3 Education level: D3

4 Work experience: D4

5 Informal Training: D5

6 Formal Training: D6