Post on 24-Sep-2020
A STUDY OF THE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN WORK
VALUES, JOB INVOLVEMENT AND ORGANISATIONAL
COMMITMENT AMONG TAIWANESE NURSES
BY
Chin-Chih HO
Bachelor of Business (FCU), Master of Health Administration (USC)
A thesis submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Health
Science in the Centre for Health Research,
Queensland University of Technology,
Australia
November 2006
STATEMENT OF ORIGINAL AUTHORSHIP
The work contained in this thesis has not been previously submitted to meet
requirements for an award at this or any other higher education institution. To the
best of my knowledge and belief, the thesis contains no material previously
published or written by another person except where due reference is made.
Signature:
Date:
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KEY WORDS
Work values
Job involvement
Organisational commitment
Taiwanese nurses
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ABSTRACT
Aim: The aim of this study is to investigate the relationship between work values,
job involvement and organisational commitment among Taiwanese nurses in Taiwan.
The objectives of this study are to: (1) describe the work values of Taiwanese nurses;
(2) describe the job involvement of Taiwanese nurses; (3) describe the organisational
commitment of Taiwanese nurses; (4) identify variables that affect work values, job
involvement, and organisational commitment among Taiwanese nurses; and (5)
identify the mediating effects of job involvement on work values and organisational
commitment among Taiwanese nurses.
Design: The study utilises a cross-sectional survey design. The sample consisted of
RNs (N=1,047) recruited from a convenience sample in nine regional and teaching
hospitals in Taiwan.
Methods: Data was collected using a survey instrument consisting of 86 questions,
including sociodemographic data, work values, job involvement, and organisational
commitment. The data was analysed using descriptive bivariate analysis, Pearson
Product Moment Correlation (PPMC), General Linear Model (GLM) analysis with
random effect, and structural equation modelling (SEM).
Findings: Four sociodemographic variables, age, SES (i.e., education status, personal
income, and position) were shown to be partially statistically significant to work
values, job involvement and organisational commitment. Subsequent GLM analysis
were shown work values were positively related to job involvement and
organisational commitment, and job involvement is positively related to
organisational commitment. Results of the proposed model using SEM revealed that
job involvement could play an important role with mediation, and that establishing a
higher level of job involvement may be more important than focusing only on
organisational commitment.
Conclusions: This study has implications for organisations attempting to enhance
organisational commitment through increased job involvement. It is anticipated that
by improving these various factors the outcome will be reduced turnover and
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absenteeism and more effective organisations. A more effective organisational
environment will be more conducive to good nursing practice.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPER ONE: INTRODUCTION ......................................................... 1 1.1 Research background ........................................................................ 11.2 Research objectives ........................................................................... 31.3 Justification for the research ............................................................. 41.3.1 Areas for further investigation .......................................................... 41.3.2 Implications of successful research ................................................... 51.4 Research questions ............................................................................ 81.5 Benefits of the study .......................................................................... 91.5.1 Theoretical development ................................................................... 91.5.2 Implication towards policy ................................................................ 91.6 Theoretical framework ...................................................................... 101.6.1 Theoretical explanations ................................................................... 121.6.2 Summary of variables investigated ................................................... 131.7 Conclusion ......................................................................................... 15 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ......................................... 16 2.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 162.2 Work values ....................................................................................... 162.2.1 Work values: Definition and measurement ....................................... 172.2.2 Sociodemographic variables as related to work values ..................... 252.2.3 Summary ........................................................................................... 282.3 Job involvement ................................................................................ 282.3.1 Job involvement: Definition and measurement ................................. 282.3.2 Relevant theoretical models for understanding job involvement ...... 322.3.3 Sociodemographic variables as related to job involvement .............. 382.3.4 Summary ........................................................................................... 412.4 Organisational commitment .............................................................. 422.4.1 Organisational commitment: Definition and measurement .............. 432.4.2 Antecedents and consequences of organisational commitment ........ 492.4.3 Sociodemographic variables as related to organisational
commitment ...................................................................................... 55
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2.4.4 Summary ........................................................................................... 582.5 The interrelationships between work values, job involvement and
organisational commitment ............................................................... 592.5.1 Research on work values and job involvement ................................. 602.5.2 Research on work values and organisational commitment ............... 622.5.3 Research on job involvement and organisational commitment ........ 652.5.4 Randall and Cote’s original and revised models ............................... 672.6 Conclusion ......................................................................................... 70 CHAPTER THREE: STUDY METHODS .............................................. 73 3.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 733.2 Research structure ............................................................................. 733.3 Recruitment strategy ......................................................................... 743.3.1 Study design and sampling ................................................................ 743.3.2 Sample size ........................................................................................ 753.4 Data collection ................................................................................... 763.5 Ethical considerations ....................................................................... 773.6 Research hypotheses ......................................................................... 783.7 Survey instrument ............................................................................. 793.7.1 Survey questionnaire ........................................................................ 793.7.2 Assessments of validity .................................................................... 833.7.3 Assessments of reliability .................................................................. 863.7.4 Testing the research instrument results ............................................. 873.8 Data analysis ..................................................................................... 973.8.1 Descriptive analysis ........................................................................... 973.8.2 Inferential analysis ............................................................................ 973.9 Limitations to the research design ..................................................... 1023.9.1 Internal validity ................................................................................. 1023.9.2 External validity ................................................................................ 1033.10 Data cleaning ................................................................................... 1033.11 Data considerations to improve analysis ........................................... 1053.12 Sociodemographic profile ................................................................. 1063.13 Definition of terms ............................................................................ 1193.14 Conclusion ......................................................................................... 119
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CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS ................................................................. 121 4.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 1214.2 Descriptive statistics for study variables ........................................... 1214.3 Testing of hypotheses ........................................................................ 1254.3.1 Results for research Hypothesis 1 ..................................................... 1314.3.2 Results for research Hypothesis 2 ..................................................... 1344.3.3 Results for research Hypothesis 3 ..................................................... 1384.3.4 Results for research Hypothesis 4 ..................................................... 1414.3.5 Results for research Hypothesis 5 ..................................................... 1444.3.6 Summary ........................................................................................... 1504.4 Conclusion ......................................................................................... 152 CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS ..................... 153 5.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 1535.2 Summary of the study ....................................................................... 1535.3 Discussion of the findings ................................................................. 1545.3.1 Relationships of socio-demographic groups with work values, job
involvement and organisational commitment ................................... 1545.3.2 The relationship between work values, job involvement and
organisational commitment ............................................................... 1625.4 Implications for both theory and practice ......................................... 1665.4.1 Implications for theory ...................................................................... 1665.4.2 Implications for practice .................................................................... 1705.5 Strengths of the study ........................................................................ 1815.6 Limitations of the study ..................................................................... 1825.7 Recommendations for further research ............................................. 1835.8 Conclusions ....................................................................................... 187 APPENDICES ............................................................................................ 188 Appendix A: Sociodemographic Profile ...................................................... 188Appendix B: Work Values Inventory (WVI) ............................................... 190Appendix C: Job Involvement Questionnaire (JIQ) ..................................... 195Appendix D: Organisational Commitment Questionnaire (OCQ) ............... 197
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Appendix E: Sampling Strategy and Sample Size Calculation .......................... 199Appendix F: Cover Letter ............................................................................ 201Appendix G: Ethical Approval Document ................................................... 204Appendix H: Item-Total Statistics for Job Involvement Questionnaire ....... 210Appendix I: Correlations of Variables ......................................................... 212 REFERENCES ........................................................................................... 214
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 2-1 Relevant scales and dimensions of work values ………...... 18Table 2-2 Summary of the Wu et al. (1996) Work Values Inventory
(WVI) ................................................................................... 23Table 2-3 Relevant scales and dimensions of organisational
commitment ……………………………………………….. 43Table 3-1 Description of instruments used in previous studies ............ 79Table 3-2 Factor loadings, measurement errors, t values for CFA of
Work Values Inventory ........................................................ 88Table 3-3 Goodness of Fit (GOF) statistics for Work Values
Inventory .............................................................................. 90Table 3-4 Measures of reliability for the Work Values Inventory ....... 90Table 3-5 Factor analysis and reliability of Job Involvement
Questionnaire ....................................................................... 92Table 3-6 Factor loadings, measurement errors, t values for CFA of
Organisational Commitment Questionnaire ......................... 95Table 3-7 Goodness of Fit (GOF) statistics for the Organisational
Commitment Questionnaire ................................................. 96Table 3-8 Measures of reliability for the Organisational Commitment
Questionnaire ....................................................................... 96Table 3-9 Identification of outliers ....................................................... 105Table 3-10 New groupings of classes within certain categories ............. 105Table 3-11 Questionnaire response rates ................................................ 107Table 3-12 Comparison between this study and previous studies
showing key demographic features ……………………….. 116Table 4-1 Mean and standard deviation for scales and subscales and
ranking for major variables .................................................. 122Table 4-2 Correlations between sociodemographics and the 17
variables ............................................................................... 132Table 4-3 Correlations between work values and job involvement
variables ............................................................................... 135Table 4-4 Estimated influence of work values on job involvement
after adjusted for demographics, design effect and organisational commitment .................................................. 137
Table 4-5 Correlations between work values and organisational commitment variables .......................................................... 138
Table 4-6 Estimated influence of work values on organisational commitment after adjusted for demographics, design effect and job involvement ............................................................. 140
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Table 4-7 Correlations between job involvement and organisational commitment variables .......................................................... 141
Table 4-8 Estimated influence of job involvement on organisational commitment after adjusted for demographics, design effect and work values .................................................................... 143
Table 4-9 Model fit statistics ................................................................ 145Table 4-10 Model comparisons .............................................................. 145Table 4-11 Relationship regression weight between work values, job
involvement and organisational commitment ...................... 146Table 4-12 Summary of standardised direct, indirect and total effects
for the hypothesised model .................................................. 149
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1-1 The research model .............................................................. 12Figure 2-1 The Expectancy Theory Model of Vroom (1964) ................ 33Figure 2-2 The Job Involvement Theory Model of Rabinowitz and
Hall (1977) ........................................................................... 34Figure 2-3 Schematic representation of the motivational approach to
involvement and alienation .................................................. 36Figure 2-4 Classification of antecedents, correlates, and consequences
of job involvement ............................................................... 37Figure 2-5 Steers’ “causality” model theorem of organisational
commitment .......................................................................... 50Figure 2-6 The “role sense” model theorem of Stevens, Beyre and
Trice ..................................................................................... 50Figure 2-7 Morris and Sherman’s “multiple forecast” model theorem
for organisational commitment ............................................ 51Figure 2-8 Mowday, Porter and Steers’ “causality” of organisational
commitment .......................................................................... 52Figure 2-9 Mathieu and Zajac’s “causality” model theorem of
organisational commitment .................................................. 53Figure 2-10 The causal variables of organisational commitment
proposed by Huang, Kou-Rong (1986) ................................ 54Figure 2-11 A model of relationships among work commitment
constructs .............................................................................. 68Figure 2-12 Randall and Cote’s revised model ........................................ 69Figure 3-1 Age breakdown of respondents ............................................ 108Figure 3-2 Age distribution of the respondents ..................................... 109Figure 3-3 Marital status of respondents ................................................ 109Figure 3-4 Employment status of respondents ....................................... 110Figure 3-5 Education status of respondents ........................................... 111Figure 3-6 Personal income of respondents ........................................... 111Figure 3-7 Occupational position of respondents .................................. 112Figure 3-8 Occupational position tenure ................................................ 113Figure 3-9 Hospital tenure ..................................................................... 113Figure 3-10 Nursing tenure ...................................................................... 114Figure 4-1 A proposed model with latent constructs for exogenous
and endogenous variables ..................................................... 130
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Figure 4-2 Estimated standardized direct, indirect and total effects for the revised model ……………………………………… 148
Figure 5-1 The revised model ................................................................ 167
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KEY TO ABBREVIATIONS
NHI National Health Insurance
PWE Protestant Work Ethic
SES Socioeconomic Status
WVI Work Values Inventory
JIQ Job Involvement Questionnaire
OCQ Organisational Commitment Questionnaire
SET Social Exchange Theory
EFA Exploratory Factor Analysis
CFA Confirmatory Factor Analysis
SEM Structural Equation Modelling
NFI Normed Fit Index
CFI Comparative Fit Index
GFI Goodness of Fit Index
RMSEA Root-Mean Square Error of Approximation
ICC Intracluster Correlation Coefficient
DEFF Design Effect
PPMC Pearson Product-Moment Correlation
GLM General Linear Model
CLT Central Limit Theorem
SCT Social Cognitive Theory
RJPs Realistic Job Previews
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Professor Brian Oldenburg and Dr.
Gary Day for helping and supporting me through the completion of this dissertation.
I would also like to thank Dr. Diana Battistutta for her kind assistance and
specialised knowledge in statistics.
I would also like to thank Dr. Jing Sun, who assisted me in the use of the LISREL
software program for data analysis in the study. A special thanks to Martin Reese
who was committed to improving my scientific writing skills.
I would like to express my appreciation of my best friend, Dr. Vinesh Oommen,
classmate and room mate during my 3 years of doctoral study, for his strong support
and encouragement in everything I did.
I wish to thank Professor Dang-Ming Horng and Dr. Cheng-I Chu, who allowed me
the necessary time required to study at Queensland University of Technology (QUT).
I plan to apply this knowledge which I have gained from QUT to improve the overall
performance of my organisation.
I would like to acknowledge my heartfelt love to my beloved family, especially to
my wife (Jui Hsin), my daughter (Lee An), my son (Alan), and parents-in-law. Their
love, patience, encouragement, and understanding helped me throughout my course
of study.
Finally, I would like to thank all the lecturers at the School of Public Health who
have taught me and who have guided me during this 3 years of my doctoral studies.
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
The current research examines the relationships between work values, job
involvement and organisational commitment as evidenced by a population of nurses
in Taiwan. This chapter describes the background and the importance of the present
study. It identifies the importance of understanding more about the relationships
between these variables. The chapter then presents the justification for this research,
the research questions, the benefits of the study, and the research framework.
1.1 Research background
After the implementation of the National Health Insurance (NHI) system in
Taiwan in 1995, successive governments have developed policies which aim to
enhance the effectiveness and efficiency of Taiwan’s healthcare system (Tzeng,
2002). There has been an increase in the health consciousness of the population,
associated with a greater focus on measuring people’s satisfaction with the health
system. Along with the reform of hospital organisations, a higher proportion of
hospital employees have pursued further education. It is also likely employees’
perceptions of work and work organisations have changed.
Chinese professional journals have recently documented important changes
in work ethics among the Taiwanese workforce. Employees’ belief in the traditional
work ethic, which dictates that hard work is a virtue in its own right and that hard
work and diligence are important attributes, has significantly declined in recent times
(Wang, 2000). Society’s views about employment and organisations have also
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undergone dramatic changes, due to many different environmental, political, social
and organisational influences (Hung & Liu, 2003; Rosina, Linda, & Page, 1997).
These transformations have led Taiwanese workers to expect fulfilment of their
human needs from their employment, in addition to receiving a regular income and
job security. Moreover, this new form of work ethic has made employers realise that
employees’ loyalty to the organisation can no longer be taken for granted (Wang,
2000). In the future, unless organisations are able to meet a range of employee needs,
employees cannot be expected to be highly involved in their jobs or organisations
(Morrow, 1993).
The macro-economic environment has also changed over time to address
issues such as cost containment, the over-supply of nurses and an inflexible career
system. As a result, average turnover rate of new staff nurses in Taiwan’s hospitals
has varied between 22% to 40% in recent years (Chuang, 2002). Advances in
technology and the shortening length of patient hospitalisation have contributed to
decreased job satisfaction (Pierce, Hazel, & Mion, 1996; Tzeng, 2002).
It is important for managers of healthcare organisations to assess the impact
of these various influences on the way their employees view their jobs, and address
these challenges to the thinking, recruitment, motivation, and retention of their best
and brightest staff. In order to compete successfully in the healthcare environment,
and attract and retain the most qualified and experienced nurses, it is important for
organisations to implement strategies which increase job involvement and
organisational commitment (Brown, 2002). Reilly and Orsak (1991) argue that
future research can improve our understanding of the mechanisms that produce
turnover, absenteeism, and burnout in such a demanding profession.
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Research which attempts to understand these important workforce issues can
produce improved outcomes for organisations. For instance, if employee
commitment to their organisation is a desirable outcome, it is necessary to find out
how commitment can be cultivated. Employees develop commitment and positive
interaction styles when they perceive value in their interactions and experiences
within the organisation (Smallwood, 1998). The lack of positive employee values
and attitudes can make or break any system designed to create goodwill and loyalty
among staff. Dissatisfied employees can easily develop negative attitudes and
perceptions that can negatively influence other staff (Smallwood, 1998). In addition,
employees can intentionally or unintentionally convey their own attitudes to external
organisational contacts. Therefore, listening to and understanding the views of
employees, and using this information to satisfy their needs, is an essential step in
building commitment in a workforce. To this end, work values, job involvement and
organisational commitment are the issues investigated in this study, with a particular
focus on organisational effectiveness.
1.2 Research objectives
The aim of this study is to investigate the relationship between work values,
job involvement and organisational commitment among Taiwanese nurses in Taiwan.
The objectives of this study are to, (1) describe the work values of Taiwanese nurses;
(2) describe the job involvement of Taiwanese nurses; (3) describe the organisational
commitment of Taiwanese nurses; (4) identify variables that affect the work values,
job involvement, and organisational commitment among Taiwanese nurses; and (5)
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identify the mediating effects of job involvement on work values and organisational
commitment among Taiwanese nurses.
1.3 Justification for the research
A better understanding of the complex interrelationships between theory and
practice in the healthcare workforce in Taiwan will result in practical benefits for
healthcare organisations, with a particular emphasis on creating a positive
environment at work. Documenting the relationships between work values, job
involvement, and organisational commitment can thus play a role in enhancing the
performance and quality of the overall Taiwanese health care system, by providing
clear parameters within which areas of need can be targeted, and identifying
opportunities for building a positive work environment.
1.3.1 Areas for further investigation
Although research into these topics has been carried out in non-health work
organisations, those findings cannot necessarily be generalised to the healthcare
system. This is because the hospital work environment is one of most complex work
environments in any sector, requiring staff to constantly upgrade their professional
skills. Thus further research across a wider range of professions and work
organisations is needed to more completely describe the various relationships
between the key variables outlined above. Moreover, within the literature one of
these variables in particular, the role of job involvement, has not been adequately
addressed. More specifically, job involvement as a mediator on the influence of
work values on various facets of organisational commitment (including values, effort
and retention commitment) remains unclear, and needs to be explored in this context.
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To take a closer look at the three facets of organisational commitment,
“values commitment” refers to the concept of a strong belief in, and acceptance, of
the organisation’s goals and values, “effort commitment” indicates the employee’s
willingness to exert considerable effort on behalf of the organisation, and “retention
commitment” refers to an employee’s strong desire to maintain membership in the
organisation (Mowday, Porter, & Steers, 1982). In addition, the degree of
organisational commitment has yet to be shown to be related to the actual amount of
nursing work or labour intensity required in any nursing care environment (Corser,
1998; Tumulty, Jernigan, & Kobut, 1995).
1.3.2 Implications of successful research
The second justification for this research is that the potential benefits of this
study may be valuable in both a theoretical and practical sense. From a theoretical
perspective, the findings of this study may improve understanding of the potential
mediating role of job involvement in work values in particular, and various facets of
organisational commitment in a non-western work context.
From a practical perspective, the significance of work values within
organisations is high, because they influence a variety of organisational behaviours
and outcomes, such as organisational commitment (Aranya, Barak, & Amernic, 1981;
Knoop, 1994a; Saadia & Naeem, 2001), satisfaction and subsequent job behaviours
(Blood, 1969), and job performance (Sidani & Gardner, 2000; Siu, 2003). Better
work values can thus decrease costs to the organisation related to absenteeism and
turnover (George & Jones, 1996; Sims & Kroeck, 1994; Talyor & Covaleski, 1985).
Furthermore, identification of individuals’ work-value profiles, as described by
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Abboushi (1990), has been shown to be useful for managerial purposes. Brown
(1976) argues that individuals’ work values can be used to evaluate individual
motivation in certain jobs. Mankoff suggests that the organisation’s ability to
influence individuals’ work values can change workers’ feelings of achievement at
work (Mankoff, 1974). It should be noted that where a work environment is
perceived as being positive, employees are more likely to take personal
responsibility for their health and report a more positive social environment.
In terms of the practical value of the current investigation, previous research
has shown that decreasing job involvement and organisational commitment leads to
high staff turnover and increased absenteeism, both of which may result in lower
standards of patient care and productivity, as well as budgetary problems (Blau &
Boal, 1987; Brown, 1996; Koberg & Chusmir, 1989; Martin & Hafer, 1995; Mathieu
& Zajac, 1990; Mowday, Steers, & Porter, 1979; Steers, 1977). With cost
containment currently an important focus of hospital administration, it is clear that
initiatives which prevent staff problems will also reduce costs. It is expensive to
recruit and orient new nursing staff, and so the desired approach is to retain existing
staff through meeting their expressed needs. In one study, Jones (1990) noted that an
increase of one half standard deviation of job involvement could reduce absenteeism,
turnover, and shortage, thus saving one bank an estimated total of $11.31 per
month/per teller in expense, a saving of $125,160 per year. Scott, Cox, and Dinham
(1999) also found that job commitment has been linked to employee mental
wellbeing, both as a determinant and as an outcome.
Employee commitment to an organisation is vital because loyal employees
who identify closely with the organisation are viewed as an organisation’s most
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important resource. Donald and Siu (2001) demonstrated that organisational
commitment is a significant predictor of mental health outcomes such as
contentment, resilience and peace of mind for white-collar workers. Turnover is
lower among committed employees, thus reducing costs and increasing productivity
(Mowday et al., 1982). Research into these issues may be able to draw practitioners’
attention to the influence of work values on job involvement and various facets of
organisational commitment, and consequently the necessity to deal with these effects
in order to improve their organisation.
Current findings on the relationship between the study variables and socio-
demographic characteristics (e.g., age, education status, personal income, and
occupational position) are inconsistent (Abboushi, 1990; Hu, 1999; Lodahl & kejner,
1965; Mathieu & Zajac, 1990; Saal, 1978). However, the results of some of those
studies indicate that differences in work values exist across cultures, socio-
demographics, and gender (Aldag & Brief, 1975; Hofstede, 1980). A more detailed
examination of these factors can thus provide empirical evidence for the importance
of socio-demographic characteristics as determinants of the study variables.
There is a growing awareness of the relationship between working conditions
and individual health, such that health and safety in the workplace is now a key area
of concern within organisations. The World Health Organisation (WHO) defines
health as, “a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely
the absence of disease or infirmity” (World Health Organisation, 1986). Thus health
is not merely the absence of ill-health, but rather when all three elements, physical,
mental and social well-being, are in harmony.
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Research has shown that the high levels of stress which are experienced in
many work environments can have a negative effect on individuals, such as low
morale and reduced job performance (Jackson & Schuler, 1985; Jex, 1998). If an
organisation can provide individuals with the basic elements they value, stress is
reduced (Knoop, 1994b). Work values are those values that individuals seek to attain
and gain through their job. Stress arises when individuals are confronted with a
demand which exceeds the person’s capabilities for meeting that demand (Locke,
1976; McGrath, 1976).
Low morale can lead to decreased efficiency and effectiveness at work,
which in turn is associated with increased absenteeism. In Australia, about 4% of the
workforce has taken leave from work for at least one day, costing Australian
industry about $7 billion a year (Health Services Australia, 2002). Frequent
absenteeism leads to elevated levels of industrial conflict and issues with worker’s
compensation (Health Services Australia, 2002). Taiwanese studies have reported
comparable statistics (Yang & Huang, 2005).
In order to understand why low morale affects nursing staff in Taiwan, it is
necessary to discover the relationship between work values, job involvement, and
organisational commitment in this context. This research will allow a better
understanding of the effect of low morale on Taiwanese nurses.
1.4 Research questions
This research seeks to answer two key research questions:
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1. Are there differences in work values, job involvement and organisational
commitment across socio-demographic characteristics for Taiwanese nurses?
2. What are the relationships between work values, job involvement and
organisational commitment for Taiwanese nurses?
1.5 Benefits of the study
1.5.1 Theoretical development
This initial study will provide a theoretical and empirical basis for further
study of nursing issues in Taiwan. A review of the nursing literature in Taiwan
reveals that little attention has been given to a simultaneous investigation of work
values, job involvement, and organisational commitment in Taiwanese nurses.
Moreover, previous research has not attempted to investigate the relationships
between work values, job involvement, and organisational commitment among
Taiwanese nurses. Thus, some practical and potential strategies for improving
workplaces in the healthcare environment may have been overlooked. The current
theoretical model may be used as a basis for similar studies in other health-related
organisations.
1.5.2 Implications for policy
As previously discussed, increased competition and workforce mobility in
healthcare environments has led organisations to heavily invest in recruiting, training,
and retaining new staff nurses, which in turn has passed an increased financial
burden to staff members (Yang, Peng, Chen, Yang, & Chao, 2004), and led to
problems with the quality of patient care (Cooper, 2003). According to Jones (1990),
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the costs of nursing turnover can be over US$10,000 per Registered Nurse (RN), the
equivalent of 11% of annual nursing salaries in a hospital. In Taiwan, the mean
hiring cost per RN was documented as US$1,090 in a private hospital in 1988 (Yang,
1992). Of course, along with the financial costs of staff turnover there is also the
inevitable loss of experience, knowledge and commitment that contribute to the
overall workplace environment (Izzo & Withers, 2002).
An increased understanding of the complex interrelationship between work
values, job involvement and organisational commitment, and the factors that
contribute to the development of these relationships, can help to facilitate
appropriate measures to counteract the issue of high turnover and low morale within
an organisation. It is thus possible that organisational costs due to lower staff
turnover and decreased absenteeism can be reduced, by increasing job involvement
and organisational commitment. In a similar manner, such measures may be able to
improve an organisation productivity. Organisations need employees whose values
align with their organisational culture, as well as possessing the knowledge, skills
and abilities needed for the job. They also rely heavily on employees with a high
level of organisational commitment and who invest time and effort in the job and the
organisation to enhance overall organisation performance (Sidani & Gardner, 2000;
Siu, 2003).
1.6 Theoretical framework
It is proposed that work values and a sense of life purpose can be major
factors in the level of commitment and personal involvement people have in their
workplace. This study focuses on three specific determinants of work commitment,
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namely work values, job involvement and organisational commitment. The
framework for this study is based on a modified version of Randall and Cote’s
Model (Randall & Cote, 1991) and Randall and Cote’s Revised Model (Cohen,
1999). These models were chosen because the various determinants of work
commitment have not been the focus of much comparative study in Taiwan, and as
such are not yet fully understood (Randall & Cote, 1991). Furthermore, most
existing studies treat the facets of work commitment in isolation (Morrow, 1983).
Randall and Cote (1991) and Cohen (1999) are two of the few investigations that
have focused on the interrelationships and linkages between different facets of work
commitment. As these studies are fundamental to the research design, they will be
discussed in more detail. A proposed model, with linkages supported by a literature
review, provides the framework for the examination of relationships among variables
in the current study (see Figure 1-1). These major concepts in this framework are
sociodemographics, work values, job involvement and organisational commitment.
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Figure 1-1. The research model.
Work values
Terminal values: 1.Self-growth 2.Self-realisation 3.Self-esteem Instrumental values: 1.Social interaction
considerations 2.Security and economic
considerations 3.Stability and freedom from
anxiety considerations 4.Recreation, health and
transport considerations
Job involvement
Organisational commitment
Values commitment Effort commitment Retention commitment
Sociodemographics
Age Socioeconomic status (SES): 1.Education status 2.Personal income 3.Occupational position
1.6.1 Theoretical explanations
A path model (Figure 1-1) is used to depict the relationships among the
variables investigated by the current study. The model describes the effect of work
values and job involvement on organisational commitment. It is hypothesised that
individuals who are highly committed to the importance of work may develop a
strong loyalty to the organisation where they work. It is also hypothesised that
having work values results in increased job involvement which would subsequently
lead to increased organisational commitment.
The basic structural framework of the proposed research model is based on
Randall and Cote’s model (1991), Randall and Cote’s revised model (Cohen, 1999)
and involves a synthesis of the models of job involvement of Rabinowitz and Hall
12
(1977), Kanungo (1982) and Brown (1996). It is also incorporates the organisational
commitment models of Steers (1977), Stevens, Beyer, and Trice (1978), Morris and
Sherman (1981), Mowday et al. (1982), Mathieu and Zajac (1990) and Huang (1986).
These models will be discussed in Chapter Two. Randall and Cote’s original and
revised model explains that job involvement is an important and influential causal
factor in the development of organisational commitment. Job involvement itself was
also strongly affected by the Protestant work ethic (PWE), which has a key role in
influencing an employee’s affective responses in the workplace.
There is, however, an essential difference between the proposed research
model and Randall and Cote’s original and revised models which needs to be
highlighted. These earlier authors suggest that in the future a direct relationship
between Protestant work ethic and organisational commitment might need to be
included in constructs of work commitment in general (Randall & Cote, 1991). The
present model, therefore, includes more tentative causal relationships between work
values, job involvement, and organisational commitment.
1.6.2 Summary of variables investigated
The theoretical significance of each specific variable, and its linkage with the
proposed model, will now be discussed. The following section briefly summarises
the empirical evidence presented in Chapter Two. This study concentrates on three
dependent variables, work values, job involvement, and organisational commitment.
The study sites are regional teaching hospitals in Taiwan.
Sociodemographics: Given the general consensus that work values, job
involvement, and organisational commitment are influenced by dispositional
13
characteristics (Brown, 1996; Huang, 1986; Mathieu & Zajac, 1990; Morris &
Sherman, 1981; Mowday et al., 1982; Rabinowitz & Hall, 1977; Steers, 1977;
Stevens et al., 1978; Torres & Kapes, 1990), four personal demographic values will
be examined as the antecedent correlates to work values, job involvement, and
organisational commitment. This research explores a complex set of demographic
variables such as age, socioeconomic status-SES (e.g., education status, personal
income, and occupational position) in the context of work values, job involvement
and organisational commitment.
Work values: Zytowski (1970) and Super (1970a) suggest that people hold
values, called “work values”, which are related to the characteristics of certain
occupations. Values indicate a strong personal preference for what is important to
the individual. In general, work values are personal values that lead to expectations
about work. Rosenberg (1957) posits the origins of work values on the deficit need
status within the individual. Note that this notion is similar to the hierarchy of needs
presented by Maslow (1943).
Job involvement: The most commonly used definition of job involvement is
the early formulation put forward by Lodahl and Kejner (1965). In this original
treatise, job involvement was defined by Lodahl and Kejner (1965) as, “the degree to
which a person’s work performance affects his/her self esteem” (p.25). Subsequent
conceptualisations by Kanungo (1982) have further developed the concept in an
effort to overcome the conceptual ambiguities and measurement inadequacies which
were inherent in the previous assessments (Morrow, 1993). Kanungo (1982) regards
job involvement as a term descriptive of an individual’s beliefs about one’s present
job, a function of the satisfaction of the individual’s present needs.
14
Organisational commitment: Organisational commitment is defined as the
relative strength of an employee’s identification with, and involvement in, a
particular organisation (Mowday et al., 1979). Many studies have found that
organisational commitment increases productivity. Although research findings have
not always been consistent, they suggest that organisational commitment is related to
several desirable outcomes, including low turnover and low absenteeism (Mowday et
al., 1979; Steers, 1977). Mathieu and Zajac (1990) also found that organisational
commitment was related to a number of attitudinal variables including job
satisfaction, occupational commitment, and job involvement.
1.7 Conclusion
This first chapter has provided an introduction to the study, and a summary of
the background theory, research objectives, justification and benefits of the study,
and the key research questions. Chapter Two provides a detailed review of relevant
literature examining work values, job involvement and organisational commitment,
and their interrelationships. Chapter Three describes the study methodology and
research hypotheses, and Chapter Four presents the results of the study. The final
chapter includes a discussion of the findings, implications for both theory and
practice, the strengths and limitations of the study, and recommendations for further
research.
15
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
The purpose of this chapter is to review the current literature on work values,
job involvement, and organisational commitment. The first section explores the
development of definition of these variables, the different categorisation systems that
have been proposed, and their use in various environments. This provides a
comprehensive overview from which to identify the most relevant areas for study.
2.2 Work values
There are major differences between Western and Taiwanese culture, such
that Taiwanese people are described as being situation-centred, valuing family and
tradition, harmony, emotional restraint, conformity, and obedience to authority (Ho,
1986; Yang, 1970), whereas those in the West value individualism, autonomy, and
original thinking (Feather, 1986; Gardner, 1989; Hsu, 1972). However,
modernization has had an effect on traditional Taiwanese work values (Hui & Tan,
1996). The Taiwanese have recently become more individualistic and egalitarian
with respect to work values than previous generations (Marsh, 1996). Thus, these
changing Taiwanese work values need to be studied closely.
In this first section of the literature review, work values are defined with a
particular view to establishing the most relevant definition for a Taiwanese context.
A discussion of the complex development of categorisation of work values that has
16
taken place is then presented. Instruments to be used in this study are reviewed,
again with particular attention to their use in the Taiwanese context. Justifications for
category choices are stated, by synthesising the key values repeatedly recognised by
researchers. This section then presents a comparison of use of these values in
different empirical studies, commenting upon their relevance to this study.
2.2.1 Work values: Definition and measurement
Before proceeding with reviewing the concept of work values, it is necessary
to examine the meaning of values as a wider concept. A value is a principle or
standard held in high esteem by an individual, and is related to all aspects of one’s
personal and work life. Values develop so that individuals can meet their needs in
socially acceptable ways (Rokeach, 1973). The more individuals know about their
own values, the better they will be at determining which work environment best fits
their personal and professional needs, and the skills they want to use and develop
there. Research suggests that values are stable and predictable of behaviour over
time (Meglino, Ravlin, & Adkins, 1989; Rokeach, 1973). Thus, values play a central
role in human motivation and achievement (Mankoff, 1974) and decision-making
processes (Brown & Assoiates, 2002). Work values are thus one aspect of an
individual’s values system.
Various studies have developed a multitude of conceptualisations of work
values, and have developed instruments to measure what they define as work values.
Table 2-1 provides a depiction of these studies. Like most attitudinal concepts which
social scientists wish to research and understand, there is no “gold standard” measure
of work values.
17
Table 2-1. Relevant scales and dimensions of work values.Author Work Value Scale Dimensions of Work Values
Ginzberg, Ginsburg, Axelrod, & Herma (1951)
1. Intrinsic work values: interesting, useful to society, challenging, achievement, independence, creativity, and the inside satisfaction of employees
2. Extrinsic work values: pay, promotions, job security and prestige.
3. Concomitant values: social relations (supervisory relations)
Blood (1969) Protestant Work Ethic - PWE (8 items)
1.Pro-Protestant ethic 2.Non-Protestant ethic
Super (1970a)
Work Values Inventory - WVI (45items)
15 dimensions: Altruism, Aesthetics, Creativity, Intellectual Stimulation, Achievement, Independence, Prestige, Management, Economic Returns, Security, Surroundings, Supervisory Relations, Associates, Way of Life and Variety.
Wollack, Goodale, Wijting, and Smith (1971)
Survey of Work Value - SWV (54 items)
1. Intrinsic aspects of work: pride in work, job involvement and activity preference
2. Extrinsic aspects of work: attitude toward earnings and social status of job
3. Mixed characters: upward striving and responsibility to work
Hales and Fenner (1972)
Ohio Work Values Inventory - OWVI (77 items)
11 dimensions: altruism, object orientation, job security, control, self-realization, independence, money, solitude, task satisfaction, idea/data, prestige
Rokeach (1973)
Rokeach Value Survey
1. Terminal values: a comfortable life, an exciting life, a sense of achievement, a world at peace, equality, family security, freedom, happiness, inner harmony, mature love, pleasure, salvation, self-respect, social recognition, true friendship, and wisdom
2. Instrumental values: ambitious, broad-minded, capable, cheerful, clean, courageous, forgiving, helpful, honest, imaginative, independent, intellectual, logical, loving, obedient, polite, responsible, and self-controlled
Miller (1974) 1. Intrinsic: Altruism, Esthetics, Creativity, Intellectual Stimulation, Achievement, and Management
2. Extrinsic: Independence, Prestige, Economic Returns, Security, Surroundings, Supervisory Relations, Associates, Way of Life, and Variety
Kalleberg (1977)
1. Intrinsic work value 2. Extrinsic dimensions: convenience, financial,
relationships with co-workers, the opportunities the job provides for a career, and resource adequacy
Lofquist and Dawis (1978)
Minnesota Important Questionnaire - MIQ (210 items)
12 dimensions: ability utilization, achievement, activities, compensation, independence, security, variety, work condition, advancement, authority, recognition, status, co-worker, moral values, social service, company policies, supervision of human relations, creativity, responsibility, supervision of technical skills
Jurgensen (1978)
10 dimensions: security, hours, pay, benefits, working conditions, advancement, type of work, company, co-workers, and supervisor
18
Table 2-1. Relevant scales and dimensions of work values (continued). Author Work Value Scale Dimensions of Work Values
Pryor (1979) Work Aspect Preference - WAPS (52 items)
13 dimensions: self development; security; independence; creativity; helping others; supervision; money; prestige; friendships; physical activity; detachment; life style; environment
Hofstede (1980)
Value Survey Module - VSM (31 items)
4 dimensions: Power Distance, Uncertainty Avoidance, Individualism and Masculinity
Elizur (1984, 1996)
1. Modality of the outcome: material or instrument (i.e., pay, hours of work, security, and working conditions), affective or social (i.e., co-workers, supervisor, recognition for doing a good job and esteem), and psychological or cognitive (i.e., advancement, type of work, status, achievement, responsibility, independence, influence, use of ability, meaningful work, contribution to society and company)
2. Task performance: reward or resource Chen (1987) 15 dimensions: Altruism, Aesthetics, Creativity,
Intellectual Stimulation, Achievement, Independence, Prestige, Management, Economic Returns, Security, Surroundings, Supervisory Relations, Associates, Way of Life, and Variety
Peirson, Simnett, and Pratt (1989)
4 dimensions: Career Orientation, Certainty Seeking, Altruism, and Conflict-Avoidance
Harrington and O'Shea (1993)
14 dimensions: creativity, good salary, high achievement, independence, job security, leadership, physical activity, prestige, routine activity, supervised work, variety-diversion, work with hands, work with mind and work with people.
Wang (1993) 1.Terminal values: internal remuneration, external remuneration, collective benefit and security
2. Instrumental values: capability, rationality, modesty, grace, self obedience, pragmatism and incorruptibility
Wu, Lee, Liu, and Ou (1996)
Work Values Inventory - WVI (49 items)
1. Terminal values: self-growth tendency, self-realisation tendency and self-esteem tendency
2. Instrumental values: social interaction tendency, organization security and economic benefit tendency, stability and anxiety-free tendency and recreation health and transport tendency
Meyer, Irving, and Allen (1998)
3 dimensions: Comfort and Security (Comfort), Competence and Growth (Competence), and Status and Independence (Status)
19
Work values are the values that individuals hold a “desired end state” of their
participation at work. Thus these work values assist in defining career paths and
goals (Brown & Assoiates, 2002). An individual entering an organisation will be
affected by their work values and will use these values to guide how they “should”
function. Locke and Henne (1986) suggested that the work values of individuals
affect their work desire or goal, as well as their effort and work performance.
Some researchers (Blood, 1969; Wollack et al., 1971) have focused on work
values as a system of ethics. Blood (1969) argues that work values played a key role
in influencing employees’ affective responses both to work in general and to specific
task characteristics. Zytowski (1970) defines work values as, “a set of concepts
which mediate the person’s affective orientation and classes of external objects
offering similar satisfactions” (p.176). Wollack et al. (1971) defines work values as,
“a person’s attitudes toward work in general, rather than his feelings about a specific
job” (p.133). To summarise, work values refer to the endurable and preferable
thoughts and attitudes an individual creates and applies to specific work, the
formation of which is a gradual accumulative socialization process (Wollack et al.,
1971).
Blood (1969) developed an eight-item scale measuring “pro-Protestant Ethic”
and “non-Protestant Ethic” attitudes. Wollack et al. (1971) went on to establish the
Survey of Work Values (SWV), which was based on elements of the Protestant Ethic,
to evaluate employees’ work values. Three aspects were assessed, intrinsic aspects of
work, extrinsic aspects of work, and mixed characters.
20
Super (1970b) and Holland (1973) have proposed theories of vocational
choice, suggesting that people seek vocations and work environments consistent with
the values and attitudes they hold. According to early authors Paine, Deutsch, and
Smith (1967), the perceptions that an individual has of her/his job and the factors
which satisfy her/his needs are important in goal setting. Further research by Super
(1970a) suggests that a person’s “valued work outcomes” can determine his or her
choice of a career or training program. Chen (1987) argues that work values are the
overall subjective value determination for work experience or work achievement,
and belong to the attitude or emotional response area. As a result, Chen (1987)
suggests that individuals’ assessments of the relative importance of their jobs depend
on the variance between the actual and expected values in their work environments.
The most well-known classification of work values is described in Super
(1970b). Super (1970b) suggests that to understand the values of students, customers,
or employees, it is helpful to identify their goals and establish a variety of training
systems. In order to test the practicability of his own theory, Super (1970a)
developed a set of Work Values Inventory (WVI) undertaken within a career pattern
study, to quantify and evaluate the psychologically systematic ideal for individuals
in their working conditions. The research explored work values as divided into 15
dimensions related to the value of individual life experience. Miller (1974) suggested
that Super’s WVI could be sub-classified into intrinsic and extrinsic scales.
Pryor (1979) focuses on work values in their function as preferences. Pryor
(1979) argues that the term “work value” is poorly formulated and ambiguous, and
to deal with this developed work aspect preferences. They were defined as, “a
statement of the relation between a person (the subject of the relation) and a
21
particular quality of work (the object of the relation). The nature of the relation
between these two is of greater or lesser liking when the person has the opportunity
to make a choice” (p.254). According to Pryor (1979), it is important that work
values should be associated more with “preference” than “moral imperatives”.
However, whenever someone shows preference for a position, work values are
frequently and closely correlative to moral imperatives. Lee (1994) also indicates
that work values can be viewed as a proportion of personal value systems, and that
all evaluations and preferences related to work can be held as the expression of work
values.
Wu (1996) defines work values as endurable beliefs and standards which
judge the worth of what is done through work, justify the work experience and
express one’s working behaviours and the pursuit for work goals whenever the
individual is engaging in his or her own job. Wu et al. (1996) examined college
students and university graduates in order to develop a localised inventory about
work values. They divided work values into two major realms, “terminal values” and
“instrumental values”. The two major realms and seven dimensions are detailed in
Table 2-2.
Chen (1987) modified the dimension-measuring-inventory created by Super
(1970b). They applied this modified dimension-measuring inventory to high school
students preparing for the College Entrance Examination, to serve as a consulting
reference for degree majors and future career options. After the modification, the
dimension-measurement inventory of work values emerged with 15 dimensions.
Wang (1993) adopts the two major realms of “terminal values” and “instrumental
values” to create the dimension-measuring inventory for work values.
22
Table 2-2. Summary of the Wu et al. (1996) Work Values Inventory (WVI). Realm Dimension Definition
Terminal values
The degree of importance which an individual places on pursuing personal growth, exerting personal talent and creativity, improving quality of life, obtaining a sense of achievement and leadership and also commanding respect and recognition from others during the course of their work.
Self-growth The degree of importance which an individual places on acquiring new knowledge, self growth, exerting creativity, and promoting personal development during the course of their work.
Self-realisation The degree of importance which an individual places on fulfilling their lifelong goals, application of personal talent, improving quality of life and enhancing their social welfare during the course of their work.
Self-esteem The degree of importance which an individual places on a sense of personal achievement, self recognition and autonomy, respect from others and senior management during the course of their work.
Instrumental values
The degree of importance which an individual places on obtaining a level of excellence in social interaction, a harmonious social relationship, freedom from worry, and where their life desires are sufficiently satisfied through balance achieved between services within the organizational systems, and a holistic environment to fulfil their sense of security and to maintain their needs while they are working.
Social interaction considerations
The degree of importance which an individual places on achieving an excellent level of social interaction and sharing their daily emotional experiences with colleagues and superiors, as well as establishing harmonious social relationships with others during the course of their work.
Security and economic considerations
The degree of importance which an individual places on reaching reasonable economic remuneration through holistic organizational systems, to satisfy their sense of security during the course of their work.
Stability and freedom from anxiety considerations
The degree of importance which an individual places on regularly and stably performing his job without tension, anxiety, chaos or fear.
Recreation, health and transport considerations
The degree of importance which an individual places on attaining sufficient physical energy, recreation activities and availability of convenient traffic transport options during their work.
Work values, as proposed by Chen (2000), provide an internal impetus, in
that they drive the individual to chase lifelong goals and orient his/her behaviours,
direction and motives. Chen (2000) also argues that they influence personal
standards that allow individuals to measure and prioritise their tasks. On a more
23
personal level, work values include the individual’s overall understanding of,
orientation to, and satisfaction with the workplace.
Rokeach (1973) argues that work values and attitudes are independent
concepts. Researchers have investigated work values as correlates of attitude, and
personal values can help individuals explain and understand their attitudes and the
behaviours in which they engage. However, Rong (1998) states that merely
observing the attitude of an individual cannot help us predict the values one holds.
In summary, a review of the literature has demonstrated the importance of
work values as an influence on attitudes to work. Although researchers have
attempted to establish a consistent definition of the construct, the term work values is
currently used to encompass a variety of notions, ranging from work ethics (Blood,
1969), and personal needs (Super, 1970a), to work preferences (Pryor, 1979). As
discussed earlier, some researchers have posited two themes of work values along an
intrinsic-extrinsic dimension, or a terminal–instrumental dimension. This two-factor
concept of work values has been applied to the majority of the concepts and
instruments researchers have used to measure work values (Miller, 1974; Super,
1970a; Wu et al., 1996). On the basis of the existing literature work values in the
current study are operationally defined as enduring beliefs and standards that
influence an individual when he/she evaluates his/her job and work environment.
Work values was measured using a localised Work Values Inventory (WVI)
developed by Wu et al. (1996), based on Super’s WVI.
24
2.2.2 Sociodemographic variables as related to work values
According to various sociodemographic indicators there has been increase in
the diversity of the work force in recent years, which has raised questions about the
needs and values of diverse groups of employees (Jehn, Chadwick, & Thatcher,
1997). In Taiwan, women constitute about 2.2% of the yearly increment of the
labour force (Taiwan Council of Labour Affairs in Executive Yuan, 2004). Female
nurses form a very high proportion (99.0%) of the healthcare system in Taiwan
(Chen, 1998). Consequently, there is a growing interest in the unique characteristics
of members of this group, as concerns their attitudes towards work, such as work
values. Previous research on the role of various sociodemographic variables in work
values has included examinations of socio-economic status, ethnicity, society and
economic conditions (Torres & Kapes, 1990). Thus these are the types of factors
which may influence the development of an individual’s expectations and work
values. The following section reviews and discusses the key variables viewed as
being important when understanding work values.
Age
Cherrington (1977) reports that senior employees are more work-oriented
than younger staff, due in part to the personal socialisation process, in which a
worker’s experience affects individual work values. Jurgensen (1978) finds that as a
worker’s age increases, some work values undergo enhancement while others are
diminished. Pu (1988) demonstrates that as workers age, they emphasise internal
values of work and social status more, but give remuneration less attention. Chiu
(1993), in contrast, found that younger employees pay more attention to “social
25
relations considerations” than older employees. In another recent study, results
suggested that respondents of different ages showed variance on the dimensions of
“stability and freedom from anxiety considerations” (Lee & Chung, 2001). Liau
(2001) studied 320 nursing staff born between 1965 and 1980, finding that values of
nursing staff did not vary significantly as they age. McNeese-Smith and Crook (2003)
examined 412 nurses in three hospitals in Los Angeles County (California, U.S.A.).
They found that the values of nurses from different generations differed little,
although younger generations placed higher values on economic returns and variety
in employment.
Wu (1996) states that job takers in the 19-30 age bracket, with a bachelor’s
degree, show higher scores on “social interaction considerations”, “security and
economic considerations”, and “stability and freedom from anxiety considerations”
than those of job takers in the 31-40 and 41-50 age brackets with similar educational
backgrounds. Chang (2001) concluded that when comparing respondents’ ages, work
values and organizational commitment, there was no significant difference in either
“terminal values” or “instrumental values”.
Education status
Pu (1988) found that employees with higher educational backgrounds were
more attentive to internal values, promotion and social status values of work, while
employees with less education paid more attention to work remuneration values.
Chiu (1993) supported this earlier study by demonstrating that higher educated
employees are more attentive to self-confirmation and performance than lower
educated employees. Lee and Chung (2001) found that employees who only had a
26
high-school level of education were more attentive to “self-growth” and “security
and economic considerations” than those of university-level educated employees.
However, research by Liau (2001) with nursing staff introduced earlier did not show
variance in value measures between employees of different education levels.
Similarly, Chang (2001) found educational preparation had no significant
relationship with “terminal values” or “instrumental values”.
Income
Paine et al. (1967) found a positive correlation between family income and
monetary benefits, and a negative correlation between family income and the need
for security. As might be expected, those respondents who indicated a relatively low
family income tended to place a high emphasis on job security.
Occupational position
Tayyab and Tariq (2001) examined the work values and organisational
commitment of 210 middle level public and private executives in Pakistan. Results
revealed that the private sector executives had higher mean scores on intrinsic work
values. Tang (2000) focused on the interior auditors of private and public
organisations, with the findings showing statistically significant relationships
between different positions and overall work values. Lee and Chung (2001) explored
the relationship between corporate culture, employees’ work values and
organisational commitment in the business cultures of Taiwan. They found that
employees in more senior positions were more attentive to “self-growth” and
“security and economic considerations” than employees with lower positions in the
organisation.
27
2.2.3 Summary
Many studies have been conducted into work values in general, as well as
possible differences in work values across different cultures, socio-economic groups
and gender. The results of some studies (Aldag & Brief, 1975; Hofstede, 1980)
suggest that differences in work values exist. The current study will shed light on the
relationship between work values, job involvement, and organisational commitment
among Taiwanese nurses.
2.3 Job involvement
In theory, job involvement is necessary for nurses’ professional growth. It is
assumed that the higher the level of involvement, the higher the degree of
professional growth (Elloy, Everett, & Flynn, 1995). Job-involved individuals who
perceive opportunities for growth in their job have less intention to leave or suffer
burnout (Elloy et al., 1995). However, given that the current nursing workforce
experiences a relatively unstable health field, it is possible that these disturbances
may have a negative affect on how involved nurses are in their jobs (Morrow, 1993).
Therefore, continuing job involvement under such circumstances requires close
study, both to determine the salience of the concept of job involvement, and the
factors that affect it. This section introduces definitions of job involvement, together
with measurements of job involvement, relevant theories and empirical studies.
2.3.1 Job involvement: Definition and measurement
The term job involvement is used to refer to many different aspects of
employment (Lodahl & Kejner, 1965). Newton and Keenan (1983), Saleh (1981),
28
and Saleh and Hosek (1976) have conducted research which explores the complexity
of the concept of job involvement. Lodahl and Kejner (1965) have proposed two
types of definitions for job involvement, one relating to self-esteem, and the other to
self-image. They argue that job involvement is considered by many to be intimately
tied to a strong work ethic and people who place work at, or near, the centre of their
lives (Lodahl & Kejner, 1965). Lodahl and Kejner (1965) believe the main
determinant of job involvement is a value orientation toward work learned early in
the socialisation process. An individual who has internalised the work ethic will thus
probably be highly “job involved”, regardless of the context within which he or she
might be employed (Rabinowitz & Hall, 1977).
Bass (1965) points out that job involvement is representative of the
employee’s ego-involvement in his/her job and is thus related to performance.
Lawler and Hall (1970) argue there was no difference between the two (self-esteem
and self-image) definitions proposed by Lodahl and Kejner (1965). These
researchers believe that the first definition means the real essence of job involvement,
whereas the second definition was in consistent with expectancy theory, namely the
concepts of internal motivation. Lawler and Hall (1970) refer to internal motivation
as the degree to which a jobholder is motivated to perform well because of some
subjective reward or internal feelings they expect to experience as a result of
performing well. Thus, intrinsic motivation is correlated with personal performance.
However, job involvement does not always correlate with personal performance. Job
involvement rather represents personal concentration or emotional commitment to
one’s job. The goal identified by job involvement is the job itself.
29
Both Lawler and Hall (1970), and Blau (1985) propose that job involvement
involves only a single aspect, namely, the degree to which a person perceives the
total work situation to be an important part of life, and to be central to their identity,
because of the opportunity to satisfy important needs. Blau (1985) proposes that an
individual engaged in his/her job would care about the tasks to be undertaken.
Although one might hence conclude that job involvement and job satisfaction are
essentially identical, they have generally been considered distinctly different
concepts. Job involvement is the psychological identification with, or importance of
one’s job, while job satisfaction is the emotional state of liking one’s job (Lawler &
Hall, 1970).
Saleh and Hosek (1976) reviewed a range of literature related to job
involvement and from this formulated four definitions for job involvement. These
were, “the job is of critical importance in personal life”, “the individual will be
actively involved in his/her own job”, “the individual will cognise the influence of
personal performance onto self-esteem”, and “the congruence between work
performance and self-concept”. Saleh and Hosek (1976) suggest that whenever these
four definitions are satisfied, the individual will be involved in his/her own job.
Rabinowitz and Hall (1977) also assessed definitions and literature
discussing job involvement. They concluded that, at that early point, more research
needed to be undertaken to isolate dimensions related to job involvement. Their
paper identifies two classes of definitions of job involvement. The first class links
performance to “self-esteem”, essentially the extent to which “self-esteem” is
affected by level of performance. The second class identifies job involvement as a
30
component of an individual’s self-image, that is, the degree to which the individual
psychologically identifies with his/her job.
According to Kanungo (1982), involvement either in the context of a
particular job, or with work in general, can be viewed as a cognitive state of
psychological identification. An individual’s psychological identification with a
particular job (or with work in general) in turn depends on the salience of his or her
needs (both extrinsic and intrinsic) and the perceptions he or she has about the need-
satisfying potentialities of the job (or work) (Kanungo, 1982). Kanungo (1982)
further suggested that individuals will be affected by their past socialised
experiences, and that their current social codes are associated with various value
orientations. Thus values drive individuals to develop various external and internal
desires. Whenever the desires are unsatisfied, one’s surroundings will become
alienating. According to Kanungo (1982), job alienation and involvement are two
superficial phenomena of a single object, two polarised trends of one aspect. When
job involvement is decreased to a certain extent, it will trigger job alienation.
However, whenever job alienation is reduced a certain extent, it creates a sense of
job involvement (Kanungo, 1982).
In previous studies, investigating job involvement has been characterised by
conceptual ambiguities and problems related to measurement (Lodahl & Kejner,
1965; Rabinowitz & Hall, 1977; Saleh & Hosek, 1976). Because the construct of job
involvement is associated with many different definitions (as described above), it has
become a major source of conceptual ambiguity (Kanungo, 1982). Kanungo
attempted to resolve this uncertainty (Elloy, Everett, & Flynn, 1991). According to
Kanungo (1982), earlier job involvement questionnaires, such as those of Saleh and
31
Hosek (1976) and Lodahl and kejner (1965), did not differentiate between work
involvement and job involvement. Job involvement and work involvement are
hypothesised to be two distinct constructs (Paullay, Alliger, & Stone-Romero, 1994).
One other problem with Lodahl and Kejner’s (1965) scale in particular is that
although the scale has factor stability, because there is some similarity in the factor
structure across different groups, there is no interpretation of the nature of the factors
(Cummings & Bigelow, 1976).
Kanungo (1982) went on to develop another ten-item scale in which job
involvement is defined as the importance of the job to one’s self-image. Kanungo’s
measures are more internally consistent than previous instantiations, even though
many of the items are based upon the earlier Lodahl and Kejner (1965) job
involvement measurements (Blau, 1985; Blau & Boal, 1987; Kanungo, 1982;
Morrow & Wirth, 1989). According to Blau (1985), the job involvement
questionnaire developed by Kanungo (1982) is more appropriate for assessing job
involvement than the earlier Lodahl and Kejner (1965) measurement. Kanungo’s Job
Involvement Questionnaire (JIQ) instrument has been used in many studies and its
reliability and validity examined extensively. The Cronbach’s α across the samples
ranged from .74 to .90.
2.3.2 Relevant theoretical models for understanding job involvement
Relevant models for understanding the relationship between job involvement
and its antecedent and outcome variables include Expectancy Theory (Vroom, 1964),
Integrated Theory (Rabinowitz & Hall, 1977), the Motivational Approach (Kanungo,
1982) and Causality Theory (Brown, 1996).
32
Expectancy Theory
Expectancy Theory suggests that administrators should make good use of
personal expectancy to inspire employees. This is based on the rudimentary concept
that inclination for an individual’s action is determined by possible expected results
and the relationship between the results and the action adopted. To take a different
approach, job involvement for an employee is determined by his/her expectancy
level, which results in incentives for action. The results of this interaction are
displayed in Figure 2-1. If expectations are lower than the inducement provided by
the organisation, job involvement will increase. On the other hand, when
expectations are higher than the inducement provided by the organisation then job
involvement will decrease.
Figure 2-1. The Expectancy Theory Model of Vroom (1964).
Expectancy < inducement offered by organisation = job involvement
Expectancy > inducement offered by organisation = job involvement
Integrated Theory Model
Rabinowitz and Hall (1977) reviewed and integrated previous research in this
field and used this basis to develop three major conceptualisations. For Rabinowitz
and Hall (1977), job involvement is related to three classes of working variables, the
dispositional approach held by the individual, the situational determined approach
held, and the influence of the interaction between these approaches. In this model no
single class of variables shows a stronger relationship to job involvement than any
other. That is, dispositional and situational variables are about equally important in
33
explaining job involvement (Rabinowitz & Hall, 1977). The integrated theory model
of job involvement is depicted in Figure 2-2.
Dispositional
Situation
Interaction: Dispositional Situation
Job involvement
Figure 2-2. The Job Involvement Theory Model of Rabinowitz and Hall (1977).
In the dispositional approach, job involvement is viewed as dependent on
individual personalities. The influence exerted by some stable personal
characteristics such as age, gender, marital status, external and internal control
features, job seniority, dwelling locations, the intensity of high-level work demands
in terms of time and responsibility, and the Protestant work ethic will ensure
individuals hold different work attitudes and behaviours. Two such work attitudes
are job involvement and job satisfaction. The individual is thought to own a certain
amount of desire or value, and the demand or value will drive them to work harder or
impede them from job involvement (Sekaran & Mowday, 1981).
Job involvement is also a personal characteristic, and thus it is never changed
easily within an organization (Rabinowitz & Hall, 1977). In a situation-determined
approach (Rabinowitz & Hall, 1977), job involvement can be viewed as the personal
attitude towards the particular job. In this conceptualisation, job involvement will be
affected by leadership style, the opportunities the individual has to be involved in
decision-making, social factors, job features and other conditional influences. Values
are thus internalised with job attitude.
34
The interaction between disposition and situational approaches is labelled the
dispositional situation. In this approach, personal characteristics and the environment
in interaction are used to explain personal work attitudes and behaviours. When
personal characteristics and the situation reach congruence, the individual will
develop high job involvement.
Motivational Approach
The motivational approach of Kanungo (1979, 1982) integrates the different
approaches to job involvement, including both psychological and sociological
factors, using the basic concept that job involvement is affected by the potential for
personal socialisation experience and the likelihood that the work environment can
satisfy personal demand. A diagrammatic representation of Kanungo (1979, 1982)
motivational approach is outlined in Figure 2-3.
Kanungo (1979, 1982) hypothesises that employee perceptions concerning a
job’s potential to satisfy their needs represents a more proximal influence on job
involvement. Kanungo contends that individuals develop beliefs that a job’s context
potentially provides an opportunity for them to satisfy their most important future
needs. Consequently, job involvement depends on employees’ needs (both extrinsic
and intrinsic), as well as their perceptions of the job’s potential to satisfy those needs.
35
Figure 2-3. Schematic representation of the motivational approach to job involvement and alienation. Source: Kanungo, R. N. (1979) ‘The Concepts of Alienation and Involvement Revised’, Psychological Bulletin, vol.86, no.1, pp.119-138.
Causality Theory Model
The job involvement theory proposed by Brown (1996) incorporates the
findings of previous research shown as Figure 2-4. This model includes antecedents
(i.e., personality variables-concept of work ethic), the pivotal mediator role of job
involvement, and its consequences such as organisational commitment. This model
also depicts the relationships between job involvement and organisational
36
commitment. In addition, work ethic is shown to play a significant role in job
involvement.
Figure 2-4. Classification of antecedents, correlates, and consequences of job involvement. Source: Brown, S. P. (1996) ‘A Meta-Analysis and Review of Organizational Research on Job Involvement’, Psychological Bulletin, vol.120, no.2, pp.235-255.
In summary, the antecedents and products of job involvement have been
extensively studied. Available evidence supports the argument that personal and
situational factors are strong influences on job involvement. Job involvement is also
an important factor in other work related attitudes, and is linked to work behaviours.
37
2.3.3 Sociodemographic variables as related to job involvement
The literature on job involvement highlights the role played by personal and
situational factors, as well as attitudinal concepts such as organisational commitment,
job satisfaction and achievement motives. Individuals are affected by a range of
antecedent variables which may impact on their identification with, and attitudes
towards their job. Although Rabinowitz and Hall (1977) found personal and
situational variables play equally important roles in explaining job involvement,
other researchers have argued that personal factors play a more crucial role than
situation variables in influencing an individual’s job involvement (Lodahl & Kejner,
1965). Personal characteristics examined in this review are sociodemographic
variables. This section focuses on the experimental results of international and local
research projects with particular reference to key variables in the current study.
Age
Lodahl and Kejner (1965) conducted research using 137 nurses, revealing
that the age of nurses was positively correlated with job involvement (r = .26, p <
0.01). While older nursing personnel tended to be more job involved, no relationship
was found between age and job involvement for a different employment group,
engineers. Rabinowitz, Hall, and Goodale (1977) also found a positive relationship
between age and job involvement, but this was not significant. Saal (1978) reported a
significant positive correlation between age and job involvement (r = .34, p < 0.05),
based on the data of 218 employees in a medium-sized company. In a longitudinal
study, Hall and Mansfield (1975) found that job involvement steadily increased with
age, from a sample of professional engineers and scientists. Chuang (2001)
38
conducted research into the correlation between the work values and job
involvement of nurses from Christian hospitals. The findings show that the greater
the nurse’s age, the higher job involvement was shown to be. One possibly
explanation for this is that as age increases, an individual is exposed to more
opportunities for promotion in the organisation. Therefore, older individuals tend to
be more job involved.
Huang (1993) conducted research on nurses from the Taipei Nursing College
Hospital and showed that job involvement of senior employees was higher than that
of younger workers. Tang (2000) focused on the interior auditors of private and
public organisations, with the results again revealing a statistically significant
relationship between age and job involvement. Pan and Yeh (1998) conducted
research on the nursing staff of Taipei Hospital and also demonstrated that age
positively influences the extent of job involvement. In contrast to these studies, a
study conducted by Hu (1999) using nurses from a university hospital in Taiwan
found that age was negatively correlated with job involvement (using a professional
commitment subscale).
Education status
A number of studies have commented on a positive relationship between
education and job involvement (Elloy et al., 1991; Pan & Yeh, 1998; Rabinowitz &
Hall, 1977). Chuang (2001) demonstrated that nursing staff with varying education
levels enter their jobs with varying levels of job involvement. Staff with higher
educational levels generally showed higher levels of job involvement. Abboushi
(1990) also found that education had a positive relationship with job involvement.
39
However, negative correlations between education status and job involvement have
also been reported. Saal (1978) reported a low but a significant negative correlation
between education status and job involvement (r = -.14, p < .05). Shore, Thornton,
and Shore (1990) found a negative but non-significant relationship between
education and job involvement. Similar results were obtained by Chen, Wu, Tsai,
and Chen (1998), who measured job involvement in mass-production workers.
However, Hu (1999), studying employees in a university hospital in Taiwan, found
that education is not necessarily related to job involvement and professional
commitment.
Income
Chen et al. (1998) conducted research on 197 mass-production employees,
finding that the salary of employees was significantly correlated with job
involvement. Other studies have reported similar findings, that higher income
employees tend to demonstrate increased levels of job involvement compared with
lower income employees (Aleem & Khandelwal, 1988; Chadha & Kaur, 1987; Joshi,
1999; Tang, 2000). In contrast, Friss (1983) surveyed 82 directors of nursing (DON)
in 150 hospitals in Southern California. The research project attempted to answer
how to motivate and retain directors of nursing, and was designed to measure job
involvement, organisational commitment, and background characteristics of the
DON’s. The findings indicated that, at least in this group, salary is not related to job
involvement.
40
Occupational position
In a study conducted by Lodahl and Kejner (1965), an individual’s position
within an organisation was found to be not related to that person’s job involvement.
In contrast, in their study of work commitment among Department of Transport
employees, Morrow, McElroy, and Blum (1988) found that supervisory employees
showed higher levels of commitment to the job than non-supervisory employees did.
Tang (2000) also found that those employees holding higher positions showed more
job involvement than those holding lower positions.
2.3.4 Summary
Job involvement has been one of the most highly researched constructs in
organizational psychology (Brown, 1996). In the current research, the Kanungo
(1982) definition and measurement of job involvement is used. This section
examined several models relating to job involvement. Multiple variables have been
linked to job involvement. Evidence suggests that personal characteristics influence
job involvement, and job involvement also has been linked to work ethic and to
internal motivation (Brown, 1996). Situational factors at work play an important
part in job involvement. The importance of personal and job-related factors has been
identified. However, there have been inconsistent findings in terms of the
relationships between various personal characteristics and job involvement. Further
examination of these factors can provide a better indication of the variables which
need to be considered when setting strategies to achieve organisational goals.
Moreover, while there is some evidence that the factors examined in the current
study are related to job involvement (and hence can provide information that may
41
benefit nursing regarding issues such as turnover, burnout, organisational
commitment and satisfaction), the argument is not well-defined for the specific
population of Taiwanese nurses. The current study will hopefully provide additional
knowledge as to the job involvement of Taiwanese nurses.
2.4 Organisational commitment
Research on organisational commitment was first initiated by Becker (1960).
Thereafter, Grusky (1966) and Brown (1969) soon undertook studies exploring
organizational commitment. In the early 1980’s, Morrow (1983) reviewed literature
on organisational commitment and found at least 25 different concepts and relevant
measurements. Commitment as a whole is considered a multidimensional construct
(Allen & Meyer, 1993; Etzioni, 1961; Kanter, 1968; Morrow, 1983; Morrow &
McElroy, 1994; Reicher, 1985) and is affective or attitudinally oriented (Tumulty et
al., 1995). Commitment to the organisation as one aspect of commitment is
frequently studied, and is referred to as organisational commitment (Mathieu &
Zajac, 1990). The following section will review a variety of concepts related to
organisational commitment and summarise scales and dimensions of organisational
commitment (as outlined in Table 2-3). Due to the organisation of the model
proposed in the current study, antecedents and consequences of organisational
commitment will be discussed in a short summary of each model, and then presented
together with the relevant sociodemographic variables in organisational commitment.
42
Table 2-3. Relevant scales and dimensions of organisational commitment.
Author Organisational Commitment Scale
Dimensions of Organisational Commitment
Etzioni (1961)
moral involvement, calculative involvement and alienative involvement.
Kanter (1968)
continuance commitment, cohesion commitment and control commitment
Hrebiniak and Alutto (1972)
Commitment scale - CS (12 items)
Pay, job freedom, status, friendliness of coworkers
Porter, Steers, Mowday, and Boulian (1974)
OCQ (15 items) 1. a strong belief in and acceptance of the organisation’s goals and values 2. willingness to exert considerable effort on behalf of the organisation 3. a strong desire to maintain membership in the organisation
Staw (1977) behavioral commitment and attitudinal commitment Stevens et al. (1978)
Normative commitment and exchange commitment
Wu and Yang (1982)
OCQ (15 items) Values commitment, effort commitment and retention commitment
Reicher (1985)
attributions, exchange and individual/organisational congruent goals
Allen and Meyer (1990)
OCQ (15 items) affective commitment, continuance commitment and normative commitment
2.4.1 Organisational commitment: Definition and measurement
Becker (1960) created the concept of “exchange approach”, suggesting that
commitment is achieved by making “side bets”, which are the losses that might be
incurred if one leaves the organisation (Cohen, 1999). When an individual is
reluctant to lose his or her benefits, and perceives benefits as positive elements in an
exchange, he will be more likely to stay with that organisation because of the side
bets made to that organisation (Stevens et al., 1978). Individuals are willing to utilise
their skills and expertise to further an organisation because this behaviour leads to
benefits for both the employee and the organisation.
According to Etzioni (1961), there are three distinct approaches to
categorising organisational commitment, moral involvement, calculative
43
involvement and alienative involvement. Moral involvement is based on the trend of
internalising organisational goals and values, and makes individuals more likely to
identify with authority. Calculative involvement is based on the reasonable exchange
between interest and reward, namely a relationship of lower intensity. Alienative
involvement often comes within exploitation, which results in negative orientation.
Kanter (1968) proposed that organisational commitment be defined as the
personal loyalty and individual dedication individuals are willing to give to their
organisation. If an employee considers that leaving their current organisation will be
costly, then he/she may be less likely to leave that organisation. Kanter (1968)
proposed three types of organisational commitment, continuance commitment,
cohesion commitment and control commitment. Continuance commitment means the
personal investment and sacrifice an individual will make for the organisation. This
type of commitment means that when an individual leaves an organisation, they do
so either in terms of extremely high cost, or at least with the possibility of
continuous devotion to the organisation. Cohesion commitment means the degree to
which subordination extends to individuals subject to organisational societies.
Because the individual has publicly forsaken formerly existing social relationships, it
thus increases the coherence and sense of subordination within the current
organisation. Control commitment is attached to organisational codes, and also
affects the behavioural desires of the worker.
Sheldon (1971) defines the process of organisational commitment as
individuals dedicating time and effort and make commitments to their own
organisation to create identification. Porter et al. (1974) proposed that organisational
commitment refers to an individual’s overall viewpoint about one particular
44
organization. That is, the committed employee is concerned with the well-being of
the organisation. Staw (1977) integrated previous research and divided
organisational commitment into behavioural commitment and attitudinal
commitment. Stevens et al. (1978) also proposed two types of commitment,
normative commitment and exchange commitment. Normative commitment
emphasises the personal internal idealisation of organisational goals and values, such
that the individual is willing to stay in the organisation to expend individual effort.
Exchange commitment represents the utilisation or calculation of organisational
commitment with an emphasis on personal investment return rate. After an
evaluation of the differences between giving and receiving, the individual can reach
a conclusion as to whether being committed to the organisation is beneficial for
him/her.
Mowday and colleagues have suggested that many of these definitions should
be categorised as behaviours and attitudes (Mowday et al., 1979). Mowday et al.
(1979) argue that behavioural commitment is the external expression of commitment
on the basis of individual investment. Through rationalisation or self-defence, it can
prove the correct rationale to join the organisation. However, attitudinal commitment
emphasises the value of the individual congruent goals’s and the organisation’s
reaching “mental” harmony. Mowday et al. (1982) and Reicher (1985) found that
attitudinal commitment leads to the creation of behavioural commitment, which in
turn reinforces commitment attitudes. Thus an organisational commitment cycle of
attitude-behaviour is formed.
Mowday et al. (1982) suggest that organizational commitment is related to
the relative strength of an individual’s “identification with and involvement in” their
45
workplace. Mowday et al. (1982) divided organisational commitment into three
aspects, including a strong belief in and acceptance of the organisation’s goals and
values, a willingness to exert considerable effort on behalf of the organisation, and a
strong desire to maintain membership in the organisation. Their instrument aims to
measure the extent of the respondent’s commitment to the organisation.
Based on this argument, Reicher (1985) divided organisational commitment
into three forms, attributions, exchange and congruent goals between individuals and
organisations (individual/organisational goal congruence). The concept of attributes
implies that commitment is the link between the individual and their behaviour.
Namely, after devotion to purposeful, obvious and unchangeable behaviours, the
individual will attribute this behaviour to the personal commitment made to his/her
own organisation. The concept of exchange means that employees who receive
benefits from their organisation are likely to perceive it positively, whereas
employees who do not receive benefits are likely to perceive it negatively. When an
individual’s job seniority in the organisation increases, commitment will typically
increase. The concept of congruence between the organisation and the individual
refers to the commitment which is generated when the individual identifies and
dedicates to the common goals and values of the organisation.
Meyer and Allen (1991) have provided yet another view on organisational
commitment. These authors suggest if three different types of organisational
commitment are considered at the same time, the relationship between employees
and their organisation will reach a mutually harmonious agreement. Models of these
three aspects of organisational commitment are now outlined. Firstly, affective
commitment is where employees attach to the organisation emotionally, identify
46
with and involve themselves in the organisation. Continuance commitment is
employees’ knowledge about the cost of leaving their organisation. For employees
with high continuance commitment, the benefits of staying will be higher than that
of leaving. Normative commitment is when employees conceptualise their staying in
the organisation to be an obligation.
One use for the concept of organisational commitment was proposed by Lee,
Chung, and Lin (2000). These authors suggest that organisational commitment is
insightful knowledge about the importance of employee behaviours within the
organisation. Lee et al. (2000) argue that organisational commitment can be viewed
as an indicator of the relationship between employees and their organisation.
Currently, methods for measuring organisational commitment are mainly
undertaken using questionnaires. Among them, the most representative
organisational commitment questionnaires have been developed by Hrebiniak and
Alutto (1972) and Porter et al. (1974).
Hrebiniak and Alutto’s Commitment Scale was developed to describe the
exchange approach, and was refined in terms of Becker’s (1960) side-bet theory
(Homans, 1961). It was designed to measure personal involvement in the
organisation, totalling four items of scale tables. It had a Cronbach’s α value of 0.88.
On this survey the respondents are questioned about pay level, status, professional
creativity freedom, collegial friendships and job retention desires.
The Organisational Commitment Questionnaire (OCQ) was developed by Porter
et al. (1974) to measure commitment to the organisation. Lee et al. (2000) reported
that this measure yields a three-factor solution, identifying three types of
47
commitment referred to as “value commitment”, “effort commitment” and “retention
commitment”. Factor I reflects the concept of a strong belief in, and acceptance of,
the organisation’s goals and values, and is referred to as a “value commitment”.
Items of Factor II (effort commitment) indicate the employee’s willingness to exert
considerable effort on behalf of the organisation. Factor III is called “retention
commitment”, and indicates an employee’s desire to maintain membership in the
organisation. This instrument is designed to measure an individual’s loyalty to the
organisation, their desire to reach organisational goals, and the individual’s
acceptance of organisational values. The questionnaire covers items about morals
and behaviour and emphasises employees’ moral involvement with the organisation
(Lee et al., 2000).
Ferris and Aranya (1983) did not regard Hrebiniak and Alutto’s instrument as
providing a sufficient basis for the prediction of differential relationships between
their scales (personal factors and other work attitudes). In an effort to resolve this
shortcoming, Porter et al. (1974) created an organisational commitment
questionnaire which used a 15-item Likert scale. This scale has been used in
behavioural studies by other researchers, as an instrument to describe how
committed employees are to their organisation (Ferris & Aranya, 1983). Liang (1989)
conducted a comparison of these two scales, revealing that the reliability, validity
and coverage of OCQ proposed by Porter et al. (1974) is generally superior to the
organisational commitment questionnaires of Hrebiniak and Alutto.
According to Tumulty et al. (1995), most concepts and measurements of
organisational commitment have been influenced by Mowday et al. (1982). In the
current study, the definition of organisational commitment is derived from Porter et
48
al. (1974) and Mowday et al. (1982), and uses Mowday et al.’s measure of
organisational commitment.
2.4.2 Antecedents and consequences of organisational commitment
The research on organisational commitment has shown that there is a wide
range of variables that are related to this concept, including job satisfaction,
organisational climate, and organizational citizenship behaviours. However, at
present there is still no complete model to cover all the variables which are
associated with organisational commitment. In the present study, the review of
literature may provide insights into relationships between the pertinent antecedent
variables and organisational commitment, and organisational commitment and
outcome variables. The following section will discuss the breadth of current thinking
on organisational commitment.
“Causality” model theory of organisational commitment (Steers, 1977)
Steers (1977) divided the antecedent variables of organisational commitment
into personal characteristics, job characteristics and working experience. This author
found support for all three categories as influences on organisational commitment.
Consequent variables were divided into desire to remain, attendance, employee
retention and job performance with causality, as shown in Figure 2-5. Among these
outcomes, organisational commitment is moderately related to both desire to remain
and intent to remain. Steers’ theory provided a landmark study in the field and
established the foundation of the organisational theory model (Liu, 1994).
49
Figure 2-5. Steers’ “causality” model of organisational commitment. Source: Steers, R. M. (1977) ‘Antecedents and Outcomes of Organisational Commitment’, Administrative Science Quarterly, vol.22, p46-56.
The role sense model (Stevens et al., 1978)
The role sense model of organisational commitment was created by
combining the psychological views and exchange views, as depicted in Figure 2-6.
Stevens et al. (1978) argue that personal attributes, role relevant factors and
organisational factors affect individual roles in the organisation. By means of the
process of exchange and evaluation, attitudinal and behavioural roles are formed,
with ultimate influence on employees’ desires to retain their jobs or leave them.
Figure 2-6. The “role sense” model of Stevens, Beyre and Trice. Source: Stevens, J. M., Beyre, J. M. and Trice, H. M. (1978) ‘Assessing Personal, Role, and Organisational Predictors of Management Commitment’, Academy of Management Journal, vol.21, no.3, p.380-396.
50
“Multiple forecasts” model theory of organisational commitment (Morris & Sherman,
1981)
Morris and Sherman (1981) developed a theory based on their conclusion
that research into organisational commitment was too narrow at that time. The
exchange viewpoint of models trend proposed by Stevens et al. (1978) refers to the
integration of two models into the “multiple forecast” type model of Morris and
Sherman (1981) shown in Figure 2-7. This model replaces “Task Characteristic” in
the Steers model with “Role Factor”, with Personal Characteristics and Work
Experiences as independent variables. The researchers used multiple regression
analyses to examine the predictive utility of the independent variables for
organisational commitment. The results indicated that there were six independent
variables that were important in the prediction of organisational commitment.
Figure 2-7. Morris and Sherman’s “multiple forecast” model for organisational commitment.
Source: Morris, J. H. and Sherman, J. D. (1981) ‘Generalisability of an organisational commitment model’, Academy of Management Journal, vol.24, pp.512-526.
“Causality” of organizational commitment (Mowday et al., 1982)
This model is similar to the “Causality” framework proposed by Steers
(1977), but is more comprehensive in terms of explaining the development of the
individual factors, and the importance of them at each stage. Mowday et al. (1982)
51
proposed that there are four antecedent variables and five consequent variables
within organizational commitment (see Figure 2-8). Antecedent variables are
personal characteristics (age, seniority, education level, race and personality), role
characteristics (including work scope, challenge, role conflict and role confusion)
structure characteristics (organizational normative, association involvement, control
of command, formalization, authority assignment degree and decision-making
involvement degree) and working experience (including dependability, emphasis on
personal sense and group codes). The consequent variables are job performance,
seniority, job absence, job tardiness and resignation.
Figure 2-8. Mowday, Porter and Steers’ “causality” of organisational commitment. Source: Mowday, R. T., Porter, L. W. and Steers, L. M. (1982) ‘Employee-Organisation Linkage-The Psychology of Commitment Absenteeism and Turnover’, N.Y.:Academic Press.
Causality model of organisational commitment (Mathieu & Zajac, 1990)
The causality model integrates 26 antecedent variables, 14 correlated
variables and 8 consequent variables (as depicted in Figure 2-9). The antecedent
variables are personal attributes consisting of age, sex, education, marital status,
position tenure, organization tenure, perceived personal competence, ability, salary,
the Protestant work ethic and job level. Role states are role ambiguity, role conflict
and role overload. Job characteristics include skill variety, task autonomy, challenge,
52
and job scope. Organization attributes consist of organizational size and
organisational centralisation. Group/Leader relations are group cohesiveness, task
independence, leader initiating structure, leader consideration, leader communication,
and participative leadership. Correlated variables include motivation (consisting of
overall, internal, job involvement, stress, occupational commitment and union
commitment) and job satisfaction (overall, intrinsic, extrinsic, supervision, co-
workers, promotion, pay and work itself). Subsequent variables include job
performance, consisting of others’ ratings, output measures, perceived job
alternatives, intention to search, intention to leave, attendance, lateness, and turnover.
Figure 2-9. Mathieu and Zajac’s “causality” model of organisational commitment. Source: Mathieu, J. E. and Zajac, D. M. (1990) ‘A Review and Meta-Analysis of the Antecedents, Correlates, and Consequences of Organisational Commitment’, Psychological Bulletin, vol.108, no.2, pp.171-194.
The causal variables of organisational commitment proposed by Huang (1986)
According to the frameworks of Steers (1977), Stevens et al. (1978), Morris
and Sherman (1981) and Huang (1986), the causal variables of organisational
commitment can be divided into personal attributes and situational variables. Huang
(1986) proposes that organisational commitment will be mutually affected by
53
personal and situational status, as shown in Figure 2-10. In this model causal
variables include personal attributes (demographic statistical variables such as age,
gender, seniority), personality features (such as achievement motives, personal
values and sex roles), and cognition and expectation (e.g., personal investment
against the organisation and interest received from the organisation for
remuneration). Situational variables consist of the organisational environment (such
as leadership style and organisation climate), work characteristics (autonomy and
priority) and working experience (such as role confirmation, attitude towards groups
against organisation, and emphasis on the individual received from the organisation).
Figure 2-10. The causal variables of organisational commitment proposed by Huang, Kou-Rong (1986). Source: The Research of High School Organisational Commitment proposed by Huang, Kou-Rong (1986), National Chengchi University Academic Report, vol. 53.
To summarise, literature on organisational commitment suggests that it has a
major effect on workers’ behaviour, particularly in relation to resignation and
unreasonable levels of job absence (Ingersoll, Kirsch, Merk, & Lightfoot, 2000; Ko,
Price, & Mueller, 1997; Laschinger, Finegan, Shamian, & Casier, 2000). Research
suggests that organisational commitment acts as a better predictor of attendance,
absenteeism and resignation compared to job satisfaction and other job attitudes
54
(Ferris & Aranya, 1983; Morris & Sherman, 1981; Mowday et al., 1982). Some
studies (Huang, 1986; Mathieu & Zajac, 1990) also suggest that most causal
variables of organisational commitment are personal attribute and situational factors.
2.4.3 Sociodemographic variables as related to organisational commitment
There are numerous studies examining employees’ organisational
commitment within hospitals, with an emphasis on organisation culture, job
satisfaction, professional commitment, citizen’s behaviour, stress response and
resignation desires. Based on the above review, there is some indication that
personal and situational factors have an effect on organisational commitment. It is
clear that employees’ demographics affect their perceptions of their organisation
(Lambert, Hogan, & Barton, 2001). However, a more detailed analysis of relevant
variables is needed in order to provide empirical support for the proposed model.
The next section discusses previous findings of experiments of organisational
commitment.
Age
Research suggests that age is positively associated with organisational
commitment (Aldag & Brief, 1975; Angle & Perry, 1981; Brown, 1969; Hrebiniak &
Alutto, 1972; Mathieu & Zajac, 1990; Morris & Sherman, 1981; Sheldon, 1971;
Shore et al., 1990; Steers, 1977; Stevens et al., 1978). These studies demonstrate that
with increasing age comes higher organisational commitment. In terms of exchange
theory, the more an individual has accumulated organisational resources (e.g., tenure,
position, and benefit), the greater his/her commitment to the employing organisation.
McNeese-Smith (2000) found that older nurses tend to have more satisfaction and
55
commitment to the organisation than younger nurses. Other research with nursing
staff in southern Taiwan also found a link between age and organisational
commitment (Tsai, Huang, & Yeh, 2003). Yang (2002) and Chang (2001) found that
older teachers exhibit higher organisational commitment overall and in each separate
dimension. As employees become older, they accumulate valued resources in the
employment system, and thus they are less inclined to change organisations
(Hrebiniak & Alutto, 1972; Mathieu & Zajac, 1990; Morris & Sherman, 1981).
Lee and Chung (2001) demonstrated in their study that respondents of
various ages show little difference in “value commitment”, however found a
statistical link between aged and “retention commitment” and “effort commitment”.
Tsai et al. (2003) also found that there was a positive correlation between “retention
commitment” and “effort commitment” and age. Chen (2001) conducted research to
investigate pressure and response to pressure in relation to organisational
commitment. It indicated that older respondents demonstrate higher organisational
commitment. However, Hu (1999), in contrast to previous studies, reported a
negative relationship between age and each dimension of organisational commitment
in a study of 395 nurses in a district teaching hospital in Taiwan.
Education status
Research has revealed positive relationships between education level and
organisational commitment (Pu, 1988; Putti, Aryee, & Liang, 1989). However, other
studies showed a negative correlation between educational level and organisational
commitment (Allen & Meyer, 1993; Angle & Perry, 1981; Mathieu & Zajac, 1990;
Morris & Sherman, 1981; Mowday et al., 1982; Steers, 1977; Taur, 1998; Tsai et al.,
56
2003). This second set of researchers argue that respondents with greater educational
preparation show lower organisational commitment and tend to have greater
opportunities for alternative employment, and therefore tend to be less committed to
the organisation. Based on Social Exchange Theory (SET), highly educated
employees have greater expectations but the organisation may be unable to meet
these expectations. A U-shaped relationship between education status and
organisational commitment was demonstrated by Chen (2001) in a sample of 304
hospital staff. Chen (2001) reported higher organisational commitment by staff with
high school diplomas and Master’s degrees than staff with Bachelor’s degrees. Staff
with high school diplomas scored higher on “retention commitment” than Masters’
and Bachelor’s degree staff (Chen, 2001).
Lee and Chung (2001) found that employees with only high school-level
education are more attentive to “values commitment” and “retention commitment”
than diploma-level employees. Research undertaken by Hu (1999) using nurses
found that education was not significantly related to “retention commitment” for this
group, but that there was a positive relationship between education and “value
commitment” (r = .10, p < .05) and “effort commitment” (r = .11, p < .05). Stevens
et al. (1978) examined the relationship between personal attributes and
organisational commitment of 634 supervisors in 71 federal government
organisations. Their correlation analyses revealed that education was not related to
organisational commitment, but had a positive correlation with federal commitment.
Research by Chen (2002) reported that there was no relationship between having a
university degree and organisation commitment. Shore et al. (1990) found that
correlations between organisational commitment and education were negative but
57
not significant. The results suggest that further research is required to determine the
relationship between education status and organisational commitment.
Income
Friss (1983) surveyed 82 directors of nursing (DON) in 150 hospitals in
Southern California. The findings indicated that higher tenure and salary were
positively associated with organisational commitment. Hu (1999), in contrast,
reported that salary level was strongly negatively associated with each individual
dimension of organisational commitment (“values commitment”, r = -.95, p < .01;
“effort commitment”, r = -.95, p < .01; “retention commitment”, r = -.87, p < .01).
Hu (1999) notes that the nature of, and reason for the inverse relationship between
the two variables remains unclear.
Occupational position
Generally, occupational position has a positive relationship to organisational
commitment, such that the higher the respondent’s position, the more organisational
commitment one shows (Morrow et al., 1988; Xiao & Lu, 1996). For instance, Lee
and Chung (2001) demonstrated that managers show higher mean scores than staff in
“values commitment”, “effort commitment” and “retention commitment”.
2.4.4 Summary
This section has provided a review of the different definitions of organisational
commitment, ranging from those with an attitudinal perspective to those using a
behavioural approach. The different categories of organisational commitment
outlined by different authors were highlighted. This section also provided an analysis
58
of a number of instruments commonly used by researchers in organisational
commitment, and justified the decision in the current study to select the instrument
by Mowday et al. (1979). Finally, this section examined the various causal models of
organisational commitment, and relevant empirical studies were discussed. Corser
(1998) has suggested that understanding of organisational commitment for nurses is
limited, and more research on organisational commitment and related variables
among nurses is needed (Corser, 1998; Tumulty et al., 1995).
2.5 The interrelationship between work values, job involvement and
organisational commitment
A literature review revealed that although some studies of the interrelationships
between work values, job involvement and organisational commitment have been
conducted in Asian countries, none of these has undertaken a simultaneous
investigation of all three variables. For example, Lau and Huang (1999) conducted a
study involving 191 retail salespersons in Singapore. This study determined whether
job satisfaction, work motivation, organisational commitment and job involvement
had an impact on customer orientation. Tayyab and Tariq (2001) collected data from
210 middle level executives and examined the work values and organisational
commitment of public and private sector executive in Pakistan. No previous studies
have conducted a simultaneous investigation of work values, job involvement, and
organisational commitment in the subject population, Taiwanese nurses.
Furthermore, no study to date has attempted to explain any causal relationship
between these factors for Taiwanese nurses. This section discusses what evidence
there is for interrelationships between these constructs.
59
2.5.1 Research on work values and job involvement
Work values are a particularly important work commitment construct, as they
play a key role in influencing an employee’s affective responses in the workplace.
Some researchers (Wollack et al., 1971) argue that work values are learned, in part,
as a result of past experience. They suggest that the personal characteristics of an
individual interact with various stimuli and environmental conditions to form work
values. Research into job involvement has suggested that, like organisational
commitment, it is related to three classes of variables, (1) personal characteristics, (2)
situational characteristics, and (3) work outcomes. Work values have been
commonly viewed as a personality variable (Brown, 1996; Huang, 1986; Mathieu &
Zajac, 1990; Mowday et al., 1982; Rabinowitz & Hall, 1977), a strong antecedent of
all three work attitudes (e.g., job involvement, organisational commitment, and
career salience) (Shore et al., 1990) and a relatively unchanged feature over an
individual’s life course (Morrow, 1983).
Rokeach (1973) suggests that values represent the psychological investment
of a person in his/her environment. Value orientations are learned during the
socialisation process. Although the most significant value learning occurs in the
home during an individual’s early formative years, many of our values continue to
be shaped and formed in other settings, especially school and work.
Lodahl and Kejner (1965) state that job involvement is considered by many
to be closely tied to a strong work ethic, and people who place work at, or near, the
centre of their lives (Christopher & Jones, 2002). Weber (1958) discussed work
values as related to the ideals of the Protestant work ethic (PWE). Lodahl and Kejner
60
(1965) and Blau (1985) further argue that the main determinant of job involvement is
a value orientation towards work that is learned early in the socialisation process.
Anyone who has internalised these traditional values will probably be “job involved”,
regardless of the context within which he or she might be employed (Rabinowitz &
Hall, 1977). Indirect empirical evidence suggests a relationship between the PWE
and job involvement (Randall & Cote, 1991).
Many of the factors that are related to work values and job involvement have
been highlighted in this literature review. Job involvement is associated with an
individual’s attitude and is considered to be a different concept than values. In
research conducted by Lodahl and Kejner (1965) and Saal (1978), and the theory by
Rabinowitz and Hall (1977) and the motive mode of Kanungo (1982), work values
are all assumed to be key variables in job involvement. Rabinowitz and Hall (1977)
suggest that there is a level of internal control and work belief inherent in the
Protestant work ethic practiced by individuals, and this can positively predict job
involvement (β = .16). Research by Morrow and McElroy (1987) points out that
work values are the key to job involvement and other emotional reactions, and they
found direct evidence that work values are positively related to job involvement in
the work force (r = .38). Randall and Cote (1991) also found that individuals holding
strong work values were more involved with their jobs.
A number of studies have found that when work values of individuals match
those of the organisation, workers become more involved in their jobs (Blau, 1985;
Dong, 2001; Tang, 2000). Research by Wu (1995), Huang and Wu (1996) has found
that work values and job characteristics are influential determinants of job
involvement. Chuang (2001) conducted a study investigating the work values and
61
job involvement of medical attendants in Christian hospitals, also revealing that
individual work values and job involvement are positively related. This research
suggests that when an organisation recruits new staff a quantitative table of work
values matching organisational values could be used as a means for successful
selection of personnel bearing work values similar to those of the organisation.
Although the several studies reviewed above found a positive relationship
between work values and job involvement, one study did not. Aldag and Brief's
(1975) study using 131 employees of a manufacturing firm reported that job
involvement was not significantly related to either of the two subscales (pro-
Protestant Work Ethic and non-Protestant Work Ethic) of the Protestant Work Ethic.
2.5.2 Research on work values and organisational commitment
Some researchers (Bruning & Snyder, 1983; Mottaz, 1988) have argued that
demographic variables (e.g., age, sex, education, and tenure) may have a relationship
with organisational commitment, but they are not determinants of commitment. For
example, employees with advancing age or longer tenure tend to hold higher
positions, make more rewards, and have excellent social relations. Therefore, it is
not age or tenure itself, but rather different levels of work values which are
associated with age or tenure that influence organisational commitment (Mottaz,
1988). Thus, Mottaz (1988) suggested that work values may mediate the effect of
demographic variables on organisational commitment.
Although commitment is an attitude that manifests itself in behaviour, it is
not an attitude that results from monetary or occasional enthusiasm (Krathwohl,
Bloom, & Masia, 1964). Rather, it results from a value or set of values held by an
62
individual over an extended period (O'Reilly, 1989). Several authors have considered
values in general, and work values specifically, as important variables in explaining
organisational commitment (Huang, 1986; Kidron, 1978; Putti et al., 1989).
Charanyanada (1980) suggests that commitment is strengthened through investment
of time and energy in the work role, particularly when there is reciprocal value
perceived in one’s efforts. This conceptualisation implies a reciprocal relationship
between commitment and behaviour, such that by acting on behalf of and according
to his values, an individual strengthens his/her commitment, which in turn makes
his/her future behaviour more predictable.
As is the case for the interaction between behaviour and the environment, the
relationship between these personal characteristics is reciprocal and dynamic. Over
time and through the individual’s learning experience, these beliefs will be either
reinforced or weakened. If they are reinforced, the employee will probably retain and
possibly increase his/her commitment. If these beliefs are weakened, the individual
may well lose his/her commitment and leave the organisation.
A number of studies have been conducted investigating the connection
between work values and organizational commitment (Chen & Lu, 1997; Huang,
1999; Huang, 1986; Kidron, 1978; Lee & Chung, 2001; Liang, 1999; Pu, 1988;
Rabinowitz & Hall, 1977). Putti et al. (1989) conducted a study which revealed that
intrinsic work values relate more closely to organisational commitment than either
extrinsic work values or overall work values. Knoop (1994a, 1994b, 1994c) found
that work values are significant predictors of job satisfaction and organisational
commitment. Values of the Protestant ethic have been shown to be correlated with
organisational commitment, job involvement and career salience (Shore et al., 1990).
63
Intrinsic work values were also related to normative (norm-based) commitment and
extrinsic work values were related to instrumental (reward-based) commitment in
another study (Butler & Vodanovich, 1992). Tayyab and Tariq (2001) found a
significant positive correlation between intrinsic work values and organisational
commitment of private sector executives. Some researchers report that individuals
were more committed to the organisation when their values were congruent with
those of their managers (Sagie, Elizur, & Koslowsky, 1996).
In a study conducted by Huang (1986), values such as responsibility and
achievement tended to facilitate and predict organisational commitment. Chen and
Lu (1997) believe that the higher the work values rise, the more organisational
commitment and job involvement improves. A study conducted by Liang (1999)
investigating work values and organisational commitment, suggests that work values
have minimal impact on organizational commitment. In contrast, Lee and Chung
(2001) discovered that “instrumental values” and organisational commitment were
statistically correlated. The “stability and freedom from anxiety considerations” of
employees was the strongest influencing factor on “retention commitment”. The next
most influencing factor was the value of “security and economic consideration”. The
“social interaction considerations” of employees showed the strongest influence on
their “values commitment”. The work values of “security and economic
considerations” had the strongest influence on an employee’s “effort commitment”.
Knowing which intrinsic and extrinsic factors can influence changes in
organisational commitment may be able to further contribute to an understanding of
how factors could be employed in work settings, helping to foster such attitudes
among nurses.
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2.5.3 Research on job involvement and organisational commitment
Job involvement and organisational commitment have been major themes of
organisational research in recent years (Keller, 1997). Until recently, studies have
typically included either job involvement or organisational commitment, rather than
both of these variables in the same study, at least for studies undertaken in Taiwan
(Chen, 2000). It is necessary to further assess this relationship in order to provide
additional information about work commitment in this context.
According to Randall and Cote’s model (1991) of interrelationships among
work commitment constructs, job involvement mediates the relationships among
Protestant work ethic, occupational commitment and two forms of organisational
commitment. The relationship between job involvement and organisational
commitment is based on Social Exchange Theory (SET), where people tend to
reciprocate those who are a benefit to them. Thus, a reciprocal relationship exists
between job involvement, positive work experiences and high organisational
commitment (Cohen, 1999). The argument for a role for employee reciprocation is
supported by Meyer et al. (1998) in their summary of research on the antecedents of
organisational commitment. They concluded that higher affective commitment to the
organisation is more likely for those employees who have had positive work
experiences. Job involvement is a personal characteristic which has been found to be
positively related to organisational commitment (Stevens et al., 1978).
In a recent meta-analysis, Brown (1996) reported a strong positive
relationship between job involvement and organisational commitment in the
workplace (average r = .49). Many relationships between personal characteristics,
65
job-related characteristics, work experiences and organisational commitment may be
explained in terms of the Exchange Theory (Hrebiniak & Alutto, 1972). Individuals
come to organisations with certain needs, desires, skills, and so on, and expect to
find an environment which uses their abilities and satisfies many of their basic needs.
When the organisational environment is dependable, and these needs are satisfied,
the probability of increasing commitment is enhanced. When an organisation fails to
make effective use of its employees, commitment levels tend to diminish. The
negative relationship between educational levels and organisational commitment
could be predicted by SET, because it may be more difficult for organisations to
provide sufficient rewards for employees with higher levels of education.
There are published studies which report correlations between job
involvement and organisational commitment. As has been highlighted earlier in this
chapter, organisational commitment is different from job involvement.
Organisational commitment is oriented by identification with the organisation, while
job involvement refers to identification with the job. This makes the latter more
vulnerable to individual work values, among other factors. Job involvement reflects
the individual’s level concentration on the job, showing how important personal
identification with the job can be, and suggesting an influence of personal pride on
one’s performance (Lodahl & Kejner, 1965). Organisational commitment is a
different work attitude from job involvement, however a number of studies have
highlighted the connection between organisational commitment and job involvement
(Blau, 1989; Morrow, 1983; Morrow & McElroy, 1986; Mowday et al., 1982;
Mowday et al., 1979). Job involvement, as a function of early socialisation
experiences (Kanungo, 1982), is more stable than organisational commitment (Blau
66
& Boal, 1987). Moreover, both variables are thought to influence some work-related
behaviour independently (Robbins, 1993) and result in significant interactive
relationship (Blau & Boal, 1987).
A prior study (Mathieu & Zajac, 1990) indicates that organisational
commitment is positively related to employee motivation, job involvement and job
satisfaction, and negatively related to absenteeism and turnover. Some studies have
found that there is a significant correlation between job involvement and
organisational commitment, and that these factors are negatively associated with
employee turnover intentions (Igbaria & Siegel, 1992; Koberg & Chusmir, 1989;
Martin & Hafer, 1995; Porter et al., 1974). Employees who have high turnover
intentions have lower levels of job involvement and organisational commitment, thus
confirming earlier correlational results (e.g. Mowday et al., 1982; Rabinowitz & Hall,
1977). Studies by Stevens et al. (1978), Mowday et al. (1979), Morrow (1983) and
Buffardi and Niebisch (1988), have found that job involvement has a strong and
positive effect on the forecast of organisational commitment. Knoop (1995)
conducted research using 171 nurse educators and registered nurses, finding that job
involvement was moderately related to commitment to the employing organisation.
Huang (1993) found that organisational commitment was positively correlated with
job involvement, and that job involvement varies across gender, age, marital status,
seniority and salary.
2.5.4 Randall and Cote’s original and revised model
Randall and Cote’s model (see Figure 2.11) of five forms of work
commitment includes the Protestant work ethic, work group attachment, job
67
involvement, organisational commitment, and career commitment. Strong
relationships have been found between job involvement and organisational
commitment, and job involvement and career salience (Randall & Cote, 1991). In
addition, job involvement was significantly influenced by the Protestant work ethic.
Work-group attachment, however, appeared to influence organisational commitment
only through job involvement. This model included only one form of organisational
commitment.
Figure 2-11. A model of relationships among work commitment constructs. Source: Randall, D. M. and Cote, J. A. (1991) ‘Interrelationships of work commitment constructs’, Work and Occupations, vol.18, no.2, pp.194-211.
Randall and Cote’s revised model (see Figure 2.12), proposed by Cohen
(1999) specifies that the Protestant work ethic affects job involvement, which in turn
influences affective organisational commitment directly. Career commitment
mediates the relationship between job involvement and affective organisational
commitment. Job involvement only affects the ‘low alternatives’ dimension of
continuance commitment. Career commitment has a significant negative relationship
with the full scale of continuance commitment. Job involvement is the key focus, as
it mediates the relationship between the exogenous variables, Protestant work ethic,
and the dependent variables, organisational commitment and career commitment.
68
Figure 2-12. Randall and Cote’s revised model. Source: Cohen, A. (1999) ‘Relationships among five forms of commitment: an empirical assessment’, Journal of Organisational Behaviour, vol.20, no.3, pp.285-308.
According to these two models, the Protestant work ethic is a personality
variable, one’s belief in the importance of hard work (Cohen, 1999). The Protestant
work ethic is an exogenous variable, directly affecting job involvement. Cohen
(1999) explains that people with a strong work ethic are more likely to be job
involved than those with a lower level of Protestant work ethic. Job involvement is
viewed as an individual’s psychological identification with one’s job (Kanungo,
1982). Job involvement in particular is a powerful influence on commitment to the
organisation.
Shore et al. (1990) collected data from 449 employees (305 men and 144
women) from a medium-sized Western city and examined the relationship between
the four work attitudes, work values, job involvement, organisational commitment
and career salience. Job involvement was measured by a job involvement scale
developed by Lodahl and Kejner (1965). The Organisational Commitment
Questionnaire (Mowday et al., 1979) was used to measure organisational
commitment. Work values were measured by the Protestant Ethic Scale (Blood,
1969). A significant relationship was found between all four variables, and work
69
values was a strong antecedent of all three work attitudes, such as job involvement (r
= .39), career salience (r = .52), and organisational commitment (r = .29).
Cohen (1999) compared Morrow’s (1993) model with the conceptualisation
proposed by Randall and Cote (1991). He reports that results of path analysis reveal
that Randall and Cote’s model fits the data much better than Morrow’s model.
According to Cohen (1999), the relation between job involvement and organisational
commitment is based on social exchange theory, where people are likely to
reciprocate to those who benefit them. The model therefore includes a direct link
between job involvement and organisational commitment.
2.6 Conclusion
This chapter has reviewed research and theoretical models related to
sociodemographics, work values, job involvement, and organisational commitment
and examined evidence for the relationships between these variables. The first
section presented studies on work values, which appear to support work values as a
potential criteria for selecting employees, and suggests that this construct influences
a variety of organisational behaviour. This was followed by a description of the
categories of work values and associated empirical studies. A brief discussion of the
work values inventory followed. The second section considered job involvement,
which refers to an individual’s psychological identification with a particular job.
Relevant theoretical models suggest that job involvement is positively related to
organisational commitment, and is also influenced by work values. The third section
reviewed organisational commitment, which was viewed as an independent
phenomenon influenced by several factors. The background of the questionnaires
70
was discussed to in order to facilitate understanding of the research leading to
instrument development. The importance of socio-demographic factors has also been
identified. Further investigation of these factors should better indicate the variables
which need to be considered when planning job and career development strategies.
Finally, the chapter looked at relationships among work values, job
involvement, and organisational commitment. Relevant theoretical models were
discussed. The research suggests that workplace values and attitudes are strongly
correlated, and that personal values can explain an individual’s attitude and
behaviour. Nearly all of the research reviewed in this chapter indicated a positive
relationship between job involvement and organisational commitment, such that
employees having high job involvement have greater organisational commitment, or
vice versa.
In summary, there is a clear association between work values and job
involvement, work values and organisational commitment, and organisational
commitment and job involvement in the literature. Work values, job involvement
and organisational commitment are three dimensions of the broader framework of
commitment. Lack of any of these elements of work commitment may account for
employee absenteeism, turnover, reduced effort, and job dissatisfaction (Morrow,
1993). In addition, these variables are appropriate for current study because they can
be measured at the individual level, regardless of employment location. However,
there is a dearth of studies which explore the possibility of indirect connections
between work values and organisational commitment through the mediator of job
involvement. Many studies simply combined the results of employees of different
genders, making generalisation difficult to either male or female workers
71
independently. These variables have been examined in many different populations,
but the current study proposes that these concepts may be particularly important to a
profession composed primarily of female nurses in Taiwan. The present study will
allow the relationship between these constructs to be explored more deeply. This will
be of immediate value when developing work commitment theories. Additional
study using these constructs is needed to strengthen this field and improve the
generalisability of findings.
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CHAPTER THREE
STUDY METHODS
3.1 Introduction
This chapter discusses the study design and methods that were used to fulfil
the research objectives (section 1.2). Objectives 1 to 3 were met using descriptive
approaches, while objectives 4 to 5 required formal hypothesis testing.
3.2 Research structure
The research was conducted according to the following steps.
1. The literature was reviewed in relation to work values, job involvement and
organisational commitment, including selection and development of the
survey instrument (for more details see stage 5 below).
2. The study was designed based on the research objectives and the literature
review.
3. Ethical approval was obtained from the Queensland University of
Technology.
4. After necessary approval to conduct the investigation was obtained from the
administrators in the Taiwanese hospitals, individuals were given
questionnaires through nursing units within the nursing departments of the
hospitals selected for this study.
73
5. The survey instrument was distributed. The instrument was composed of the
following measures.
• A sociodemographic profile was developed by the author to collect
personal data (see Appendix A).
• The Work Values Inventory (WVI) (Wu et al., 1996) was designed to
measure the work values of participants (see Appendix B).
• The Job Involvement Questionnaire (JIQ) (Kanungo, 1982) was included
to measure the job involvement of nurses in the sample (see Appendix C).
• The Organisational Commitment Questionnaire (OCQ) (Mowday et al.,
1979) was designed to measure participants’ commitment towards their
employer (see Appendix D).
6. Data analysis.
7. Data interpretation, summarising the findings, drawing conclusions, and
identifying specific implications.
3.3 Recruitment strategy
3.3.1 Study design and sampling
The study utilised a cross-sectional survey design. The samples were
recruited via convenience sampling (see Appendix E). The target population for this
study consisted of Registered Nurses (RN) who worked in regional teaching
hospitals in Taiwan. The samples were recruited using the following strategy. First,
24 hospitals were selected from a list of Hospital Accreditation and Teaching
74
Accreditation issued by the Department of Health, the Executive Yuan, Taiwan,
R.O.C. (2004). There are a total of 67 regional teaching hospitals available in
Taiwan. However, only one-third of the hospitals were selected to participate in this
study due to financial feasibility and accessibility issues. A letter of invitation to
participate in the study was sent out to the selected hospitals. A total of nine agreed
to participate, producing a participation rate of 38%.
In those hospitals that agreed to participate, there were approximately 2800
nurses available. Participants were selected to take part in this survey based on the
following inclusion criteria, (1) be a RN, (2) be employed full-time or part-time and
have to have completed at least three months of service (to ensure that participants
have at least some familiarity with the job and organisation), and (3) be willing to
participate. Subjects who met the inclusion criteria were invited to be part of the
study and asked to fill in the questionnaire.
3.3.2 Sample size
A sample size of 170 was considered the minimum data set for this study
based on a sample size calculation. The minimum sample size was determined by
assuming a difference between groups of 1.0 point on the five point Likert scale
previously used and a standard deviation of 0.9, allowing a 5% type I error and 10%
type II error (statistical power = 90%). The sample size was inflated to 345 subjects
taking into consideration a response rate of 40%, confounder (15%) and contingency
(10%).
Base on the above figure, a minimum sample size of 38 nurses per hospital is
considered sufficient. However, a total of 1300 nurses from the participating
75
hospitals were eligible for the survey. All eligible nurses were surveyed, as a large
sample size provides distinct advantages such as decreasing sampling error and
increasing the power to detect relationships that exist. Of the 1300 questionnaires
distributed, 1053 were completed and returned, a response rate of 81%.
3.4 Data collection
This study was conducted in regional teaching hospitals located across Taiwan.
The principal investigator used the following procedures to collect data.
1. The principal investigator approached selected hospitals and contacted the
nursing manager who was assigned to assist with distributing the
questionnaires.
2. The principal investigator worked with the nursing manager to obtain a list of
nursing units (e.g. medicine, surgery, pediatrics, etc.). This list was used to
randomly select nursing units.
3. Each selected nursing unit was provided with questionnaires for each eligible
nurse. The questionnaires were distributed by the head nurse of the unit.
4. Each nurse from the selected nursing unit was provided with a questionnaire
package. This included a cover letter (Appendix F) explaining the purpose of
the study, details of confidentiality, detailed instructions about completing the
questionnaire, and a request to complete and return the questionnaire within
two weeks. The cover letter also explained procedures for returning the
questionnaire in the envelope provided. Demographic information and all
instruments were incorporated into a single questionnaire. The three-part
76
survey questionnaire asked nurses questions concerning their work values,
organisational commitment and job involvement.
5. Respondents were asked to return the completed questionnaire (in a sealed
envelope) to the hospital lodgement box, which was left by the principal
investigator in the office of the Department of Nursing. For those surveys
which were not returned after two weeks, a reminder notice was issued to all
participants by the nursing head of the respective units, followed by a follow-
up communication by the Director of Nursing representing each organisation.
At the end of the data collection period, the completed questionnaires from
each selected hospital lodgement box were collected by the principal
investigator. The data collection was completed over a six week period.
3.5 Ethical considerations
Ethical approval was obtained from the Queensland University of
Technology Human and Research Ethics Committee. Ethical approval was also
sought from each participating hospital’s Research Committee prior to data
collection commencing. A copy of the application and letter of approval is included
in Appendix G.
Participants were provided with information about the study using an
information sheet. Subject participation was voluntary and anonymity was
maintained (there was no identifiable information on the questionnaire). A
completed questionnaire from the respondent was deemed a sign of their consent to
participate in the study. The principal investigator ensured that participants were
clear that all information collected was confidential and would not be divulged to
77
any third party. Participants were asked to place completed questionnaires in the
envelope provided, and seal it, so that only the principal investigator would have
access to the responses. This study was deemed to not have an adverse impact (either
immediately or in future) on the lives or employment of the respondents. Only de-
identified, aggregated data will be presented in the analysis section of this thesis and
in future reports and publications.
3.6 Research hypotheses
To meet the fourth research objective (section 1.2), the following specific
hypotheses were formally tested in this study.
Hypothesis 1: Age and socioeconomic status (SES) will be positively associated
with work values, job involvement and organisational commitment.
Hypothesis 2: Work values will be significantly associated with job involvement.
Hypothesis 3: Positive work values will be significantly associated with
organisational commitment.
Hypothesis 4: Job involvement will be significantly associated with organisational
commitment.
To meet research objective 5, the following hypothesis was also tested.
Hypothesis 5: Job involvement will mediate any relationship between work values
and organisational commitment.
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3.7 Survey instrument
3.7.1 Survey questionnaire
This study used an adaptation of the Work Values Inventory (WVI), the Job
Involvement Questionnaire (JIQ) and an Organisational Commitment Questionnaire
(OCQ), as well as a sociodemographic questionnaire. Table 3-1 shows the reliability
values of the study instruments that have been previously tested.
Table 3-1 Description of instruments used in previous studies
Instrument Reliability reported in previous studies (Cronbach’s α) # of items
Wu et al’s (1996) WVI .97 49
Kanungo’s (1982) JIQ .81 10
Mowday et al’s (1979) OCQ .90 15
Prior to the main study, a similar study was conducted using nurses from a
religious hospital in Taiwan at the end of 2002, using identical survey instruments.
In this study, the entire questionnaire was reviewed by four health-related
professionals in order to establish clarity of the instructions, face validity, the
research items, and overall format of the questionnaire. Following the review, items
that were ambiguous were either corrected or deleted. The revised questionnaire was
administered to a sample group consisting of 102 staff nurses working in the hospital
setting. Reliability analysis was conducted. The results showed that for the work
values scale and its subscales, Cronbach’s α ranged from .91 to .98. For job
involvement, Cronbach’s α was .81. For the organisational commitment scale and
associated subscales, Cronbach’s α ranged from .80 to .85. These alphas were
considered relatively high, and so these scales were considered satisfactory in terms
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of reliability. The results of this preliminary study suggest that reliability was
comparable to other similar studies conducted in this field (see Table 3-1). This
implies that the questionnaire is appropriate for use in the Taiwanese context.
Sociodemographic profile
A sociodemographic profile measure was developed for use in this study.
This survey collected personal data about each subject, including organisation,
gender, age, martial status, employment status, religious affiliation, education status,
personal income, occupational position, position tenure, organisation tenure and
nursing tenure.
Work Values Inventory (WVI)
Work values were measured using a Mandarin translation of a modified
indigenous version (49 items) of Super’s Work Values Inventory (WVI) (Wu et al.,
1996). There are a total of 49 items for measuring the level of work values, rather
than using only the 4 items of Protestant Work Ethic (PWE) (Randall & Cote, 1991).
There were no reverse-scored items, and scores are computed for each value
dimension (refer to p.23) by adding the scores for the seven items representing that
dimension. A response to each statement was made on a 5-point Likert-type scale
ranging from 1, not important to 5, very important. Thus, the maximum score for
each dimension was 35 and the minimum score was 7. A higher score reflects a
higher placing importance on values of work.
According to Wu et al. (1996), the WVI is a reliable instrument with a high
level of construct, content and concurrent validity. Norms on the WVI have been
carefully developed and research has indicated that work values do not seem to differ
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with age. Recent Taiwanese researchers (Chen, 2000; Chuang, 2002; Lee & Chung,
2001) have reported coefficient alphas ranging from .79 to .94.
Job Involvement Questionnaire (JIQ)
Job involvement is defined in the current study as the psychological
importance of one’s job, and was measured with the 10-item Job Involvement
Questionnaire (JIQ) (Kanungo, 1982). The JIQ instrument has been used in many
research studies and its reliability (Chen, 1998, 2000; Chuang, 2002; Kuo, Jaw,
Wang, & Chen, 2004; Leong, Huang, & Hsu, 2003) and validity examined
extensively (Leong et al., 2003). Of these studies, three were Taiwanese studies
(Chen, 1998, 2000; Chuang, 2002; Kuo et al., 2004), for which the Cronbach’s alpha
ranged from .76 to .84. Responses were scored on a 5-point Likert scale (ranging
from 1, strongly disagree to 5, strongly agree). The 10 items were summed to
provide a total involvement score, two of which are negatively phrased and hence
reverse scored. High scores reflect a higher level of job involvement. In addition,
there were complete agreements on 10 items for inclusion in the JIQ and 4 items for
inclusion in Randall and Cote’s scale.
Organisational Commitment Questionnaire (OCQ)
Organisational commitment is defined as the relative strength of an
employee’s identification with, and involvement in, a particular organisation. The
questionnaire used to test organisational commitment was based on a translation of
Mowday et al’s (1979) scale into Mandarin by Wu and Yang (1982). This scale used
a 15-item Likert scale, six items of which are negatively phrased and reverse scored.
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The instrument used a five-point response scale ranging from 1 (strongly
disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) and included three dimensions, “values commitment”,
“effort commitment”, and “retention commitment”. An overall score is achieved by
summing the responses. The higher the score, the greater the employee’s
commitment to the organisation. Empirical studies that have employed the OCQ
have demonstrated good internal consistency reliability (Cook, Hepworth, Wall, &
Warr, 1981; Lee et al., 2000; Liang, 1989; Price & Mueller, 1986a; Ting, 1987).
Moreover, Ting (1987) conducted an Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) on results
from Wu and Yang’s (1982) translation Mandarin version of Mowday et al’s (1979)
OCQ. The participants were 639 employees from six Taiwanese firms. Results of the
factor analysis indicated the organisational commitment items form three separate
factors, namely, “values commitment”, “effort commitment”, and “retention
commitment” (Hsu, 1990; Wang, 1991). Two separate reliability studies suggest
these factors form a reliability scale with an alpha of .93 and Spearman-Brown split-
half reliability of .87. Subsequent Taiwanese researchers (Chang, Yeh, & Yang,
2001; Hu, 1999) have reported coefficient alphas ranging from .81 to .95 for samples
of hospital staff nurses. Results of Ting’s three-factor structure of organisational
commitment will be used in current study. In addition, the inventory used in Randall
and Cote’s organisational commitment items will be used in this study to measure
organisational commitment.
In summary, the questionnaires used here to assess work values, job
involvement and organisational commitment have been frequently used in
organisational behaviour studies in Taiwan in recent years. However, this study is
the first in which the three instruments will be used together in the nursing field.
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Validity of these measurement scales has been demonstrated in Taiwan in the fields
of education and business (Chen, 2000; Chen et al., 1998; Lee & Chung, 2001;
Wang, Yang, & Wang, 2001; Wu & Lin, 2003), but there is no published evidence
about the JIQ’s construct validity in Taiwan (Chen, 1998, 2000; Chuang, 2002; Kuo
et al., 2004). Therefore, as a preliminary step in analysis of the current research data,
the validity and reliability of the measures used was established.
3.7.2 Assessments of validity
The WVI and OCQ were analysed using Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA)
and the JIQ by using EFA. CFA and EFA are two statistical approaches that can be
used to examine the internal reliability of a measure. CFA was used because it is a
powerful tool for testing an existing theory, allowing the researcher to test and
systematically compare specified a priori models. Most importantly, CFA is a useful
tool that can be used to assess measurement error. This analysis is considered more
appropriate if prior hypotheses exist based on theory or previous analysis (De Vet,
Ader, Terwee, & Pouwer, 2005). EFA was undertaken for the JIQ, as this analysis
does not have well specified a priori restrictions on the structure of the model
(Segars & Grover, 1993). Both statistical approaches can provide strong evidence for
the internal validity and reliability of a measure.
Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA)
CFAs using LISREL 8.71 were employed to confirm the factor structure of
work values and organisational commitment constructs. CFA, with maximum
likelihood (ML) estimation, was conducted to specify correlated measurement error
and to estimate the true correlations (factor loadings) between the underlying
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constructs (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001). The factor loadings were significant,
meaning that they effectively reflected factor structure. Furthermore, CFA was
performed to determine adequacy of the model’s fit to the data. Structural Equation
Modelling (SEM) is a largely confirmatory technique (Hoyle, 1995), which can be
manipulated by LISREL 8.71. The analysis is reported in detail in the next section.
A factor loadings or factor structure matrix indicating a matrix of correlations
between observed variables and their factors (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001) was
examined for the study variables (i.e., work values, job involvement and
organisational commitment). The general rule is that factor loadings greater than .3
in absolute value are considered to be significant (Nunnally, 1978). In CFA, a
finding that indicators have high loadings on the predicted factors indicates
convergent validity, which is a form of construct validity, and refers to the principle
that indicators for a given construct should be at least moderately correlated among
themselves. A CFA was used to test the study’s main construct, namely, work values
and organisational commitment.
Goodness of fit (GOF) indicators
When using goodness-of-fit measures, Kline (1998) recommends that a
minimum of four fit indices should be reported. There are six common approaches
reported in the literature to analysing model fit, including Chi square statistics (χ2),
chi-square to degrees of freedom ratio (χ2/df), the Normed Fit Index (NFI; Bentler &
Bonett, 1980), the Comparative Fit Index (CFI; Bentler, 1990), the Goodness of Fit
Index (GFI) and the Root-Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA).
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A “good fit” is indicated by a nonsignificant χ2. In practice, Chi-square is
sensitive to sample sizes (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001). If the chi-square to degrees of
freedom ratio (χ2/df) is around 3, this is generally accepted as a moderate fit. A score
below this suggests good fit of the model to the data (Kline, 1998). The large χ2 and
the likelihood ratio indicate the fit is still not as good as it could be. However,
according to Hertzog (1988), a model can still be considered useful even when the
likelihood ratio chi-square test is statistically significant. Therefore, though the Chi-
square statistic and the likelihood ratio are reported here, these should not be
interpreted as a measure of fit.
The NFI represents a measure of covariance (Hoyle, 1995). NFI appears to
perform well in large samples (n > 400) (Boomsma, 1982, 1983). The CFI performs
a valid index of estimating model fit in all samples (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001). The
CFI provides a measure of complete covariation in the data (Byrne, 2001). The GFI
is a measure of relative variance and covariance that relates closely to the population
covariance matrix (Byrne, 2001). The GFI values are very susceptible to variations
in sample size (Byrne, 2001).
The NFI, CFI and GFI range between zero and one, with values higher
than .9 generally accepted as representing a reasonable model fit. RMSEA is an
index of model fit, as it corrects for both sample size and degrees of freedom (Brown
& Cudeck, 1993). Values of .05 or less indicate a good fit and a value ranging
from .05 to .1 is indicative of reasonable fit for the RMSEA index (Brown & Cudeck,
1993). A RMSEA value of .10 or higher indicates a poorly fitting model.
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Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA)
EFA was conducted on job involvement in order to explore this new factor
structure. EFA using SPSS version 13.0 was conducted on JIQ in order to develop a
model that more closely fit the data. EFA seeks to discover the underlying factor
structure of a relatively large set of variables or a construct (Tabachnick & Fidell,
2001). EFA was conducted using a Principal Components Analysis (PCA), with a
varimax rotation. The analysis utilised all of the items that were included in the
scales.
3.7.3 Assessment of reliability
A reliability coefficient (Cronbach’s α) was used to measure the reliability of
scales used in the study. A Cronbach’s α of .7 or higher indicates a sufficient level of
internal reliability (Nunnally, 1978). The aim of the questionnaire was to create a
positive scale to measure job involvement and organisational commitment.
Therefore a number of questions were reverse-coded (JIQ’s questions 2, 7, and
OCQ’s questions 3, 7, 9, 11, 12 and 15) to ensure consistency of results. Although
instruments selected in this study were all well-established, it was necessary to
confirm their reliability once again for this study, because of its usage in the
Taiwanese hospital context. This is particularly relevant when new instruments are
being developed, or when previously validated instruments are translated and used in
different countries (Nystedt, Sjoberg, & Hagglund, 1999).
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3.7.4 Testing the research instrument: Results
Work values
After collecting the data for the study, a maximum likelihood CFA was
conducted to examine the factor structure. Table 3-2 provides the factor loadings of
the resultant model, revealing that the factor loadings were all positive, with most
exceeding .4. No negative error variances were present, and the t-values, which are
the factor loadings divided by the respective standard error, were all statistically
significant.
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Table 3-2. Factor loadings, measurement errors, and t values for CFA of Work
Values Inventory. Dimensions of work values Dimensions of work values Item
number SG† SR† SE† SI† Item
number SS† SA† RH† 1 loading ME‡ t-value
.59
.22 29.99
29 loading ME t-value
.59
.24 29.19
2 loading ME t-value
.63
.12 35.47
30 loading ME t-value
.67
.21 32.48
3 loading ME t-value
.65
.12 36.16
31 loading ME t-value
.72
.19 34.11
4 loading ME t-value
.64
.15 34.38
32 loading ME t-value
.78
.18 35.95
5 loading ME t-value
.60
.16 32.74
33 loading ME t-value
.77
.18 35.75
6 loading ME t-value
.53
.17 30.51
34 loading ME t-value
.77
.17 36.13
7 loading ME t-value
.55
.29 26.38
35 loading ME t-value
.75
.20 34.44
8 loading ME‡ t-value
.57 .16
32.15
36 loading ME t-value
.70 .22
32.57
9 loading ME t-value
.66 .15
34.60
37 loading ME t-value
.66 .21
31.98
10 loading ME t-value
.64 .17
33.52
38 loading ME t-value
.69 .32
29.37
11 loading ME t-value
.65 .25
30.41
39 loading ME t-value
.64 .37
26.60
12 loading ME t-value
.65 .24
30.77
40 loading ME t-value
.61 .32
27.18
13 loading ME t-value
.54 .21
28.51
41 loading ME t-value
.57 .30
26.56
14 loading ME t-value
.55 .22
28.67
42 loading ME t-value
.54 .31
25.40
Note 1: †: SG: “self-growth”; SR: “self-realisation”; SE: “self-esteem”; SI: “social interaction considerations”; SS: “security and economic considerations”; SA: “stability and freedom from anxiety considerations”; RH: “recreation, health and transport considerations”. Note 2: ‡: ME: measurement error
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Table 3-2. Factor loadings, measurement errors, t values for CFA of Work Values Inventory (continued).
Dimensions of work values Dimensions of work valuesItem number SG† SR† SE† SI†
Item number SS† SA† RH†
15 loading ME t-value
.56.16
31.32
43 loading ME t-value
.65.20
32.2716 loading ME t-value
.56.19
30.19
44 loading ME t-value
.66.27
30.0917 loading ME t-value
.59.22
29.38
45 loading ME t-value
.63.23
30.4218 loading ME t-value
.55.22
28.68
46 loading ME t-value
.62.20
31.3619 loading ME t-value
.47.22
25.66
47 loading ME t-value
.64.20
31.8520 loading ME t-value
.59.17
31.89
48 loading ME t-value
.63.21
31.1821 loading ME t-value
.40.37
18.49
49 loading ME t-value
.59.30
27.0522 loading ME t-value
.64.23
31.27
23 loading ME t-value
.63.11
36.18
24 loading ME t-value
.67.13
36.44
25 loading ME t-value
.68.06
40.60
26 loading ME t-value
.66.06
40.63
27 loading ME t-value
.66.07
39.38
28 loading ME t-value
.59.12
34.76
Note 1: †: SG: “self-growth”; SR: “self-realisation”; SE: “self-esteem”; SI: “social interaction considerations”; SS: “security and economic considerations”; SA: “stability and freedom from anxiety considerations”; RH: “recreation, health and transport considerations”. Note 2: ‡: ME: measurement error.
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According to results of the CFA (see Table 3-3), these fit indices (NFI = .97,
CFI = .98, GFI = .73, and RMSEA = .084) indicate a reasonable model fit. The
seven-factor structure hypothesised to underlie the work values scale was confirmed.
Table 3-3. Goodness of Fit (GOF) statistics for Work Values Inventory.
Chi-square df Χ2/df NFI CFI GFI RMSEA
7802.86** 1106 7.06 .97 .98 .73 .084
**p < .01
Cronbach’s α for the WVI was calculated. As summarised in Table 3-4, the
reliability coefficient of WVI was .98. The reliability coefficients were also high for
all WVI’s subscales, ranging from .9 to .96. All Cronbach’s α for the WVI were
above .9 and thus were considered adequate for this study.
Table 3-4. Measures of reliability for the Work Values Inventory.
Dimensions of work values
SG† SR† SE† SI† SS† SA† RH†
Subscale α .93 .93 .90 .96 .95 .91 .92
Full scale α .98 Note: †: SG: “self-growth”; SR: “self-realisation”; SE: “self-esteem”; SI: “social interaction considerations”; SS: “security and economic considerations”; SA: “stability and freedom from anxiety considerations”; RH: “recreation, health and transport considerations”.
Job involvement
EFA using a Principal Components Analysis (PCA) was conducted to
investigate the construct of job involvement (with a varimax rotation) using the JIQ.
The analysis extracted factors with eigenvalues, which indicate the amount of
variance in a set of variables explained by a factor. Results of the EFA were
evaluated by considering the following criteria, (1) the factor loading was lower
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than .3, as well as (2) each item loaded on only factor (even if they loaded higher
than .3). Items meeting these criteria were left out of the analysis.
Before EFA was conducted, two tests assessing the suitability of data for
structure detection were run. As shown in Table 3-5, the high value (ranging
from .88 for the first phase to .89 for the second phase) from the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin
(KMO) test (Kaiser, 1970, 1974), which measures sampling adequacy, indicated that
a factor analysis would be useful with the data. The significant Bartlett’s Test of
Sphericity (ranging from Χ2 = 4453.45, p < .01 for the first phase to Χ2 = 4367.36, p
< .01 for the second phase) (Bartlett, 1954) indicated that the data were suitable for
structure detection. Therefore, EFA was performed.
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Table 3-5. Factor analysis and reliability of Job Involvement Questionnaire.
First phase (N§ = 1038) Second phase (N§ = 1040) Item number
Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Factor 1 Factor 2
5 .83 .82
8 .83 .81
4 .79 .80
6 .78 .78
9 .75 .73 .32
3 .38 .74 .32 .73
7 -.45 .71 -.48 .72
10 .51 .60 .50 .61
1 .47 .60 .50 .61
2 .966
Eigenvalues 3.990 1.930 1.083 3.931 1.993
% of Variance 39.90 19.30 10.83 43.68 22.15
Cumulative % 39.90 59.20 70.03 43.68 65.83
Subscale α .88 .63 .88 .76
Full scale α .81 .89
KMO .88 .89
Bartlett’s test Χ2 = 4453.45, p < .01 Χ2 = 4367.36, p < .01 §: N’s vary because of listwise deletion of missing data in SPSS procedure.
In the first phase of PCA analysis (Table 3-5), three factors were extracted.
Factor 3 contained only one item (item 2) and was dropped. In the second phase of
analysis, it was found that the best solution was a two-factor solution. Factor 1
consisted of five items (4, 5, 6, 8 and 9) with a Cronbach’s α of .88, and Factor 2,
included items 1, 3, 7 and 10, with a reliability of .76. Inspection of the corrected
item-total correlation revealed that the coefficient for item 7 was below .3 (-.084)
(see Appendix H). Corrected item-total correlations should be considered the
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minimum acceptable evidence of construct validity (Pallant, 2005). They are
important because they give researchers an indication of the extent to which each
item contributes to a scale or subscale. Item 7 was thus dropped, increasing
Cronbach’s α to .76 for factor 2.
Thus the items loaded on two factors, accounted for 65.83% of total variance,
and had a Cronbach’s α of .89. Factor 1 accounted for 43.68% of the variance
observed and demonstrated high factor loadings (i.e. .60 or greater). Factor 2
accounted for 22.15% of the variance observed and 3 items (1, 3, and 10) loaded
highest.
Once all significant loadings were identified, there was an attempt to assign
some meaning to the factors based on the patterns of the factor loadings. Factor 1
was named “Complete Involvement” (CINV), and is defined as an orientation
toward the job that overlaps strongly with the subject’s life. These individuals derive
the most life fulfilment through their professional role. Factor 2, labelled “Strong
Involvement” (SINV), is defined as an orientation toward the job that, while not
reaching the levels of involvement demonstrated by high CINV participants,
nevertheless derive strong personal fulfilment from achievement of professional
goals. Reliability data for the JIQ’s subscales ranged from a low of α = .76 on
“strong involvement” to a high of α = .88 on “complete involvement”. The
Cronbach’s α of eight items in JIQ was .89, which is presented in Table 3-5. The
instrument was therefore considered acceptable in terms of validity.
Kanungo (1982) had indicated that his 10-item JIQ was a uni-dimensional
construct. However, this study revealed that job involvement involves at least two
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factors in the Taiwanese setting, including complete involvement (i.e., “I live, eat
and breathe my job”, “most of my interests are centred around my job”, “I have very
strong ties with my present job which would be very difficult to break”, “most of my
personal life goals are job-oriented” and “I consider my job to be very central to my
existence”) and strong involvement (i.e., “The most important things that happen to
me involve my present job”, “I am very much involved personally in my job” and “I
like to be absorbed in my job most of the time”). Huang (1986) and Van Wyk,
Boshoff, and Owen (1999) caution that instruments are not generally or necessarily
applicable to different cultures, since there are cultural differences associated with
perceptions of work organisation. Anastasi (1990) and Lee and Tu (1991) argue that
cultural differences may lead to group differences that affect responses to particular
psychometric instruments, thus reducing the validity of an instrument for specific
groups. It is possible that individual items are interpreted differently by persons in
different cultures. In addition, although Kanungo’s (1982) JIQ has previously been
used in other Taiwanese industrial samples (Chen, 1998, 2000; Chuang, 2002; Kuo
et al., 2004), it had not been implemented in a nursing sample. Therefore,
professional differences may also influence the study findings.
Organisational commitment
After collecting the data, CFA was conducted to examine the factor structure
of organisational commitment. Table 3-6 provides the factor loadings of the resultant
model. The factor loadings were all positive, with most exceeding .4. No negative
error variances were present, and the t-values were all statistically significant.
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Table 3-6. Factor loadings, measurement errors, t values for CFA of Organisational Commitment Questionnaire.
Item number Values commitment Effort commitment Retention commitment
2 loading ME‡
t-value
.85
.28 35.63
4 loading ME
t-value
.62
.61 20.92
5 loading ME
t-value
.79
.38 27.22
6 loading ME
t-value
.87
.23 25.44
8 loading ME
t-value
.76
.43 27.84
10 loading ME
t-value
.80
.36 36.83
14 loading ME
t-value
.75
.44 26.10
1 loading ME
t-value
.85 .28
35.63
3 loading ME
t-value
.46 .79
10.13
13 loading ME
t-value
.65 .58
18.03
7 loading ME
t-value
.44 .81
11.64 9 loading ME
t-value
.74 .45
28.13 11 loading ME
t-value
.91 .17
52.18 12 loading ME
t-value
.60 .64
21.84 15 loading ME
t-value
.86 .26
42.84 Note: ‡: ME: measurement error
As shown in Table 3-7, the results of CFA revealed that NFI = .97, CFI = .97,
GFI = .81 and RMSEA = .078, thus indicating a reasonable model fit. The three-
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factor structure hypothesised to underlie the organisational commitment scale was
confirmed.
Table 3-7. Goodness of Fit (GOF) statistics for the Organisational Commitment Questionnaire.
Chi-square df Χ2/df NFI CFI GFI RMSEA
620.29** 87 7.13 .97 .97 .81 .078
**p < .01
Cronbach’s α reliability coefficients for the OCQ were calculated (see Table
3-8). The reliability coefficient for OCQ overall was .88. The reliability data for the
OCQ’s subscales ranged from a low of α = .58 on “effort commitment” to a high of
α = .86 on “values commitment”. The relatively lower α obtained from the “effort
commitment” scale could be due to the fact that fewer items are used in this scale
(Omran, 1984), and/or because items in scales can be interpreted differently by
persons in other cultures (Lee & Tu, 1991).
Table 3-8. Measures of reliability for the Organisational Commitment Questionnaire.
Dimensions of organisational commitment
Values commitment Effort commitment Retention commitment
Subscale α .86 .58 .81
Full scale α .88
In summary, various statistical analyses were used to examine the construct
validity and reliability of work values, job involvement and organisational
commitment. A factor model for each instrument was proposed and the model fit
was evaluated on multiple criteria, incorporating statistical considerations. The 7-
factor WVI and 3-factor OCQ models obtained an interpretable factor pattern. The
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two-factor solution confirmed by EFA for the JIQ also produced a meaningful factor
pattern. As for the reliability analyses, Cronbach’s α was calculated using all valid
subjects. Except for the organisational commitment subscale of effort commitment
(α = .58), all other Cronbach’s α ranged from α = .76 to α = .98, therefore, all of
these instruments have acceptable reliability.
3.8 Data analysis
Two types of data analysis were performed on the survey data, descriptive
analysis and inferential analysis.
3.8.1 Descriptive analysis
Descriptive analyses, using SPSS version 13.0, were undertaken to transform
the raw data on the three variables, work values, job involvement, and organisational
commitment into a form that would provide information to describe a set of factors
in a given situation. Data was analysed using descriptive statistics, such as means
and standard deviations of the main study variables (work values, job involvement
and organisational commitment).
3.8.2 Inferential analysis
For the inferential analysis, Pearson Product-Moment Correlations (PPMC)
were used to examine Hypothesis 1. Relationships between sociodemographic
variables, work values, job involvement, and organisational commitment were
examined. A correlation table was also created to determine the degree to which any
of the variables were related. Results suggested that there was evidence of
multicollinearity between independent variables that were used in the regression
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models (see Appendix I). Pedhazur (1982) suggests a bivariate correlation exceeding
±.8 indicates high multicollinearity between two variables. PPMC analysis is an
appropriate test when variables being investigated are continuous (Tabachnick &
Fidell, 1989). Next, an intercorrelations matrix was created to describe correlations
between the variables. According to McMillan (2004), correlations between .1 and .3
are small or low positive relationships, .4 to .6 as moderate positive relationships,
and .7 and above as high positive relationships.
Consideration of design effect (DEFF)
The data come from groups of subjects from nine regional teaching hospitals,
which can produce clustered results. Among subjects who work the same hospital,
there may be many similarities, including age-related or socioeconomic similarities,
stemming from the propensity of subjects to choose a hospital with whom they
identify. These factors can have an impact on the average response of the
participants from one hospitals compared with another.
The major analytical problem is that observations from subjects within any
hospital will be positively correlated, reflecting common experiences, selection
factors, or both. This positive intracluster correlation creates a component of
variance referable to the unit of assignment, the hospital. It is called a “design effect”
(Hox, 2002). This design effect, therefore, represents an inflation in variance
compared with that which would exist if simple random sampling had been
employed (Scott & Holt, 1992). Unless it is accounted for, it will result in many
spuriously “significant” results (Hox, 2002). That is, the design effect inflates Type I
error rates in statistical significance testing.
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It was therefore essential to take this design effect into consideration when
hypotheses testing (hypothesis 2 to 4) was conducted. It was not necessary to
account for clustering in testing hypothesis 1 because analyses were intended to
reflect bivariate associations, without consideration of confounding or design effects.
The GLM univariate analyses, with hospital set as a random effect, allow for
observations in the same hospital to be more alike than observations in different
hospitals (Glass & Hopkins, 1996). That is, these models account for extra variance
among subjects’ outcomes within a hospital over and above the expected between
hospital variation.
The intracluster correlation coefficient (ICC) was used to calculate the design
effect, using the following formula:
DEFF = 1+ ICC [k-1] where ICC is intracluster correlation coefficient and k
is number of individuals in each cluster (average)
The ICC is a measure of the relatedness of clustered data, and is defined as
the ratio of cluster variance to total variance (Killip & Pearce, 2004). A value of ICC
between zero and one indicates that as the magnitude of the ICC increases, the more
individuals within clusters are similar to one another and the less they are similar to
those from other clusters, with respect to the variable of interest.
The design effect ratio indicates whether or not the sampling variability of an
estimate was increased or decreased by the design used (Johnson & Elliott, 1998). A
design effect ratio less than one indicates that the standard errors in a cluster design
are the same as those in a simple random sample, or a cluster design is statistically
more efficient for the given sample size than a simple random sample. A design
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effect of greater than one indicates that the standard errors based on simple random
sampling would be underestimated, resulting in an increased probability of rejecting
the null hypothesis unless clustering is accounted for (Johnson & Elliott, 1998).
In this study, the ICCs were .004 for job involvement, and .002 for
organisational commitment. The design effect ratios were 1.5 for job involvement
and 1.2 for organisational commitment. Accordingly, GLM univariate analyses with
a random effect for hospitals were used to adjust the standard error (SE) of each
parameter estimate appropriately.
The effect of clustering on hypothesis 5 was not statistically accounted for in
this study. Based on the non-significant differences between hospitals on key
variables in hypotheses 2-4, and the small design effect ratios, it could be argued that
absence of adjustment for clustering is unlikely to substantially change the
conclusions regarding hypothesis 5.
Structure Equation Model (SEM) for understanding work values, job involvement,
and organisational commitment
Finally, SEM was conducted to test the fifth hypothesis, which asks whether
job involvement mediates the relationship between work values and organisational
commitment. This analysis explores causal relationships between variables to test the
theoretical framework. In SEM, causality refers to the most likely explanation of the
relationships between variables, separating out direct and indirect effects. SEM does
not prove causality per se (Biddle & Marlin, 1987) and relies on the researcher to
ascribe the causal direction of relationships between independent variables and
dependent variables based on the literature (Biddle & Marlin, 1987). SEM has been
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shown to more accurately estimate causal effects among constructs by controlling
random and systematic measurement errors (Hoyle, 1995). SEM is a collection of
statistical techniques which incorporates and integrates factor analysis, path analysis
and regression (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001). SEM would therefore be the appropriate
technique to explain relationships among multiple variables.
Using the statistical package LISREL 8.71, researchers can utilise SEM to
test hypotheses on the relationships among observed and latent variables and a set of
regression equations simultaneously (Hoyle, 1995). Latent variables are the qualities,
characteristics, constructs or factors revealed through responses to items in the
survey instrument. Thus, the three constructs under consideration, work values, with
49 responses; job involvement, with 10 responses; and, organisational commitment,
with 15 responses that may be characterised as latent variable, that may indicate
work commitment. These items are individually referred to as manifest or observed
variables (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001). Kellyoway (1998) recommended sample
sizes of at least 200. In addition, large sample sizes allow more detailed analysis of
non-normal distributions (Muthen, 1993).
Assessment of the SEM model involves two components, the measurement
model and the structural model. The measurement model describes the part of the
model that relates observed variables to the constructs. The structural model
illustrates the hypothesised relationship among the constructs. All variables in the
structural model are either independent or dependent. Independent variables are
explanatory or exogenous variables (i.e., work values). Dependent variables (i.e., job
involvement, organisational commitment) are endogenous variables which are
explained by other variables in the model. Direct, indirect and total effects of the
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independent variables on the dependent variables were tested. The sum of the direct
and indirect effects of an independent variable on a dependent variable is termed the
‘total effect’ of the independent variable (Hoyle, 1995).
The Randall and Cote’s revised model proposed by Cohen (1999) has
previously been confirmed using SEM. Cohen (1999) presents a structural model of
work commitment in which organisational commitment is postulated as the outcome
of job involvement, and the relationship between work values and organisational
commitment is mediated by job involvement. Cohen (1999) points out that future
research should be replicated in other samples and work settings. Randall and Cote
(1991) suggest that future models of work commitment constructs could utilise both
Protestant work ethic and organisational commitment.
The present study hypothesised that work values could directly affect
organisational commitment. It was also hypothesised that having positive work
values would result in increased job involvement, which would subsequently lead to
increased organisational commitment. This study thus explores causal relationships
between work values, job involvement, and organisational commitment.
3.9 Limitations to the research design
3.9.1 Internal validity
The measurement instrument to be used in this research may not gauge all
known work values, job involvement and organisational commitment an individual
may possess. Moreover, the information is gathered through self-reporting, which
may leave it open to participant interpretation.
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The fact that the head nurses within each hospital distributed the
questionnaires to their fellow employees may have biased the responses. That is, the
head nurse may have selected to distribute the instrument to staff that appeared to be
“happy” in their work and have perceived high work values, job involvement and
organisational commitment. However, the researcher attempted to deal with this
possible problem by explicitly requesting that questionnaires should be distributed to
‘all’ eligible nurses that met the study criteria.
3.9.2 External validity
Selecting the hospitals through a convenience sampling strategy limited
external validity, therefore generalisation of the findings may be limited.
3.10 Data cleaning
Survey responses were coded numerically to indicate the variable values
prior to data entry. After the data was entered into SPSS a standardised data
cleansing process was employed using single and multiple field frequency analysis.
Following this cleansing process, coding errors were assessed by comparing the
original and verified data set for a random selection of 5% of cases.
Prior to analyses being conducted, statistical assumptions associated with the
use of various statistical tests were taken into consideration. The data was checked
for normality, missing data and outliers using SPSS. Normality of the data was
assessed graphically with histograms through examination of skewness and kurtosis
of the data, and using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov statistic (at a conservative
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significance value of .001 or less), which is used to reject the hypothesis of
normality (Tabachnick & Fidell, 1989).
The data was found to be acceptably normal for analysis with no obvious
sign of skewness except for the subscales of work values for “social interaction
considerations”, “security and economic considerations” and “stability and freedom
from anxiety considerations”. The log transformation recommended by Tabachnick
and Fidell (2001) was found to achieve normality. Normal probability plots were
visually examined and found to cluster around a straight line, which suggested that
they followed approximately normal distributions. When the sample size is large, the
Central Limit Theorem (CLT) protests against failures of normality (Tabachnick &
Fidell, 2001). In the present study the sample size is 1047, which is considered to be
large, and thus will reduce any effects of the non-normality of the indicated variables.
In addition, the maximum likelihood estimation is viewed as being robust to a
violation of the normality assumption (Bollen, 1989).
The data was also checked for missing values and outliers. There was a low
number of missing values in the completed questionnaires (less than 3.7%), and the
pattern of missing values was random. When calculating total scores or dimension
scores, listwise exclusion was used.
Outliers were those with standardised residual values above 3.3 or less than -
3.3 underlying the use of regression analysis. With large samples, it is not
uncommon to find a small number of outlying residuals that do not require any
further investigation (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001). Table 3-9 shows the presence of
11 outliers across all cases. Hence, outliers do not appear to present a concern.
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Table 3-9. Identification of outliers.
Case number Standardised values Case number Standardised values
58 -4.2 584 -3.5
65 -4.1 585 -3.5
-3.5 800 -4.2 80
472 -4.2 806 -3.7
540 -4.0 997 -3.9
569 -3.6
3.11 Data considerations to improve analysis
Some categories with few responses had to be combined with others to allow
analysis. The new groupings of classes within variables are shown in Table 3-10.
Table 3-10. New groupings of classes within certain categories (N = 1047).
Variable N of cases % of valid cases
Education status
Vocational school of nursing 43
Certificate of graduation 763 72.9
University and graduate school 238 22.7
Missing 3 .3
Occupational position
Registered nurse 333 31.8
Registered professional nurse 602 57.5
Nursing manager 100 9.6
Missing 12 1.1
4.1
For the variable education, individual categories of “bachelor” and “Master”
were combined into one grouping, namely, “university and graduate school”. The
subjects in this study included 72.9% with a graduate certificate, 22.7% having
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university and graduate school education, and 4.1% completing a vocational school
of nursing.
For the variable occupational position, individual categories of “head nurse”
and “supervisor” were combined into one grouping, being “nursing manager”. Over
half of the survey population was made up of registered professional nurses (57.5%),
the rest were registered nurses (31.8%) and nursing managers (9.6%). A registered
professional nurse completes professional education and examination requirements,
and provides general medical and nursing care and treatment to patients in such
settings as hospitals, clinics, health centres and public health agencies.
A registered professional nurse who completes training in a specialist field of
nursing, and is assessed by the central supervisory authority to have reached the
required standard, may apply for certification as a specialist nurse. The central
supervisory authority may commission the relevant specialist nurses’ association to
conduct a preliminary specialist nurse assessment. Any person holding certification
as a registered professional nurse who completes nurse specialist training may
undergo such nurse specialist assessment. Regulations governing specialist fields
and assessment for nurse specialists are made by the central supervisory authority
(Nurses' Act of the Republic of China, 2002).
3.12 Sociodemographic profile
Of the 1300 nurses from nine Taiwanese hospitals eligible to participate,
1096 subjects responded to the survey, a response rate of 84.31%.
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Forty-three questionnaires of the 1096 were invalid because of missing
demographic information or incomplete answers. The final number of participants in
this study was 1053, representing an overall response rate of 81%. The high response
rate suggests that there was little case for a response bias. Response rates of the total
sample, and of the sub-samples from the nine different organisations, are shown in
Table 3-11. The largest proportion of the population was from the Tzu Chi hospital
(18.8%), followed by Pohai hospital (17.47%).
Table 3-11. Questionnaire response rates (N = 1053).
Organisation Sent out Effective returned
Effective response rate
(%) Total sample
(%)
Pohai 200 184 92 17.47
ST Mary 150 106 71 10.07
Yuli 90 73 81 6.93
Mackay 100 82 82 7.79
Yuan 200 147 74 13.96
Tzu Chi 200 198 99 18.80
Taichung 100 65 65 6.17
Fong-Yuan 100 72 72 6.84
Yuli Veteran 160 126 79 11.97
Total 1,300 1,053 81 100.00
The first level of analysis examined the socio-demographic profile of the
sample. Categories examined included gender, age, marital status, employment
status, religious affiliation, education status, personal income, occupational position,
position tenure, organisation tenure, and nursing tenure.
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Gender profile
Respondents were predominantly females (99.0%). Male respondents formed
less than 1% of the total sample, which was expected, as males make up a low
proportion (.2%) of the nursing population in Taiwan (Chen et al. (1998). Due to the
low number of male respondents (n = 6), it was decided to exclude these surveys
from final analysis. This measure reduced the sample size to 1047.
Age profile
Most respondents were relatively young, with the distribution of age showing
a positively skew. Figure 3-1 displays the age profile of the group by dividing them
into age groups. This division indicates that the largest number of people were in the
26-30 year age group. Figure 3-2 presents the age distribution of the sample. Ages of
the respondents ranged from 18 to 62. The mean age was 30.52, with a standard
deviation of 6.49. It worth noting that 63.9% of the nurses were under the age of 30.
not stated232.18%
over 41908.55%
36-40868.17%
31-3518117.19%
26-3047745.3%
less than 2519618.61%
Age Profile (n = 1053)
Figure 3-1. Age breakdown of respondents.
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706050403020100
Age
500
400
300
200
100
0
Freque
ncy
Age Distribution (n =1053)
Figure 3-2. Age distribution of the respondents.
Marital status profile
Over two-thirds (67%) of the sample were single at the time of the study,
32.2% were married, and .7% were divorced (see Figure 3-3). The relative youth of
the sampled nurses probably explains the high number of single participants.
not stated10.09%
divorced70.66%
married34032.29%
single70566.95%
Marital Status (n = 1053)
Figure 3-3. Marital status of respondents.
Employment status profile
As can be seen in Figure 3-4, almost 91.4% of the nurses were employed full
time, with only 2.5% indicating that they were part time employees.
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not stated646.08%
part time262.47%
full time96391.45%
Employment Status (n = 1053)
Figure 3-4. Employment status of respondents.
Religious affiliation profile
Approximately one-third of the sample reported they were Buddhist (32.8%),
and another third Taoist (31.3%). Of those who reported ‘Other’, more than two-
thirds held no religious beliefs.
Education status profile
With respect to education level characteristics, nearly three quarters (72.8%)
of the respondents had a diploma, 22.1% had a Bachelor’s degree, 4.1% had a
vocational school of nursing, and .7% had a Master’s degree. The education status of
respondents is illustrated in Figure 3-5.
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not stated30.28%
master70.66%
bachelor23322.13%
diploma76772.84%
vocational school of nursing434.08%
Education Status (n = 1053)
Figure 3-5. Education status of respondents.
Personal income
Figure 3-6 illustrates that a majority of respondents (43.6%) indicated their
income was between $15,001 and $20,000. This is on par with the average earnings
in Taiwan as a whole, which stands at $17,000 per annum. Over one-fifth (21.3%) of
the respondents earned between $20,001 to $25,000, with 16.7% indicating an
annual income of more than $25,001. Nearly 16.5% of the sample earned less than
$15,000 per annum. For the purpose of this study, currency has been converted into
Australian dollars (AUD or A$).
not stated201.9%
more than 25,00117616.71%
20,001-25,00022421.27%
15,001-20,00045943.59%
less than 15,00017416.52%
Personal Income (n = 1053)
Figure 3-6. Personal income of respondents.
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Occupational position profile
More than half (57.5%) the respondents in the study were registered
professional nurse, close to one-third (31.9%) of respondents were registered nurses,
8.5% were head nurses, and 1.0% were supervisors. The occupational positions of
respondents are illustrated in Figure 3-7.
Supervisor111.04%
Head nurse898.45%
Registered professional nurse60557.45%
Rgistered nurse33631.91%
Not stated121.14%
Occupational position (n = 1,053)
Figure 3-7. Occupational position of respondents.
Occupational position tenure
The average length of time nurses in the sample had worked in their current
position was 3.55 years (SD = 3.71). The maximum position tenure was 34 years,
and the minimum 1 month, with the largest group of respondents holding their
position for about 2 years. The occupational position tenure distribution is shown in
Figure 3-8.
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403020100Years of occupational position
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
Freque
ncy
Occupational position tenure (n=1053)
Figure 3-8. Occupational position tenure.
Hospital tenure
Respondents were asked how long they had worked in their hospitals (see
Figure 3-9 for the hospital tenure distribution). The mean hospital tenure of the
respondents was 5.19 years (SD = 5.18). The maximum hospital tenure was 35 years,
and the minimum 4 months, with most respondents working in the hospital for about
2 years.
403020100
Years of hospital
400
300
200
100
0
Freque
ncy
Hospital Tenure (n = 1053)
Figure 3-9. Hospital tenure.
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Nursing tenure
Respondents said that they had been nurses for an average of 7.34 years (SD
= 6.25, see Figure 3-10). The maximum nursing tenure was 37 years, and the
minimum 3 months, with the largest group of respondents having worked as a nurse
for 5 years.
50403020100
Years of nursing
300
200
100
0
Freque
ncy
Nursing Tenure (n =1053)
Figure 3-10. Nursing tenure.
During this study the author did not have access to the population
demographic data (i.e., of all nurses working in Taiwan), thus it cannot be
statistically demonstrated that this convenience sample is representative of
Taiwanese nurses. However, this study’s sample was similar to the samples of
Taiwanese nurses in other, recent studies (Chen, 2005; Chiang, 2005; Lee, 2004;
Liau, 2001; Lin, 2003; Lin, 2001; Ling, 2001; Liu, 2002; Tsai et al., 2003) in terms
of age, nursing tenure, education status, occupational position and marital status (see
Table 3-12). The samples in these studies also came mostly from regional teaching
hospitals across Taiwan. It is obvious from Table 3-12 that the mean age and nursing
tenure of the current study are similar to previous studies. Nurses in the current study
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also resemble those in previous studies in terms of education, with the exception of
the Tsai et al. study (2004), who came from non-regional hospitals.
115
Table 3-12. Comparison between this study and previous studies showing key demographic features.
This study Previous studies Demographics Mean SD % Mean SD % Sample Author(s)
Age 30.52 6.49 30.31 7.38 1,357 nurses in
southern Taiwan Tsai et al., 2003
28.74 6.47 413 nurses in southern Taiwan
Lin, 2001
30.70 5.20 451 nurses in southern Taiwan
Chen, 2005
29.84 5.41 571 nurses in southern Taiwan
Ling, 2001
31.20 7.60 300 nurses in northern Taiwan
Lee, 2004
Nursing tenure 7.34 6.25 7.50 6.96 1,357 nurses in
southern Taiwan Tsai et al., 2003
9.00 5.50 451 nurses in southern Taiwan
Chen, 2005
8.90 300 nurses in northern Taiwan
Lee, 2004
Education status 4.1 14.7 1,357 nurses in
southern Taiwan Tsai et al., 2003
1.9 160 nurses in central Taiwan
Chiang, 2005
3.6 413 nurses in southern Taiwan
Lin, 2001
1.9 571 nurses in southern Taiwan
Ling, 2001
5.0 300 nurses in northern Taiwan
Lee, 2004
Vocational school of nursing
9.1 231 nurses in eastern Taiwan
Liu, 2002
72.9 77.3 1,357 nurses in southern Taiwan
Tsai et al., 2003
63.8 160 nurses in central Taiwan
Chiang, 2005
86.1 413 nurses in southern Taiwan
Lin, 2001
77.1 451 nurses in southern Taiwan
Chen, 2005
82.5 571 nurses in southern Taiwan
Ling, 2001
55.3 300 nurses in northern Taiwan
Lee, 2004
76.3 287 nurses in eastern Taiwan
Lin, 2003
Certificate of graduation
72.7 231 nurses in eastern Taiwan
Liu, 2002
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Table 3-12. Comparison between this study and previous studies showing key demographic features (continued).
This study Previous studies Demographics Mean SD % Mean SD % Sample Author(s)
22.7 8.0 1,357 nurses in southern Taiwan
Tsai et al., 2003
34.4 160 nurses in central Taiwan
Chiang, 2005
14.7 413 nurses in southern Taiwan
Lin, 2001
22.9 451 nurses in southern Taiwan
Chen, 2005
15.6 571 nurses in southern Taiwan
Ling, 2001
39.6 300 nurses in northern Taiwan
Lee, 2004
23.7 287 nurses in eastern Taiwan
Lin, 2003
University and graduate school
18.1 231 nurses in eastern Taiwan
Liu, 2002
Occupational position 31.8 36.9 160 nurses in
central Taiwan Chiang, 2005
47.8 320 nurses in northern Taiwan
Liau, 2001
21.1 413 nurses in southern Taiwan
Lin, 2001
37.7 571 nurses in southern Taiwan
Ling, 2001
27.5 287 nurses in eastern Taiwan
Lin, 2003
Registered nurse
39.8 231 nurses in eastern Taiwan
Liu, 2002
57.5 58.8 160 nurses in central Taiwan
Chiang, 2005
50.6 320 nurses in northern Taiwan
Liau, 2001
70.9 413 nurses in southern Taiwan
Lin, 2001
57.0 571 nurses in southern Taiwan
Ling, 2001
60.6 287 nurses in eastern Taiwan
Lin, 2003
Registered professional nurse
44.2 231 nurses in eastern Taiwan
Liu, 2002
9.6 4.4 160 nurses in central Taiwan
Chiang, 2005
8.0 413 nurses in southern Taiwan
Lin, 2001
5.3 571 nurses in southern Taiwan
Ling, 2001
11.9 287 nurses in eastern Taiwan
Lin, 2003
Nursing manager
16.0 231 nurses in eastern Taiwan
Liu, 2002
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Table 3-12. Comparison between this study and previous studies showing key demographic features (continued).
This study Previous studies Demographics Mean SD % Mean SD % Sample Author(s)
Marital status Married 32.3 35.1 413 nurses in
southern Taiwan Lin, 2001
40.0 300 nurses in northern Taiwan
Lee, 2004
39.7 287 nurses in eastern Taiwan
Lin, 2003
45.0 231 nurses in eastern Taiwan
Liu, 2002
Single 67.0 64.4 413 nurses in southern Taiwan
Lin, 2001
58.3 300 nurses in northern Taiwan
Lee, 2004
60.3 287 nurses in eastern Taiwan
Lin, 2003
53.2 231 nurses in eastern Taiwan
Liu, 2002
Divorce .6 .5 413 nurses in southern Taiwan
Lin, 2001
1.3 231 nurses in eastern Taiwan
Liu, 2002
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3.13 Definition of terms
For the purpose of this study, the key terms are defined as follows.
Regional hospital: A hospital that has over 250 beds, including general beds
and mental health beds.
Teaching hospital: A hospital that has over 100 beds, including general beds
and mental health beds, and offers seven kinds of medical services (medicine,
surgery, gynaecology, paediatrics, anaesthesia, radiology, and pathology, and
training programs for medical workers).
Work values: Work values are defined as endurable beliefs and standards
when an individual evaluates his/her job and work environment. They may be either
internal or external.
Job involvement: Job involvement is defined as the psychological importance
of one’s job (Kanungo, 1982).
Organisational commitment: Organisational commitment is defined as the
relative strength of an employee’s identification with and involvement in a particular
organisation (Mowday et al., 1979).
Certificate of graduation: A certificate awarded after completing two or three
years of undergraduate studies.
3.14 Conclusion
This chapter has described in detail the methods that were used in the current
study. The study design was a quantitative, non-experimental, cross-sectional survey
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and used a convenience sample technique to recruit potential hospitals within
Taiwan. This chapter has discussed the survey population and sample, the basis for
the selection of the organisations, the three instruments that were used during the
study, and the procedures for collecting and analysing data. The target population for
this study was Registered Nurses (RNs) working in regional teaching hospitals in
Taiwan. Nine hospitals consented to be involved in this study. Participants were
provided with the questionnaire, and useable data was obtained from 1,053 subjects.
The vast majority of the survey population was female (99%), thus for the purpose of
analysis male respondents (n = 6) were removed.
The instrument used is composed of four parts, a demographic profile, the
WVI, JIQ and OCQ. Initial analyses using CFA examined the validity of the WVI
and OCQ. The findings suggest that the WVI fits the data moderately well, and the
OCQ fits the data somewhat better. The EFA results for the JIQ demonstrated that
the JIQ is actually a 2-factor solution, as opposed to Kanungo’s (1982) uni-
dimensional JIQ construct. Reliability of the major instruments (WVI, OCQ, and JIQ)
was measured by Cronbach’s α, yielding moderate to high coefficients (ranging
from .58 to .98). The data was further analysed using PPMC, General Linear Model
(GLM) univariate analysis and structural equation modelling (SEM).
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CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS
4.1 Introduction
This chapter presents the results of the research. There are two sections. The
first presents descriptive statistics for the study variables. The second section tests
the five study hypotheses using the study data.
4.2 Descriptive statistics for study variables
This section presents the descriptive statistics for the study variables. Means
and standard deviations for the variables of work values, job involvement and
organisational commitment are shown in Table 4-1.
An individual’s level of work values was considered as the summation of
response values for all 49 questions, and this was the overall score used in the data
analysis. Level of job involvement was the value obtained from the summation of
response values for all eight questions. An individual’s level of organisational
commitment was the sum of response values for their respective items. In each case
the summed score was the value used in data analysis. The scale means were
calculated as the mean of scores on the number of items rated (excluding missing
items). Table 4-1 shows the mean and standard deviation and rank ordering of means
of the sample for the WVI, JIQ, and OCQ.
121
Table 4-1. Mean and standard deviation for scales and subscales and ranking for major variables (N = 1047).
Scale name N§ Mean SD Rank
Work values 1010 4.09 .54
Terminal values 1027 3.97 .56
Self-growth 1042 4.05 .62 5
Self-realisation 1042 3.93 .63 6
Self-esteem 1036 3.92 .56 7
Instrumental values 1026 4.18 .61
Social interaction considerations 1046 4.29 .66 1
Security and economic considerations 1036 4.18 .74 2
Stability and freedom from anxiety considerations 1041 4.15 .67 3
Recreation, health and transport considerations 1044 4.09 .66 4
Job involvement 1041 3.37 .60
Complete involvement 1042 3.17 .68 2
Strong involvement 1046 3.71 .62 1
Organisational commitment 1019 3.26 .50
Values commitment 1036 3.30 .59 2
Effort commitment 1041 3.60 .59 1
Retention commitment 1035 2.99 .66 3 §: N’s vary because of listwise deletion of missing data in SPSS procedure
Work values
Work values were measured using the WVI. The higher the score, the more a
person rated the importance of the value of work roles in her life. The mean score of
4.09 (SD = .54) implies that many nurses scored the items highly. The nurses were
not very different in their perceptions of work values. The WVI was divided into
subscales, measuring terminal or instrumental aspects of work. “Terminal values”
included 3 work values. There were high ratings for “self-growth”, with a mean
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score of 4.05, but low ratings for “self-esteem” with a mean score of 3.92.
“Instrumental values” measured four work values, with the highest ratings for
“social interaction considerations” with a mean score of 4.29, “security and
economic considerations” with a mean of 4.18, “stability and freedom from anxiety
considerations” with a mean of 4.15. The “instrumental value” with the lowest
ratings was “recreation, health and transport considerations”, with a mean score of
4.09.
For work values, “instrumental values” were seen as the most important
values for the sample. The order of importance based on the mean for “instrumental
values” were “social interaction considerations”, followed by “security and
economic considerations”, “stability and freedom from anxiety considerations”, and
finally “recreation, health and transport considerations”. Moderate value was placed
on “terminal values”, with the order of importance dropping from “self-growth”, to
“self-realisation”, down to “self-esteem” (3.92). Thus “instrumental values” were
overall very important to the nurses, while “terminal values” were seen as somewhat
less important.
It is interesting to note that “social interaction considerations”, which
involves reciprocal respect and meaningful communication, was recognised as
important to these nurses. This may be due to work experiences, in that women tend
to develop value preferences similar to those of blue-collar workers, who consider
extrinsic outcomes (i.e., convenience, working conditions, and relations with co-
workers) more important than intrinsic outcomes such as achievement and autonomy
(Kaufman & Fetters, 1980). Some studies show that women value extrinsic values
more because, since the industrial era, women have had to work for economic
123
reasons (Yankelovich, 1979). Another factor may be that, as a result of their pre-
employment socialisation experiences, women learn to value social relationships and
affiliation (O'Leary, 1974). These findings may be related to the traditional Chinese
philosophy Confucianism, with its emphasis on harmonious social relationships
(guanxi), reciprocity and loyalty. These values still appear prevalent within
organisations in today’s Chinese society.
Job involvement
Job involvement was measured using the JIQ developed by Kanungo (1982).
The mean and standard deviation of job involvement scores are presented in Table 4-
1. The average of 3.37 (SD = .60) implies that the nurses are reasonably involved
with their jobs and are not very different in their levels of involvement. The rank
order of the subscales showed that the strong involvement factor had a mean of 3.71,
but complete involvement was lower with a mean of 3.17.
The current study sample’s level of job involvement was at 3.37, which is in
the moderate range. Such individuals experienced a strong identification with their
job but not total involvement. They sustain their own personal completeness, while
meeting the requirements of the position. Stober and Seidenstucker (1997) conducted
research which revealed that job involvement has a positive relationship with job-
related worry, such that individuals who highly identify with their job worry more
about work related problems. In this respect, job-related worry might constitute an
important indicator variable for disturbance in psychological status. Therefore, the
current finding may be related to the current trend in society towards a balancing of
all facets in life, in the hope of attaining a quality lifestyle. The moderate job
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involvement of nurses may also be a necessary coping mechanism to deal with their
dual role as wives and mothers as well as employed workers (Powell & Posner,
1989). This dual role may function regardless of prior socialization.
Organisational commitment
Organisational commitment was measured using the OCQ. This instrument
has three scales, “values commitment”, “effort commitment” and “retention
commitment”. The mean and standard deviation for the OCQ scales are displayed in
Table 4-1. The mean for nurses in this study was 3.26 (SD = .50), which implies that
the nurses were equally committed to their hospitals. Respondents scored higher on
“values commitment”, with a mean of 3.30, and lower on “retention commitment”,
with a mean of 2.99.
Ordering the organisational commitment from Organisational Commitment
Questionnaire (OCQ) by magnitude of agreement (from the highest to lowest mean),
were “effort commitment”, “values commitment” and “retention commitment”. The
fact that the study sample did not score as high on the level of retention may
potentially be a problem. One explanation is that this is due to the sampled nurses
being relatively young, in that younger nurses might tend to have greater
opportunities for alternative employment, and therefore be less committed to an
organisation.
4.3 Testing of hypotheses
This section presents the results of the data analyses that tested the
hypotheses. Pearson Product-Moment Correlations (PPMC) were used to examine
125
relationships between the variables and are shown in Appendix I. Values for SES,
such as education status, personal income and occupational position were scored
either 1 to 3 or 1 to 4 as appropriate to generate the statistical values. Prior to the
analyses, the data were examined for possible violations of assumptions underlying
the use of General Linear Model (GLM) univariate analysis. Because there has to be
significant correlation between variables, a correlation table can determine
relationships between independent and dependent variables and the existence of
multicollinearity.
GLM univariate analysis, using hospital as a random effect, was used to
determine whether relationships among the latent variables (work values, job
involvement and organisational commitment) were consistent with the proposed
model in Chapter One (see Figure 1-1). Previous research has found that age,
education status, personal income and occupational position relate to job
involvement and organisational commitment. Hence, the current analyses control for
these variables by statistically subtracting their effects.
The proposed model is specified by the following equations. Definitions for
key terms are provided for equation 1. The same key terms apply for all three
equations.
Equation 1: job involvement = a + b1 work values + b2 organisational
commitment + b3 age + b4 education status + b5 personal income + b6
occupational position + b7 hospital
a: constant; b1: the regression coefficients represent work values correlation
with job involvement, after controlling all other independent variables; b2: the
126
regression coefficients represent organisational commitment correlation with
job involvement, after controlling all other independent variables; b3: the
regression coefficients represent age’s correlation with job involvement, after
controlling all other independent variables; b4: the regression coefficients
represent education status’s correlation with job involvement, after controlling
all other independent variables; b5: the regression coefficients represent
personal income’s correlation with job involvement, after controlling all other
independent variables; b6: the regression coefficients represent occupational
position’s correlation with job involvement, after controlling all other
independent variables; b7: the regression coefficients represent hospital’s
correlation with job involvement, after controlling all other independent
variables
Equation 2: organisational commitment = a + b1 work values + b2 job
involvement + b3 age + b4 education status + b5 personal income + b6
occupational position + b7 hospital
Equation 3: organisational commitment = a + b1 job involvement + b2 work
values + b3 age + b4 education status + b5 personal income + b6 occupational
position + b7 hospital
SEM was used to test the cause-effect relationships among main constructs of
the study. In addition, SEM utilises an equation to represent the various parameters
associated with these linkages. The formal specification of the model can be
represented by the following set of equations.
1. Measurement equations for work values:
127
X1 = λ1 ξ1 + δ1, “self-growth” = f (work values, δ1);
X2 = λ2 ξ1 + δ2, “self-realisation” = f (work values, δ2);
X3 = λ3 ξ1 + δ3, “self-esteem” = f (work values, δ3);
X4 = λ4 ξ1 + δ4, “social interaction considerations” = f (work values, δ4);
X5 = λ5 ξ1 + δ5, “security and economic considerations” = f (work values,
δ5);
X6 = λ6 ξ1 + δ6, “stability and freedom from anxiety considerations” = f
(work values, δ6);
X7 = λ7 ξ1 + δ7, “recreation, health and transport considerations” = f (work
values, δ7).
2. Measurement equations for job involvement:
Y1 = λ8 η1 + ε1, “complete involvement” = f (job involvement, ε1);
Y2 = λ9 η1 + ε2, “strong involvement” = f (job involvement, ε2).
3. Measurement equations for organisational commitment:
Y3 = λ10 η2 + ε3, “values commitment” = f (organisational commitment, ε1);
Y4 = λ11 η2 + ε4, “effort commitment” = f (organisational commitment, ε2);
Y5 = λ12 η2 + ε5, “retention commitment” = f (organisational commitment,
ε1).
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4. Structural equations for proposed model:
η1 = γ1ξ1 + ζ1, job involvement = f (work values, ζ1);
η2 = γ2ξ1 + β1η1 + ζ2, organisational commitment = f (work values, job
involvement, ζ2).
In terms of this theoretical relationship, work values (ξ1) in SEM was seen as
an exogenous latent construct, while job involvement (η1) and organisational
commitment (η2) were viewed as endogenous latent constructs. A path diagram of
the proposed model (see Figure 4-1) illustrates how work values (ξ1) as an
exogenous latent variable with seven indicators (X1 – X7) may influence two
endogenous latent variables (job involvement (η1) and organisational commitment
(η2)) as well as its indicators (Y1-Y5).
129
Figure 4-1. A proposed model with latent constructs for exogenous and
Work value (ξ1)
Security & economic considerations (X5)
Stability & freedom from anxiety considerations (X6)
Recreation, health & transport considerations (X7)
Social interaction considerations (X4)
Self-esteem (X3)
Self-realisation (X2)
Self-growth (X1)
Job involvement (η1)
Complete involvement (Y4)
Strong involvement (Y5)
Organisational commitment (η2)
Values commitment (Y1)
Effort commitment (Y2)
λ1
λ2
λ3
λ4
λ5
λ6
λ7
Retention commitment (Y3)
δ1
δ2
δ3
δ4
δ5
δ6
δ7
ε1
ε3
ε2
ε4 ε5
λ8
λ9
λ10
λ11 λ12
γ1
γ2
β1
ζ1
ζ1
endogenous variables.
The items are represented by rectangles and are connected to the factors by
straight arrows, which indicate causal relationships. Parameters representing
regression relationships between latent constructs are labeled with β1 for the
regression of one endogenous construct on another endogenous construct, or with γ
to represent the regression of an endogenous construct on an exogenous construct.
Each endogenous variable (job involvement and organisational commitment) has an
error term ζ1, ζ2, called a residual error. ζ is a vector of errors in the equations,
indicating that the endogenous variables are not perfectly predicted by the structural
equations.
130
The residual errors may be modeled as being correlated with each other. The
factors can be conceptualised as causing the observed variables. For example, work
values (ξ1) are measured by X1 – X7. Job involvement is measured by Y4 – Y5.
Organisational commitment is measured by Y1 – Y3. Each observed variable has an
error term associated with it. The error terms contain measurement error due to the
lack of reliability of the observed variables, in addition to unexplained or unique
variance (Stevens, 1996). The error terms are represented by the symbols δ and ε and
are referred to as measurement errors. The measurement errors are not to be
correlated. The straight arrows from the δs and εs to the observed variables indicate
that the observed variables are influenced by both measurement error and the factors.
As can be seen in Figure 4-1, observed variables are represented by the symbol X
and Y, whereas factors are represented by ξ1, η1, and η2. The paths from factors to
observed variables (or factor loadings) are represented by λ. The relationships
between the observed variables and their theoretical constructs are λ.
The following statistical hypotheses were analysed using the SPSS and
LISREL. A two-tailed test of significance was used, with the level of significance set
at .01.
4.3.1 Results for Research Hypothesis 1
Hypothesis 1 is that age and socioeconomic status (SES) are positively
associated with work values, job involvement and organisational commitment.
Pearson product-moment correlations were undertaken between four demographic
variables (age, education status, personal income, and occupational position) in
relation to work values, job involvement, the organisational commitment scale and
131
the subscales. Table 4-2 (extracted from Appendix I) lists these correlations.
Correlations between the four personal demographics and the dependent variables
were generally low.
Table 4-2. Correlations between sociodemographics and the 17 variables.
Variables Age Education status
Personal income
Occupational position
Work values .03 .06 .10** .04
Terminal values .09** .12** .15** .09**
Self-growth .08 .10** .15** .06
Self-realisation .08 .12** .13** .06
Self-esteem .09 .12** .13** .11**
Instrumental values -.03 .01 .05 .00
Social interaction considerations .01 .02 .09** .03
Security and economic considerations -.03 .00 .04 .00
Stability and freedom from anxiety considerations -.06 .03 .04 .01
Recreation, health and transport considerations -.03 .00 .01 -.04
Job involvement .14** .00 .03 .01
Complete involvement .10** .00 .01 .01
Strong involvement .18** .02 .08 .02
Organisational commitment .31** -.01 .22** .07
Values commitment .21** .01 .13** .05
Effort commitment .33** .01 .27** .10**
Retention commitment .26** -.04 .19** .05
**p < .01
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Age
Age was positively associated with eight of the seventeen dependent
variables, as shown in Table 4-2. “Effort commitment” had the strongest positive
correlation with age (.33), followed by organisational commitment (.31), “retention
commitment” (.26), “values commitment” (.21), “strong involvement” (.18), job
involvement (.14), “complete involvement” (.10), and “terminal values" (.09).
Among the significant values, age had the strongest correlation with commitment.
Age had near zero or negative non-significant correlations with work values (.03),
“instrumental values” (-.03) and other values subscales.
Education status
Table 4-2 reveals that education status had a significant positive relationship
with “terminal values” (.12), “self-growth” (.09), “self-realisation” (.12) and “self-
esteem” (.12). Education status was not significantly correlated with either job
involvement or organisational commitment, nor was it significantly correlated with
work values, “instrumental values” and other values scales.
Personal income
Table 4-2 indicates that personal income was positively associated with ten
of the seventeen dependent variables. “Effort commitment” had the strongest
positive correlation with personal income (.27), followed by organisational
commitment (.22), “retention commitment” (.19), “terminal values” (.15), “self-
growth” (.15), “self-realisation” (.13), “self-esteem” (.13), “values commitment”
(.13), work values (.10), and “social interaction considerations” (.09). Among the
significant variables, personal income had the strongest correlation with commitment.
133
Personal income had near zero and negative non-significant correlations with job
involvement and “instrumental values” (including three subscales, except for “social
interaction considerations”).
Occupational position
Occupational position had small, but significant positive relationships with
“self-esteem” (.11), “terminal values” (.09), and “effort commitment” (.10) (see
Table 4-2).
Overall, hypothesised positive relationships between personal variables (age
and SES) and work values, job involvement, organisational commitment were
partially supported.
4.3.2 Results for Research Hypothesis 2
Hypothesis 2 is that work values should be significantly related to job
involvement. Correlations (extracted from Appendix I) between work values and job
involvement ranging are shown in Table 4-3. These values indicate that work values
are related to job involvement, such that respondents reporting greater work values
had higher commitment to the job. Most relationships were highly significant.
134
Table 4-3. Correlations between work values and job involvement variables.
Job involvement
Complete involvement
Strong involvement
Work values .28** .17** .42**
Terminal values .32** .22** .41**
Self-growth .29** .19** .39**
Self-realisation .29** .21** .38**
Self-esteem .30** .21** .38**
Instrumental values .21** .10** .36**
Social interaction considerations .20** .10** .35**
Security and economic considerations .20** .11** .33**
Stability and freedom from anxiety considerations .17** .08** .30**
Recreation, health and transport considerations .19** .10** .31**
**p < .01
The work values scale and subscales were highly positively correlated among
themselves (.78 ≤ r ≤ .94, p < .01). Therefore, only the work values variable was
included in the analysis.
Table 4-4 describes the results of GLM univariate analysis. Unstandardised
regression coefficients obtained by regressing work values on job involvement,
indicated that work values contribute significantly to job involvement (B = .2). Of
more importance is the interpretation of partial eta square (η2), an estimate of the
magnitude of the relationship between work values and job involvement, controlling
for demographics, design effect and organisational commitment. The partial η2 result
indicates that work values explain only 5% of the variation in job involvement.
Work values are less influential than organisational commitment, demographics and
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the hospital nurses worked at, when explaining job involvement. All the partial η2
are small, suggesting that factors other than those assessed in this study may be
important in explaining job involvement.
Job involvement did not vary significantly between the hospitals. The
strength of the relationship between job involvement and hospital, as assessed by
partial η2, was not strong, with the hospital variable accounting for less than 1% of
the variance in job involvement. The GLM univariate analysis results did not suggest
that job involvement had a differential effect by hospital.
Thus, the hypothesized positive relationships between work values and job
involvement were supported by the data.
136
Table 4-4. Estimated influence of work values on job involvement after adjusted for demographics, design effect and organisational commitment.
Independent variables N B† SE§ Partial Eta2
Age 930 .00 .00 .00
Education status
Vocational school of nursing 39 -.02 .10 .00
Certificate of graduation 678 -.03 .04 .00
University and graduate school 213 referent¥
Personal income (A$)
Less than 15,000 150 .16 .07 .01
15,001-20,000 413 .15 .06 .01
20,001-25,000 206 .07 .06 .00
More than 25,001 161 referent
Position
Registered nurse 293 .00 .07 .00
Registered professional nurse 542 -.03 .07 .00
Nursing manager 95 referent
Hospital
Pohai 164 .00 .07 .00
ST Mary 96 .08 .08 .00
Yuli 62 .09 .08 .00
Mackay 78 -.20 .08 .01
Yuan 125 .13 .08 .00
Tzu Chi 181 -.06 .07 .00
Taichung 53 .12 .09 .00
Fong Yuan 62 -.09 .09 .00
Yuli Vet 109 referent
Organisational commitment 930 .48** .04 .16
Work values 930 .20** .03 .05 Note 1: **p < .01 Note 2: †: unstandardised regression coefficient; §: standard error; ¥: referent is a
comparison group assigned a value of zero for all dummy variables
137
4.3.3 Results for Research Hypothesis 3
Hypothesis 3 is that positive work values are significantly related to
organisational commitment. Correlations (extracted from Appendix I) between work
values and organisational commitment ranging from .09 to .41 are displayed in Table
4-5. The analysis indicates that work values (except for “stability and freedom from
anxiety considerations”, and “recreation, health and transport considerations”) are
related to organisational commitment (except for the “retention commitment”
subscale). Respondents reporting greater work values had higher commitment to the
organisational, with most relationships significant at the .01 level.
Table 4-5. Correlations between work values and organisational commitment variables.
Organisational commitment
Values commitment
Effort commitment
Retention commitment
Work values .23** .21** .37** .07
Terminal values .29** .30** .41** .08
Self-growth .29** .28** .41** .09**
Self-realisation .27** .29** .37** .07
Self-esteem .25** .26** .36** .06
Instrumental values .16** .12** .28** .05
Social interaction considerations .20** .16** .30** .10**
Security and economic considerations .18** .16** .26** .07
Stability and freedom from anxiety considerations .10** .07 .24** .02
Recreation, health and transport considerations .10** .07 .23** .02
**p < .01
The regression statistics are presented in Table 4-6. Unstandardised
regression coefficients obtained by regressing work values on organisational
138
commitment indicated that work values contribute significantly to organisational
commitment (B =.08). Partial η2 indicated that work values explain only 1% of the
variation in organisational commitment. Work values are less influential than job
involvement, demographics and hospital in explaining organisational commitment.
As in the previous analysis, other factors may be important in explaining
organisational commitment, because all the partial η2 are small.
Organisational commitment did not vary significantly between the hospitals.
The strength of the relationship between organisational commitment and the hospital
variable, as assessed by partial η2, was not strong (hospital accounted for 1-2% of the
variance in organisational commitment). The results of the GLM univariate analysis
thus suggested that organisational commitment did not have a differential effect
across hospitals.
In summary, the hypothesized positive relationships between work values
and organisational commitment were supported by the data.
139
Table 4-6. Estimated influence of work values on organisational commitment after adjusted for demographics, design effect and job involvement.
Independent variables N B† SE§ Partial Eta2
Age 930 .02 .00 .06
Education status
Vocational school of nursing 39 .01 .08 .00
Certificate of graduation 678 .07 .03 .00
University and graduate school 213 referent¥
Personal income (A$)
Less than 15,000 150 -.05 .06 .00
15,001-20,000 413 -.08 .05 .00
20,001-25,000 206 -.11 .05 .01
More than 25,001 161 referent
Position
Registered nurse 293 .01 .06 .00
Registered professional nurse 542 -.05 .05 .00
Nursing manager 95 referent
Hospital
Pohai 164 -.11 .06 .01
ST Mary 96 -.12 .06 .00
Yuli 62 -.08 .07 .01
Mackay 78 .07 .06 .02
Yuan 125 -.07 .06 .00
Tzu Chi 181 .11 .05 .00
Taichung 53 -.12 .07 .00
Fong Yuan 62 -.01 .07 .00
Yuli Vet 109 referent
Job involvement 930 .31** .02 .16
Work values 930 .08** .03 .01 Note 1: **p < .01 Note 2: †: unstandardised regression coefficient; §: standard error; ¥: referent is a
comparison group assigned a value of zero for all dummy variables
140
4.3.4 Results for Research Hypothesis 4
Hypothesis 4 states that job involvement is significantly related to
organisational commitment. Correlations (extracted from Appendix I) between job
involvement and organisational commitment are shown in Table 4-7. They indicate
that job involvement was related to organisational commitment (except for
“retention commitment” and “complete involvement”). Respondents reporting
greater job involvement had a higher level of commitment to the organisation, with
all relationships highly significant.
Table 4-7. Correlations between job involvement and organisational commitment variables.
Job involvement Complete involvement
Strong involvement
Organisational commitment .43** .34** .51**
Values commitment .49** .43** .48**
Effort commitment .42** .30** .55**
Retention commitment .15** .07 .26**
**p < .01
The job involvement scale and its subscales were highly positively correlated
amongst themselves (.84 ≤ r ≤ .96, p < .01). Therefore, only the job involvement
variable was included in the analysis. The results of the regression analysis are
presented in Table 4-8. Unstandardised regression coefficients obtained by
regressing job involvement on organisational commitment indicated that job
involvement contributed significantly to organisational commitment (B = .31).
Partial η2 indicates that job involvement explain 16% of the variation in
141
organisational commitment. Job involvement is more influential than work values,
demographics and hospital in explaining organisational commitment. Given the
small partial η2 values it is likely that factors other than job involvement, work
values, demographics and the hospital variable may be important in explaining
organisational commitment.
Organisational commitment did not vary significantly between the hospitals.
The strength of the relationship between organisational commitment and the hospital
variable, as assessed by partial η2, was not strong. Hospital accounted for only 1-2%
of the variance in organisational commitment. The GLM univariate analysis did not
suggest that organisational commitment had a differential effect over hospital.
The hypothesized positive relationships between job involvement and
organisational commitment were therefore supported by the data.
142
Table 4-8. Estimated influence of job involvement on organisational commitment after adjusted for demographics, design effect and work values.
Independent variables N B† SE§ Partial Eta2
Age 930 .02 .00 .06
Education status
Vocational school of nursing 39 .01 .08 .00
Certificate of graduation 678 .07 .03 .00
University and graduate school 213 referent¥
Personal income (A$)
Less than 15,000 150 -.05 .06 .00
15,001-20,000 413 -.08 .05 .00
20,001-25,000 206 -.11 .05 .01
More than 25,001 161 referent
Position
Registered nurse 293 .01 .06 .00
Registered professional nurse 542 -.05 .05 .00
Nursing manager 95 referent
Hospital
Pohai 164 -.11 .06 .01
ST Mary 96 -.12 .06 .00
Yuli 62 -.08 .07 .01
Mackay 78 .07 .06 .02
Yuan 125 -.07 .06 .00
Tzu Chi 181 .11 .05 .00
Taichung 53 -.12 .07 .00
Fong Yuan 62 -.01 .07 .00
Yuli Vet 109 referent
Work values 930 .08** .03 .01
Job involvement 930 .31** .02 .16 Note 1: **p < .01 Note 2: †: unstandardised regression coefficient; §: standard error; ¥: referent is a
comparison group assigned a value of zero for all dummy variables
143
4.3.5 Results for Research Hypothesis 5
Hypothesis 5 theorised that job involvement mediates the relationship
between work values and organisational commitment. Previous studies have
hypothesised that work values could directly affect job involvement (Blau & Boal,
1987; Chuang, 2001; Dong, 2001; Huang & Wu, 1996; Tang, 2000; Wu, 1995). An
indirect effect of work values on organisational commitment through job
involvement has also been proposed (Cohen, 1999; Randall & Cote, 1991).
In terms of the test of three measurements in the previous chapter, although
the instruments fit reasonably well, their weaknesses need to be overcome in future
research. The three measurements all showed internal validity. That is, it can be
argued that they can be used to test theoretical relationships proposed in this study.
SEM was employed in the present study. The initial solution using SEM
suggested that the original model was an inadequate fit to the data. Chi-square (Χ2)
for the proposed model was 2,107.25 with 51 degrees of freedom (p < .01) and the
chi-square to degrees of freedom ratio (Χ2/df) was 41.32. All of the fit indicators
were below levels indicative of a good fit (NFI = .85, CFI = .85, GFI = .71 and
RMSEA = .22, above the accepted value of .1). Therefore, the model needed to be
altered.
In the revised model, one direct path between work values and organisational
commitment was dropped. This revised model had a ratio of chi-square to degrees of
freedom of approximately 5:1 and a RMSEA of .06, indicating a moderate fit to the
data. The NFI, CFI, and GFI indicators ranged from .98 to .99, which also indicated
an acceptable fit.
144
At this point, the “reverse” model, hypothesising that job involvement
mediates the impact of organisational commitment on work values, was developed.
This reverse model could be compared to the revised model in order to test which
model best represented the data.
The Chi-square (Χ2) for the reverse model was 591.36 with 12 degrees of
freedom (p < .01) and the chi-square to degrees of freedom ratio (Χ2/df) was 49.28,
along with the adjunct fit indexes which showed this model to be poor fit to the data
(NFI = .93, CFI = .93, GFI = .86 and RMSEA = .22, above the accepted value of .1).
The fit statistics for the original, revised and reverse models and model comparisons
described in the following sections are summarised in Table 4-9 and Table 4-10.
Table 4-9. Model fit statistics.
Model Chi-square df Χ2/df NFI CFI GFI RMSEA
Original 2,107.25 51 41.32 .85 .85 .71 .22
Revised 62.04 12 5.16 .99 .99 .98 .06
Reverse 591.36 12 49.28 .93 .93 .86 .22
Table 4-10. Model comparisons.
Model ∆Chi-square ∆df
Original and revised 2,045.21 39
Reverse and revised 529.32 0
∆: difference
Three models were evaluated in terms of their fit to the data and in
comparison to each other. The difference between the chi-square fit statistics for the
original and revised model was 2,045.21, based on 39 degrees of freedom. For the
145
revised and reverse model this difference was 529.32. The original model has to be
rejected in favour of the revised model, because the fit of original model is
significantly worse than that of the revised. In the same vein, the revised model is a
significantly better fit than the reverse model.
Table 4-11 presents the revised model with regression weight, standard errors
(SE), and t-values. The test statistic here is the t-value, which represents the
parameter estimate divided by its standard error, and as such, it operates as a z-
statistic in assessing whether the estimate is statistically different from zero. Based
on a significance level of .01, the test statistic needs to be larger than ± 2.33 before
the hypothesis can be rejected. Significant parameters can be considered important to
the model. A complete examination of this unstandardised solution reveals all
estimates to be both reasonable and statistically significant.
Table 4-11. Relationship regression weight between work values, job involvement and organisational commitment.
Parameter S.E. t-value
Job involvement ← Work values .98** .03 33.79
Organisational commitment ← Job involvement .71** .03 25.05
**p < .01
The results revealed that work values affected organisational commitment
only through job involvement, as seen in Figure 4-2. The five work values factors
(“self-esteem”, “social interaction considerations”, “security and economic
considerations”, “stability and freedom from anxiety considerations” and “recreation,
health and transport considerations”) were deleted. Two modified work values, “self-
growth” and “self-realisation”, of “terminal values” were determined to be the best
146
fit for the data. The results also revealed a significant correlation between “terminal
values” and organisational commitment.
The relationship between work values and organisational commitment was
not statistically significant, and so was not included in the revised model. This does
not support the theory of Randall and Cote (1991). These authors suggested that in
the future, a direct relationship between Protestant work ethic and organisational
commitment might be included in constructs of work commitment in general. In
Figure 4-2, it can be seen that the effect of work values led to an increase of job
involvement as large as λ1 = .98. Moreover, the effect of job involvement on
organisational commitment was β1 = .71. This revised model demonstrates that work
values do not have a direct effect on organisational commitment, but rather increase
the level of job involvement, which subsequently leads to increased organisational
commitment. All significant paths were positive. Cohen and Cohen (1983) suggested
that if all of the component path coefficients are significant, then the whole indirect
effect can also be taken as significant.
147
Figure 4-2. Estimated standardized direct, indirect and total effects for the
Work value
Self-realisation
Self-growth
Job involvement
Organisational commitment
.71
.98
.64
.53
.58
.58
.47
.66 .58
Retention commitment
Complete involvement
Strong involvement
.04
.15
.10 .11
.09
.06
.05Values commitment
Effort commitment
revised model.
Standardised direct, indirect, and total effects implied by the revised model
are presented in Table 4-12.
148
Table 4-12. Summary of standardised direct, indirect and total effects for the hypothesised model.
Direct effect Indirect effect Total effect
Work values
Job involvement
Work values
Job involvement
Work values
Job involvement
Job involvement .98** .98**
Complete involvement .57** .57**
Strong involvement .65** .65**
Organisational commitment .71** .69** .69** .71**
Values commitment
.40** .41** .40** .41**
Effort commitment
.40** .41** .40** .41**
Retention commitment
.33** .34** .33** .34**
**P < .01
Work values were determinants of job involvement, with a total effect
comprised completely of a direct effect of λ1 = .98. One unit change in work values
resulted in corresponding increases in “complete involvement” (.57) and “strong
involvement” (.65). More specifically, when the work values of an individual were
high on “self-growth” and “self-realisation”, that individual’s job involvement
increased on “complete involvement” and “strong involvement”.
Work values had an indirect effect on organisational commitment (.69). The
indirect effect of work values on organisational commitment was comprised of a
significant indirect effect on “values commitment” (.40), “effort commitment” (.40)
and “retention commitment” (.33), with a unit change in work values effecting
a .40, .40 and .33 change in (respectively), in a strong belief in, and acceptance of,
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the organisation’s goals and values, willingness to exert considerable effort on behalf
of the organisation, and a strong desire to maintain membership in the organisation.
Job involvement had a significant effect on organisational commitment, with
a total effect of β1 = .71. Examining the indirect effect of job involvement on
organisational commitment, a unit change in job involvement was associated with
significant increases in “values commitment” (.41), “effort commitment” (.41) and
“retention commitment” (.34).
All direct, indirect, and total effects are, as anticipated, positive and
statistically significant. Research results indicate a reasonable fit for the revised
model, therefore it can be argued that the model is a valid representation of the data.
Examination of structural coefficients supported Hypothesis 5, indicating that job
involvement could play an important role in mediation. The mediating role of job
involvement in predicting organisational commitment was affirmed in this study.
The importance of the inter-relationships between components in the proposed
model was corroborated. This implies that employees with high work values, who
had high job-involved attitudes in their present job, were more likely to commit to
their organisation. Thus the hypothesized mediating effect of job involvement on
work values and organisational commitment was supported by the data.
4.3.6 Summary
In this chapter, results of the statistical analysis of data obtained from surveys
of 1,047 Taiwanese nurses were presented. Significant correlations between socio-
demographic variables and the other variables were often found. There was a
significant association between the scales/subscales and age indicating partial
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support for Hypothesis 1, except for work values, “self-growth”, “self-realisation”,
“self-esteem”, and “instrumental values” (including four subscales).
Significant correlations between education status and “terminal values”,
“self-growth”, “self-realisation” and “self-esteem” were found. Hence, Hypothesis 1
(relating to education status and major variables) was partially supported. Significant
correlations between personal income and other variables were found, indicating
partial support for Hypothesis 1. There were, however, not significant relationships
between personal income and overall job involvement (including two subscales),
“instrumental values”, “security and economic considerations”, “stability and
freedom from anxiety considerations” and “recreation, health and transport
considerations”. Significant correlations between occupational position and
“terminal values”, “self-esteem”, and “effort commitment” were also found. Hence,
Hypothesis 1 relating to occupational position and major variables was partially
supported.
Analysis of data from multiple sources showed that work values have a
significant positive relationship with job involvement, consistent with Hypothesis 2.
Work values are significantly related to organisational commitment, consistent with
Hypothesis 3. Job involvement has a significant positive direct relationship with
organisational commitment, consistent with Hypothesis 4.
An examination of the direct effect of work values and job involvement on
organisational commitment indicated that job involvement, as perceived by staff
nurses, accounts for a substantial amount of variance in organisational commitment,
and is a more important predicator of organisational commitment than work values.
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This finding was enhanced by the relationships proposed in the framework. This was
supported by the data. That is, work values had a positive relationship with
organisational commitment, while job involvement had a mediating effect. This was
consistent with Hypothesis 5.
4.4 Conclusion
This chapter presented the results of the analyses on the participant data, and
interpreted the results in terms of the study hypotheses. Analyses of various
characteristics of the sampled subjects, which were related to the major variables,
resulted in a number of observations. Firstly, it was found that different socio-
demographic groups (age, education status, personal income, and occupational
position) were significantly associated with the major variables (work values, job
involvement, and organisational commitment). Secondly, a significant relationship
between work values, job involvement and organisational commitment was revealed,
after accounting for design effect. Thirdly, job involvement was shown to have a
positive mediating effect on work values and organisational commitment. Chapter
Five will discuss these findings in light of current literature, theory and practice.
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CHAPTER FIVE
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
5.1 Introduction
This chapter provides a summary of the study, discusses the results of the
data analysis, describes the implications of the findings for both theory and practice,
and finally introduces the limitations of the study and recommendations for further
research.
5.2 Summary of the study
The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between work values,
job involvement and organisational commitment among nurses working in hospitals
in Taiwan. The objectives of this study were to, (1) describe the work values of
Taiwanese nurses; (2) describe the job involvement of Taiwanese nurses; (3)
describe the organisational commitment of Taiwanese nurses; (4) identify variables
that affect work values, job involvement, and organisational commitment for
Taiwanese nurses; and (5) identify where there is a mediating effect of job
involvement on work values and organisational commitment for Taiwanese nurses.
Three questionnaires (the Work Values Inventory (WVI), the Job
Involvement Questionnaire (JIQ), and the Organisational Commitment
Questionnaire (OCQ)), were used to measure the work values, job involvement, and
organisational commitment of the study participants. A total of 1053 Taiwanese
nurses from nine regional and teaching hospitals provided usable data for the
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analyses. Descriptive statistics, Pearson Product-Moment Correlation (PPMC)
analyses, General Linear Model (GLM) univariate analyses, and structural equation
modelling (SEM) were used to analyse the data.
5.3 Discussion of the findings
In this section, the major findings are discussed. Firstly, the relationships
between socio-demographic variables and work values, job involvement and
organisational commitment are considered. Associations between the key variables,
work values, job involvement and organisational commitment, are then discussed.
5.3.1 Relationships between socio-demographic variables and work values, job
involvement and organisational commitment
Age
It was hypothesised that there would be a significant relationship between
age and work values. Results of this study partially supported this hypothesis. Prior
research has reported that as worker age increases, they emphasise the internal
values of their workplace (Lee & Chung, 2001; Pu, 1988). The differences between
work values of older and younger employees could be attributed to socialisation
processes and maturation (psychosocial aging). As predicted, this study found that
older nurses, on average, placed more emphasis on “terminal values” than did
younger nurses.
It was also hypothesised that there would be a significant relationship
between age and job involvement for Taiwanese nurses. This hypothesis received a
high degree of support. Older employees have been found to hold higher perceptions
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of job involvement than younger employees (Chuang, 2001; Huang, 1993; Lodahl &
Kejner, 1965; Pan & Yeh, 1998; Rabinowitz & Hall, 1977; Tang, 2000). More
specifically, this suggests that nurses are apt to stay in their organisation because
leaving would involve a high personal or professional cost to themselves (Mathieu &
Zajac, 1990; Parasuraman & Nachman, 1987; Stevens et al., 1978). According to
Social Exchange Theory (SET), these findings could be based on corresponding
increases in a positive job benefits that, in turn, generate job involvement. This study,
consistent with previous studies, found that increasing age was associated with
higher job involvement.
It was hypothesised that there would be a significant relationship between
age and organisational commitment. This hypothesis was strongly supported, in that
older nurses reported a higher level of organisational commitment. This finding is in
line with previous literature (Angle & Perry, 1981; Brown, 1969; Hrebiniak &
Alutto, 1972; Mathieu & Zajac, 1990; Morris & Sherman, 1981; Sheldon, 1971;
Steers, 1977). Older nurses may have accumulated personal capital in the
organisational (e.g., self-identity, friends and social relationships, seniority or
retirement benefits), and hence have a higher sunk cost of leaving an organisation,
thus ensuring that they are more committed to their organisation (Mathieu & Zajac,
1990; Parasuraman & Nachman, 1987; Stevens et al., 1978). General arguments for
using such variables to predict commitment can be derived from SET. For instance,
according to this theory, advancing age would increase an individual’s investment in
the employing organisation (and the costs associated with leaving) thus the
individual would be more likely to remain with their organisation.
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Education status
It was hypothesised that there would be a significant relationship between
education status and work values. The literature supports the notion that highly
educated individuals develop higher internal values, self confirmation and “self-
growth” (Chiu, 1993; Lee & Chung, 2001; Pu, 1988). The results partially supported
this hypothesis. This study found that more highly qualified nurses, on average,
placed more emphasis on “terminal values”, “self-growth”, “self-realisation” and
“self-esteem” than did less qualified nurses.
Similarly, it was hypothesised that there would be a significant relationship
between education status and job involvement. Results of this study did not show
significant differences in job involvement across education status, providing no
support for this hypothesis. Based on SET, education status has been shown to be
negatively related to job involvement (Allen & Meyer, 1993; Angle & Perry, 1981;
Morris & Sherman, 1981; Mowday et al., 1982; Steers, 1977; Taur, 1998; Tsai et al.,
2003), perhaps because highly educated employees have higher expectations, and the
organisation may be unable to meet these expectations. Or, possibly, highly educated
employees see themselves as more valuable than the organisation, thinking that they
do not need the organisation as they are confident that they have the skills needed to
succeed in the new world of work (Angle & Perry, 1981). However, other studies
found positive correlations between education status and job involvement (Abboushi,
1990; Elloy et al., 1991; Pan & Yeh, 1998; Rabinowitz et al., 1977). In contrast
again, Chen (1998) and Hu (1999) have previously found no relationship between
education status and job involvement, consistent with the current study.
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It was also hypothesised that there would be a significant relationship
between education status and organisational commitment. No support existed for the
possible effect of education status on organisational commitment, with no difference
found in this study. Based on SET, education status has been shown to be negatively
related to organisational commitment (Allen & Meyer, 1993; Angle & Perry, 1981;
Mathieu & Zajac, 1990; Morris & Sherman, 1981; Mowday et al., 1982; Steers,
1977; Taur, 1998; Tsai et al., 2003). This may be because it may be more difficult
for organisations to provide sufficient rewards for employees with higher levels of
education. Many analysts (Morris & Sherman, 1981; Mowday et al., 1982; Taur,
1998; Tsai et al., 2003) have argued that highly educated individuals develop higher
expectations than the organisation may be able to meet. However, other studies
refute these findings, finding positive correlations between educational status and
organisational commitment (Pu, 1988; Putti et al., 1989). Stevens et al. (1978) and
Chen (2002) found that education was not related to commitment in their study.
Results of this study did not show significant differences relating to education status,
supporting the findings of Stevens et al. (1978) and Chen (2002).
Personal income
It was hypothesised that there would be a significant relationship between
annual personal income and work values. This hypothesis received a high degree of
support. Findings indicated that the level of work values among higher income
nurses was higher than the work values of lower income nurses. This may be
because they have identified the need for balance between their personal and work
lives, which determines their work satisfaction and willingness to remain with their
employer.
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It was hypothesised that there would be a significant relationship between
annual personal income and job involvement. Although “strong involvement” had a
relationship with personal income, this was not significant, and thus no support
existed for the possible effect of annual personal income on job involvement. As
stated previously, employees today want to achieve balanced lives, in that they
regard work not only as a way to make a living, but also as their personal identity.
The results are consistent with Friss's (1983) findings, but do not support previous
research which has found a positive relationship between personal income and job
involvement (Aleem & Khandelwal, 1988; Chadha & Kaur, 1987; Chen, 1998; Joshi,
1999; Tang, 2000).
It was hypothesised that there would be a significant relationship between
annual personal income and organisational commitment. This hypothesis received a
high degree of support, as higher income employees demonstrated higher levels of
organisational commitment than lower income employees. These results are in line
with previous literature (Friss, 1983).
Occupational position
It was hypothesised that there would be a significant relationship between
occupational position and work values. Results of this study partially supported this
hypothesis. Prior research has reported a relationship between different occupational
positions and overall work values (Tang, 2000). The current analyses found that
employees in more senior positions were more attentive to “terminal values” and
“self-esteem” than employees holding lower positions in the organisation.
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It was hypothesised that there would be a significant relationship between
occupational position and job involvement. However, in this study no support
existed for an effect of occupational position on job involvement. Previous studies
have found inconsistent relationships between occupational position and job
involvement. Lodahl and Kejner (1965) argue that the position within the
organisation is not necessarily related to job involvement. Contradicting this finding
are several studies suggesting that position affects job involvement (Morrow et al.,
1988; Tang, 2000). Morrow et al. (1988) argued that position within an organisation
is a good predictor of job involvement because, “higher level positions provide more
stimulating and challenging tasks and therefore the opportunity for greater
involvement” (p.102). This study supports Lodahl and Kejner’s early study.
It was hypothesised that there would be a significant relationship between
occupational position and organisational commitment. The results of this study
provide partial support for this hypothesis. Occupational position has been shown to
be positively related to “effort commitment” (Lee & Chung, 2001; Morrow et al.,
1988; Xiao & Lu, 1996). Morrow et al. (1988) argued that “supervisors have a
greater number of different tasks to perform, the more rewarding and challenging the
job is” (p.102). Therefore, commitment to one’s job tends to increase with one’s
position level.
The results of the current study did show significant differences according to
occupational position level. Nursing managers reported higher scores on effort
commitment than registered professional nurses and registered nurses. This finding
suggests that nurses in more senior positions showed more “effort commitment”, but
this was not the case for “values commitment” and “retention commitment”. This
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suggests that employees in higher positions in a particular organisation are more
likely to be willing to exert considerable effort on behalf of the organisation. It is
surprising to find no relationship between occupational positions and the other types
of commitment. One possible explanation is that they might not find the current
work environment “good enough” and therefore seek employment elsewhere.
Summary
The sociodemographic analysis has provided much important information in
the current study. These findings can help to further understanding of the role of
other aspects of a nurse’s job when examining work values, job involvement and
organisational commitment. For the work values variables, age, education status, and
personal income were positively significantly related to “terminal values”, “self-
growth”, “self-realisation” and “self-esteem”. Nurses who were older, highly
educated or had higher personal incomes placed greater emphasis on “terminal
values”. Personal income was positively related to work values and “social
interaction considerations” of “instrumental values” for these nurses. Occupational
position level was related to “terminal values” and “self-esteem”.
The variables of job involvement and organisational commitment were
significantly positively related to age. Nurses who were older were more involved in
their jobs and more committed to their organisations. Age was more strongly related
to organisational commitment than job involvement. Personal income also had
significant relationship with organisational commitment. Occupational position level
also had significant relationship with “effort commitment”.
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In the present study the nurse participants were relatively young (mean =
30.52, SD = 6.49), compared with Western countries (i.e., U.S. and Canada), where
nurses are aged on average between 37 and 44 (Buerhaus, Staiger, & Auerbach, 2000;
Cooper, 2003; Schiff, 2002). The hospital tenure (mean = 5.19 years) of nurses in
this study was similar with to previous figures, with an average of 6-7 years in a
hospital setting reported by Nursing Workforce Evaluation Data released by
Department of Health Executive, Taiwan (2002).
Despite these points, the expansion of care delivery settings, such as home
health care and community-based health care delivery systems, has increased the job
opportunities available for nurses and demand for these workers. As opportunities
for women outside of nursing have expanded, the number of women staying in the
RN workforce has declined. Studies indicate that hospital settings are becoming less
attractive to nurses because of changes in work conditions (i.e., workload, staffing,
hours worked, and work outcomes) (Armstrong, 2005). In addition, many of the
current skilled RNs are aging and will reach retirement age in the next few years.
The limited number of nurses available means that recruitment and retention
of nurses are major concerns for health care providers. This means that younger
nurses dominate the health care delivery system. Moreover, some experts point out
that the problem is not a shortage of nurses per se, but a shortage of nurses willing to
work in the current conditions. Therefore, younger nurses are moving away from
hospital settings and toward better work environments and less stressful working
conditions. The consequences of inadequate staffing levels often affect quality of
care and can put the safety of both patients and nurses at risk. Such a “cyclical”
problem has again become a healthcare system crisis.
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Although the nursing shortage has disappeared and the nurse labour force is
experiencing a surplus in Taiwan (which has resulted from an imbalance in supply
and demand) this situation is expected to be short-lived (Chuang, 2002). Now, an
aging nursing population may not be a problem. However, like many industrialised
countries, Taiwan has been experiencing population aging since 1993 (Chen Kung
Pei Foundation, 2000; Yang, 2000), with over 7% of the population group aged 65
years and over. The proportion of elderly people is projected to double in the next 20
years (Chen Kung Pei Foundation, 2000; Yang, 2000). According to the WHO report,
aging is currently the most important demographic trend worldwide.
Furthermore, increases in illness and in chronic disease will increase the
demand for health care. The healthcare system in Taiwan will follow the trends seen
in the Western health system, with aging nurses and shortages of nursing staff. What
can hospital administration executives and hospital managers faced with these
problems do in the health care arena in the future? How can hospitals attract, retain,
and motivate employees to provide high-quality health services in their organisation?
What is clear is that there is no simple, single solution to these problems in the
workplace. Therefore, healthcare organisations need to engage in long-term
strategies to create a supportive infrastructure which empowers nurses in their roles.
5.3.2 The relationship between work values, job involvement and organisational
commitment
Work values and job involvement
A significant positive relationship between work values and job involvement
(Hypothesis 2) indicated that greater work values are associated with higher levels of
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job involvement. Work values are also influential elements for job involvement.
Nurses who scored high on terminal values were more strongly involved with their
jobs. These findings are consistent with Randall and Cote (1991), Blau (1985), Dong
(2001), Tang (2000), Wu (1995), Huang and Wu (1996) and Chuang (2001).
In the literature review it was highlighted that work values and job
involvement are generally regarded as resulting from socialisation processes and the
social learning flowing from these processes. The findings suggest that although the
obtained correlations were not strong, to a certain extent each value these employees
sought to find in their life or at work were positively related to several specific
involvements in their present job. Alternatively, the results could be interpreted such
that employees’ involvement in their present jobs was positively related to many
values that individuals’ hope to find in their various life and work roles. An
individual may see a job as important to his or her identity, due to the values placed
on social relationships, security or sense of meaningful activity.
Work values and organisational commitment
The current study also investigated the relationship between work values and
organisational commitment (Hypothesis 3). Correlations between work values
(except for “stability and freedom from anxiety considerations”, “recreation, health
and transport considerations”) and organisational commitment (except for “retention
commitment”) were significant but generally weak. Several previous studies have
addressed the relationship between work values and organisational commitment.
Putti et al. (1989) argued that intrinsic work values relate more closely to
organisational commitment than either extrinsic work values or overall work values.
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Moreover, the finding that “terminal values” relate more closely to organisational
commitment than “instrumental values” seems consistent with the findings of Putti et
al. (1989). Respondents in this study who scored high on “terminal values” were
more strongly committed to their organisation. This finding may mean that those
nurses who had a higher commitment to their organisation also recognised the
importance of many values in their various life or work roles.
Job involvement and organisational commitment
As predicted, there was a positive relationship between job involvement and
organisational commitment (Hypothesis 4), which is in line with the literature
(Buffardi & Niebisch, 1988; Huang, 1993; Knoop, 1995; Morrow, 1983; Mowday et
al., 1979; Stevens et al., 1978). This finding suggests that individuals who had higher
job involvement had more commitment to their organisation. Researchers have
reasoned that needs for achievement and “self-esteem” are satisfied for job-involved
individuals in their workplace. Clear organisational goals give highly job-involved
workers more opportunities to satisfy their needs and build commitment to the
organisation. Thus these individuals exert more effort to achieve these goals than
individuals less involved in their jobs. Highly job-involved individuals may also feel
that they are highly personally invested in their work, and thus in the organisation as
whole, and might therefore place more importance on their organisation’s success.
These individuals may also feel more personally responsible for its success.
According to SET, an alternate explanation for the positive relationship
between job involvement and organisational commitment exists. According to this
theory, individuals bring certain needs and skills to the organisation, and expect that
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the organisation will provide an environment in which those needs are satisfied and
those skills are used. If individual psychological needs are satisfied, employees will
engage themselves more fully and invest greater time and energy on behalf of the
organisation. Therefore, it seems logical that perceptions of a positive work
environment will lead to satisfaction, and less intent to leave the organisation. This is
consistent with Kanungo’s view that high job involvement occurs when the work
environment meets the individual’s needs.
Findings in relation to mediating processes
A structured equation model was proposed to account for the relationships
proposed in this study (Figure 1-1). Specifically, it was hypothesised that job
involvement would have a positive mediating effect on work values and
organisational commitment (Hypothesis 5). The proposed model was evaluated for
goodness-of-fit to determine if these hypothesised relationships were supported. As
discussed in Chapter Four, the final revised model provided a significant
improvement in fit compared to the original and a reversed model, and therefore was
accepted.
In this study, as Randall and Cote (1991) suggested, work values operated
indirectly on organisational commitment via job involvement. Further, as the model
predicted, employees holding higher work values were highly involved in their jobs.
Job involvement appears to directly and strongly influence organisational
commitment. In turn, work values were related to job involvement and
organisational commitment. Moreover, this finding suggests that the indirect
influence of work values on organisational commitment is more important than its
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direct impact. This indicates that job involvement could play an important mediator
role, such that establishing a higher level of job involvement among employees may
be more important than focusing only on improving organisational commitment.
Several conclusions can be drawn from these results. Firstly, work values
show weak or moderate positive correlations with job involvement. Those
individuals who place high importance on values (either terminal, instrumental or
overall measures) are likely to have higher job involvement. Secondly, work values
(except for “stability and freedom from anxiety considerations”, and “recreation,
health and transport considerations”) also show weak or moderate positive
correlations with organisational commitment (except for “retention commitment”).
This suggests that those individuals who place a higher importance on work values
tend to report higher organisational commitment. Thirdly, job involvement shows
weak positive correlations with organisational commitment, such that those who are
more involved in their jobs are more likely to be committed to their organisations.
Lastly, nurses holding higher work values appear to be highly involved in their jobs,
and job involvement appears to directly and strongly influence organisational
commitment. Job involvement plays an important mediator role in this relationship.
5.4 Implications for theory and practice
The implications of these findings are as follows.
5.4.1 Implications for theory
The major finding of the current study was that the relationships between
work values, job involvement and organisational commitment proposed in the study
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framework were supported by the data from Taiwanese nurses. The finding that job
involvement played an important mediating role between work values and
organisational commitment deserves further exploration. This study is not able to
confirm Randall and Cote’s predictions regarding the direct effect of work values on
organisational commitment, which was lacking in tests of Randall and Cote’s two
models (both the original and revised models). In Figure 5-1, however, it can be seen
that the current results affirm the basic content of Randall and Cote’s revised model,
although the direct link between work values and organisational commitment is not
clearly drawn. It was anticipated that having strong work values would result in
increased job involvement, which would subsequently lead to increased
organisational commitment. Or it could be the case that employees who are involved
in their job have positive work values which they attribute to their organisation.
Figure 5-1. The revised model.
Work values Job involvement Organisational commitment
However, another test was run on the reverse model, which stated that job
involvement mediates the impact of organisational commitment on work values (i.e.,
organisational commitment → job involvement → work values). The findings
clearly did not support this model (see Chapter Four). One researcher (Rong, 1998)
has argued that merely observing the attitude of an individual cannot allow
prediction of the values one holds within. Values are remarkably stable over time
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(Rokeach, 1973). Thus this study provided further empirical evidence that
recognising their personal values can help individuals to explain and understand their
possible attitudes and the behaviours in which they engage.
This study utilised Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) to link work
values and job-related attitudes (i.e., job involvement, organisational commitment).
SCT has had a considerable influence on the way researchers understand behaviour
within organisations.
Research into job involvement (Lodahl & Kejner, 1965; Shore et al., 1990) and
organisational commitment (Shore et al., 1990) has suggested that work values, as a
result of social learning, are considered a strong antecedent of these two work
attitudes (i.e., job involvement and organisational commitment).
At the individual level, new members imitate other members performing their roles in order to fit in with the work unit and organisation. They are also actively and implicitly taught the skills, behaviours, and values necessary for career advancement in the organisation by imitating hierarchically superior mentors. This involves a complex interplay of cognitive, behavioural, and environmental elements
(Fogarty & Dirsmith, 2001, p.257)
Moreover, based on Social Exchange Theory (SET), individuals seek a balance
in their exchange relationship with the organisation, by having attitudes that are
equivalent to the degree of organisation commitment to them as an individual. When
an organisational environment satisfies employee needs, and provides opportunities
for skill utilisation, it enhances organisation commitment and job involvement.
The framework for this study was based on an integration of the models of job
involvement and organisational commitment. Some positive correlations were found
between work values, job involvement and organisational commitment among
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Taiwanese nurses. This indicates that some of their values (both “terminal values”
and “instrumental values”), their job involvement and their organisational
commitment vary with each other, at least to a certain degree.
In Randall and Cote’s two models, Protestant work ethic (PWE) affects job
involvement, which has a stronger influence on organisational commitment. The
revised model shows that work values, with two factors (“self-growth” and “self-
realisation”) of “terminal values” are related to job involvement and organisational
commitment. While PWE suggests that people with a strong work ethic tend to have
contempt for idleness and self-indulgence (Schnake, 1991), measurement of work
values in this study confirmed a relevance to the values of individual life experience.
Employees with a high work ethic are likely to feel guilty when they believe they are
not working as hard as they should (Cohen, 1999), whereas people with high
“terminal values” search for and work in careers that fit their personality and will be
more attached to them. These insights open up new approaches to the study of work
commitment. The findings for of this study, as they are related to these concepts,
affirmed the relevant theoretical proposals.
While it is not possible to ascribe causal direction based on a cross-sectional
study, it can be speculated that individuals with higher work values will have a
higher degree of job involvement and organisational commitment, which in turn
results in lower levels of intention to leave the organisation, and higher levels of job
satisfaction and performance. Furthermore, if performance and job satisfaction lead
to high quality patient care, higher levels of job involvement and organisational
commitment are vital to the organisation. This finding may allow nurse
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administrators to monitor the level of work commitment among employees, and to
predict staff turnover.
Due to the relatively little research in this field in Taiwan, the findings of the
current study also serve as a starting point for future research. The current findings
provide a basis for further research into the characteristics of the nursing profession
in Taiwan.
5.4.2 Implications for practice
This section focuses upon some practical implications of this study for
workplace planning and policy, healthcare management and administration.
Although many studies have been conducted attempting to clarify the
dimensions and factorial structure of work commitment (Cohen, 1999; Morrow,
1983; Randall & Cote, 1991), this study has explored the practical influence of the
dimensions of work commitment in the workplace. The results provide potentially
valuable information for nurse administrators in terms of understanding what
relationships exist between work values, job involvement and organisational
commitment, and how these might affect retention of staff nurses. This study
supports previous research linking work values with job involvement and
organisational commitment. It is important for individuals to be aware of their own
work values when they work in an organisation. In particular, the findings of this
study revealed that job involvement had a greater effect on organisational
commitment than work values.
Views about work and organisations have dramatically changed over
previous years. This change has impacted on employees’ work attitudes and
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cognitions about both their job and organisation (Hung & Liu, 2003; Rosina et al.,
1997). It is essential that nurse administrators become more aware of the role of
work values, job involvement, and organisational commitment so as to develop those
elements in their organisation. Specific examples of this are provided later in this
discussion. Nurse administrators therefore need to understand, inspire, and affect the
thinking of their employees, and subsequently generate positive work values in order
to improve job involvement and organisational commitment. Nurse administrators
must examine the nurses they currently employ and work out how to keep their
nurses in the organisation, and also to keep them happy and healthy. Nurse
administrators also need to incorporate programs and systems to increase job
involvement in the daily operations of the organisation. This will, in turn, enhance
employees’ commitment to their organisation. These will be discussed in more detail
later in this chapter.
Potential intervention will have impact all aspects of the organisation, from
the management and policy level right down to the practical work of nurses in wards,
touching on key issues such as turnover, social interaction, training, promotion,
career planning and ownership. The contribution of this research to nurse
administrators’ daily decision-making is summarised below, bringing together the
research hypotheses and the findings by revisiting the key issues of the study.
Staff nurses and work values
The majority of staff nurses who participated in this study had moderate to
high scores on work values, with many nurses favouring “instrumental values” over
“terminal values”. The nurses considered “social interaction considerations”,
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“security and economic considerations”, “stability and freedom from anxiety
considerations”, and “recreation, health and transport considerations” more
important than “self-growth”, “self-realisation” and “self-esteem”. Work is
particularly important to an individual’s life and many essential values can be
reflected or fulfilled at work. This is particularly true in a competitive marketplace.
However, when work values cannot be fulfilled through work accomplishment, staff
nurses either become less committed and more apt to leave the organisation, or look
for fulfilment of the values in other aspects of life, such as their leisure life and
family life.
This insight is a valuable tool that nurse administrators can use to improve
their working environment, supportive services and provide positive rewards. This
means that efforts to restructure patient care delivery must be more ergonomically
sensitive to nurses, and working areas need to be more comfortable and supportive.
Supportive services which may help employees include childcare, transportation, and
personal growth workshops. Rewards, including an incentive system, can be
effective motivators and can bond employees with their organisations and prevent
them from resigning. However, Webb, Tour, and Hurt (1994) note that nurses
responded positively to public recognition, peer reinforcement and senior
management reinforcement, and that hospitals do not have to recognise their
contributions in terms of a monetary reward.
Furthermore, there are differences among nursing groups at each hospital.
Nurse administrators who integrate the presence and power of generational forces
into their leadership strategies are in a better position to successfully lead the
organisations of the future. Nurse administrators should consider a new approach to
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selecting employees and encourage similarities in the work values within groups,
because people with similar value systems work more harmoniously and tend to be
more involved in their jobs. There are many means of building effective
communication, such as focus groups and simulations. It is also important to manage
diversity in the workplace including age, culture and gender (Betty, 1998). Though
can be difficult to achieve, better understanding can establish a harmonious
workplace atmosphere.
The role of nursing educators can affect student nurses’ personalities and
achievements. Teachers’ values may influence students’ interpretations of the
material. Society has long held a stereotypical perception of nurses to be
hardworking, considerate, and friendly, and that nurses demonstrate these qualities in
their workplace by being disciplined, insightful, organised, and dedicated (Chinn &
Kramer, 2004). Although nurses are thus generally trusted by the population, there
are new challenges within nursing as to its role within society, as these new
generations are growing up in a very different world. Betty (1998) argues that
society is very important in shaping employees preferred management styles, with
young people particularly willing to change jobs and careers. Today’s employees,
especially younger workers, expect to be treated like partners, and are no longer
satisfied with involvement, rather they want ownership (Izzo & Withers, 2002).
It is therefore critical for nursing educators to teach by relating values to
human differences, and practice enables student nurses to recognize and understand
their own values as well as the values of others. Reutter, Field, Campbell, and Day
(1997) reported that undergraduate nursing students tend to retain their personal
values when they graduate. Further understanding of the work values of student
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nurses may help deal with potential conflict between various generations in the work
force.
Staff nurses and job involvement and organisational commitment
The majority of nurse participants reported moderate scores on both job
involvement and organisational commitment. This finding may correspond with the
trend in society towards a balancing of all facets f life, in the hope of attaining a
quality lifestyle (Izzo & Withers, 2002; Samad, 2006; Zimmermann, 2002). Job
involvement and organisational commitment have significant effects on turnover and
absenteeism (Blau & Boal, 1987; Brown, 1996; Koberg & Chusmir, 1989; Martin &
Hafer, 1995; Mathieu & Zajac, 1990; Mowday et al., 1982; Steers, 1977). Working
women have identified the need for balance between their personal and work lives as
the most important issue that determines their work satisfaction and willingness to
stay with an employer (Samad, 2006). Therefore, adopting the social exchange
perspective, it is likely that providing various opportunities will result in higher
levels of job involvement and organisational commitment. Creating work
environments that foster professional accountability, by eliminating stringent rules
and allowing nurses the flexibility to act on their expert judgement to solve patient
care issues, encourages an autonomous practice climate. Nurse participation in
decision making has been reported as the most significant variable explaining job
satisfaction (Gleason-Scott, Schalski, & Aiken, 1999).
Furthermore, by advocating nurses to become more involved in jobs and
committed to organisations, nurse administrators must allow staff to have a sense of
autonomy by self-scheduling or job sharing, to promote autonomy and give nurses a
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chance to use their job abilities (Lawler & Hall, 1970). Individuals should be thus
encouraged to use their skills to reach organisational goals. Organisations should
also provide appropriate support for nurses to ensure appropriate working conditions.
Nurse administrators consider nurses’ well-being and value nurses’
contributions, however strategies could be implemented in order to treat nurses with
dignity and respect, help them to identify a clear career path and belief that there is a
future for the nurse within the organisation to advance in her/his career, and promote
a culture in which nurses feel that they are part of a team. Cavanagh and Coffin
(1992) argue that the nature of nursing work relies upon multidisciplinary
collaboration, teamwork and trust. It is therefore understandable that nurses’ peers
provide both support and relief when working in what can sometimes be a stressful
and demanding environment. Flannery and Grace (1999) suggest that recognition
from medical staff makes nurses’ work more meaningful.
Previous research (McEvoy & Cascio, 1985) indicates that newly hired
members with unmet expectations (resulting from the recruitment and selection
process) are more likely to report lower levels of job satisfaction and higher turnover.
The perception of reneged promises will quickly result in employees becoming
unhappy (Koeppel, 2005). To avoid “quick-quits”, Gravelle (2004) has suggested
that using realistic job previews (RJPs) may align the candidate’s expectation with
that of the organisation. The use of RJPs assures that employers are more candid in
the interview process and newly hired individuals are given a realistic preview and a
clear understanding of job expectations. In addition, the work team may not always
be supportive, especially for new and inexperienced members (Castledine, 1998). It
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is recommended that hospitals should assign new employees mentors who can help
educate them about the organisational culture and adequate practical skills.
This study is therefore beneficial to nurse administrators by suggesting new
methods for retaining and attracting clinical nurses, as well as identifying the vital
role of job involvement and organisational commitment, especially in these
organisations.
Age
There were significant differences in “terminal values”, job involvement and
organisational commitment across age. Nurses who were older placed greater
emphasis on “terminal values”, greater involvement in their jobs and higher
commitment to their organisations. Nurse administrators need to support career
development by encouraging and enabling nurses to fulfil their own unique potential
(such as “self-realisation”, “self-growth” and “self-esteem”).
In response to the issues of retention of expert nursing staff and development
of professional nursing practice, hospitals establish a professional career ladder
program for staff nurses as a means of increasing both organisational commitment
and job satisfaction (Price & Mueller, 1986b). A career ladder is a system which
allows licensed nurses more time to perform higher-level clinical tasks, such as
assessments, patient education, and documentation (Remsburg et al., 2001).
Implementation of a career ladder can also be built into the compensation system, in
that pay and seniority should be highly correlated (Price & Mueller, 1986b).
Moreover, employers can use the lure of benefits (including health care, pension and
retirement plans) in order to retain highly skilled nurses.
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Education status
The present study also revealed that differences across education status were
found for “terminal values”. Highly educated nurses had higher intrinsic values,
“self-realisation”, “self-growth” and “self-esteem”. Nurse administrators should
provide opportunities for professional growth through offering continuing applied
education courses or tuition support, and by promoting highly educated nurses’ core
competencies that can meet the needs of the organisation. In the same way they can
identify suitable staff and develop their skills further through education. Moreover,
organisations should support nurses’ attendance at professional conferences, and
ensure appropriate orientation programs and education when new technology or
practices are introduced within the workplace.
Personal incomes
This study revealed that nurses with higher personal incomes are likely to
have higher overall work values, “terminal values”, and organisational commitment
than nurses with lower personal incomes. As a general rule, nurses who were of
advancing age, longer tenure, or higher positions, had higher personal incomes.
When earning money is not the primary consideration, nurses tend to pursue self-
achievement and self-fulfilment outcomes (Maslow, 1943). Based on higher levels
of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, individuals need to be respected, to self-respect, to
respect others and develop self-actualisation. Nurse administrators need to motivate
and inspire nurses, and make them feel that their efforts are rewarding and
meaningful. Organisations can also improve the organisational commitment of staff
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by creating more flexible work schedules, welfare, and developing staff clinical
management and leadership abilities.
Occupational position
Nursing managers are likely to have higher “terminal values”, better “self-
esteem”, and “effort commitment” than nurse specialists and staff nurses. Therefore,
nurse administrators should try to develop programs such as team building, values
clarification, workshops in communication, conflict resolution, and career planning
for all staff regardless of their position in the hospital. Values clarification should be
incorporated into career education programs. Investing time and money in
developing values or personality testing may initially appear time-consuming, but it
is far less costly than employing the wrong person and then having to fire them later.
Mediation amongst work values, job involvement and organisational commitment
Finally, work values were significantly, though weakly, positively correlated
with job involvement. Those who placed higher importance on values (terminal,
instrumental and overall) tended to report higher job involvement. Work values
(except for “stability and freedom from anxiety considerations”, and “recreation,
health and transport considerations”) were weakly or moderately positively
correlated with organisational commitment (except for “retention commitment”).
Individuals who placed high importance on values (terminal, instrumental and
overall) were likely to have higher organisational commitment. Job involvement was
positively, though weakly, related to organisational commitment. Individuals who
were more involved in their jobs were likely to commit more to their organisations.
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It is important for organisations to recognise that employees’ different work values
may differentially impact the relationships between employees and their organisation.
Nurse administrators need to consider the relevance of work values to
performance at all levels of the organisation, including their own. Work values, job
involvement, and organisational commitment cannot be examined in isolation, as
they are systematically intercorrelated. Administrators need in particular to
understand the role of job involvement. Elloy et al. (1995) discuss the relationship
between job involvement and outcome variables, and found that job-involved
individuals are more likely to perceive opportunities for growth in their job, are more
committed to the organisation, have less intentions of leaving, and experience less
burnout. Riipinen (1997) found that job involvement based on need congruence was
related to a high level of well-being. Similarly, job involvement that was not based
on need fulfilment was independent from, or negatively related to well-being. A job-
involved individual tends to take on their responsibilities with a sense of
commitment.
Rabinowitz and Hall (1977, 1981) and Shyu, Lu, and Chen (1999) suggest
that successful goal achievement in the work setting can promote job involvement.
Based on Herzberg's (1966) motivation-hygiene theory, a challenging job
assignment creates effort on the employee’s part, which leads to goal
accomplishment and psychological success. This success increases “self-esteem”,
commitment and job involvement. Committed members are more productive and
more likely to achieve organisational aims and objectives (Larkey & Morrill, 1995).
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In summary, it is time that nurse administrators examined the dynamics of
their organisations to gain some insight into how they can best attract and retain a
new generation of nurses. This study supports previous research which suggests that
organisations must provide a structure that recognises the strengths of staff nurses as
professionals, and allows them to grow and develop as they provide the services that
make them indispensable to patients, the organisation and the community. The
findings of this study can also provide nurse administrators tools for guiding their
management, professional interventions and practices in the recruitment and
successful retention of nurses, through improving job involvement and
organisational commitment.
In past decades, Taiwan government has designed some strategies by
allowing hospitals to increase diversity manpower (i.e. nurse aides and clerks) for
helping non-professional activities, by implementing part-time work, and by
providing scholarship for encouraging an advanced degree. However, these
strategies cost too much and do not implement in the whole country. Nowadays,
Taiwan is facing increased competition, cost containment, and insufficient numbers
of younger nurses, rather than a decreased supply of nurses (as stated Chapter one).
Whichever is the case, the result increases nursing heavy workloads and limited
resources.
The literature reveals that this needs to continue work on the above
mentioned strategies. Thus, the implications of this study provide additional ways to
improve the nursing turnover and retention in Taiwan. This part was considered to
have been accomplished.
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5.5 Strengths of the study
The present study had several strengths. Firstly, the large sample size (N =
1047) addressed the issues of large confidence intervals, and allows detection of
small differences between categories. The high response rate (81%) indicates that the
effect of response bias was likely to be minimal. The present study also investigated
the construct validity of the three instruments used, through confirmatory and
exploratory factor analytic techniques. For the first time this study combined factor
analytic investigations to examine the relationships between work values, job
involvement, and organisational commitment.
In this study, the instruments used to measure work values and organisational
commitment were tested using Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA). The results of
the CFA demonstrated that the factor loadings for individual indicators on two
measures were significant (as proposed), and the overall fit indices for all proposed
factor structures were a moderate fit, suggesting that the measurements were valid.
The job involvement questionnaire was tested using Exploratory Factor Analysis
(EFA). A two-factor solution was obtained for the Job Involvement Questionnaire
(JIQ), as opposed to Kanungo’s (1982) uni-dimensional JIQ. There have been no
published studies using EFA on the JIQ in Taiwan. This study is designed to correct
the methodological weaknesses identified in previous work commitment (work
values, job involvement, and organisational commitment) research. It is critical that
future research on the constructs of work values, job involvement, and organisational
commitment should continue to focus on the validity of the chosen instruments.
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The present study also contributes to the Taiwanese nursing field in terms of
the type of data analysis used, because SEM is not widely implemented. This study
also adds to the limited knowledge base about the role of job involvement in
mediating the relationship between work values and organisational commitment.
This study is therefore a starting point for future researchers from which they can
further develop this model within the nursing field.
5.6 Limitations of the study
Several limitations of this study were identified, and taken into consideration
where possible. The study used a cross-sectional design, and accordingly cannot
establish temporal or causal relationships between independent and dependent
variables. Proving causality requires establishing time sequence, strength, specificity,
dose response, coherence, and consistency (Armenian, 1998). Directions attributed
to relationships examined in this study are therefore based on inferences drawn from
the literature, rather than direct evidence from the data.
While work values appear related to employee organisational commitment,
one cannot assume that placing importance on social interaction considerations will
result in commitment to the organisation. It is equally probable that belief in the
importance of social interaction may stem from one’s commitment to the
organisation, such that working with others within a team is the motivation.
Another limitation of the study is the proportion of variance in the dependent
variables explained by the independent variables. Although significant, these figures
are somewhat low (1% to 16% of the variance in dependent variables), suggesting
that other variables not included in this study can greatly influence organisational
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commitment. Therefore, additional variables should be evaluated in future research,
some of which are recommended in section 5.7. Until more is known about the
determinants of job involvement and organisational commitment, designing
intervention studies to correctly attribute causality and to determine how employers
can increase organisational commitment among employees, remain tentative. The
purpose of this study, however, was to better understand the effect of work values on
organisational commitment through job involvement. This has been accomplished.
The third limitation of this study is the measure of job involvement used.
Although Kanungo’s (1982) JIQ was demonstrated to be a uni-dimensional construct,
the present study rather revealed that job involvement was a two-dimensional
construct. Based on this study, further researchers should be careful in drawing
conclusions about job involvement.
The last limitation is the measure of work values implemented. In this study,
the WVI might not be a measure of the PWE used in Randall and Cote’s (1991)
study. Therefore, one should be careful about drawing parallels between these
concepts.
5.7 Recommendations for further research
Based on the conclusions and implications of this study, the following areas
of investigation are recommended for further research.
Study design
This study used a cross-sectional survey design. Future research should
consider alternative methods, such as a longitudinal study among nurses, by
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measuring the latent variables at various career stages. This approach then will allow
temporality to be determined, providing stronger evidence of causal relationships
between work values, job involvement, and organisational commitment.
Cross-cultural comparison
A cross-cultural research comparison would be worthwhile in order to
determine if the current findings can be replicated in other populations, and to
investigate possible cultural differences. The central findings of the study can
probably be safely extended to other Chinese societies such as China, Hong Kong,
and Singapore, as these nations place great emphasis on Confucian philosophy,
including personal control, adherence to a social hierarchy, and political order.
Organisational and management factors
This study examined socio-demographic and study variable interrelationships,
and asked whether job involvement mediates the relationship between work values
and organisational commitment. However, this integrated causal model is relatively
small, and did not take into consideration other factors that might have affected the
relationships between the variables. Therefore, further comprehensive examinations
of what other potential mediating or moderating variables influence organisational
commitment are needed. Future research could examine the integration of other
factors that are related to staff nurses’ organisational commitment, such as
management style, job stress, person-organisation value fit, organisation climate and
organisational culture.
184
Physical and psychological implications
Research has demonstrated a correlation between psychological strain (job
stress) and increased cardiovascular risk in employees, if employees have inadequate
power over their work situation (Karasek et al., 1988). Further research has revealed
that chronic stress has been linked to the development of heart disease and type 2
diabetes, as well as other conditions (Chandola, Brunner, & Marmot, 2006). The
authors examined the link between chronic job stress and metabolic syndrome,
which is a group of factors that together increase the risk of these diseases, including
high blood pressure, insulin resistance, central obesity (excessive abdominal fat,
which has been linked to increased cortisol in the bloodstream, as well as several
other health problems), and a number of other factors. This research found that
greater levels of job stress increased the chance of developing metabolic syndrome.
The higher the stress level the greater the chance of developing this syndrome.
From an employee perspective it is important to have high “self-esteem”. This in
turn probably has a positive effect on the mental health of the individual, which may
in turn result in high job involvement and productivity. Employee well-being is
crucial to achieving an efficient and effective workplace. Studies have shown that
job involvement is related to a high level of well-being (Castro, 1986; Wiener,
Muczyk, & Gable, 1987). This discussion raises further additional areas for
investigation, including the following.
• The relationship between job stress and job involvement, organisational
commitment and work values.
185
• Efficiency and effectiveness of employees and the correlation between
these variables and job involvement, organisational commitment and
work values.
• The factors contributing to positive mental health of an employee and its
relation to job involvement, organisational commitment and work values.
Cross-institutional research
Future research should focus more closely on exploring the interrelationships
between work values, job involvement and organisational commitment in different
types of organisations in terms of hospital location (urban, rural, and mixed),
attributes (public-run versus public-owned and religious versus non-religious) and
institution size. Such research should be able to provide insights into the role of these
variables within organisations.
Implication for other fields
Strictly speaking, the findings of this study have limited generalisability.
Future studies could utilise the same approach to replicate these results in other
professions that contain a majority professional female workforce, including
elementary and junior high school teachers (68% and 67%, respectively) (Education
statistical indicators, 2006), and the banking and insurance industry (58% women) in
Taiwan (Chen, 2001). This would increase the validity of the findings.
There is also need to replicate this study using other job categories or varied
samples in different settings, such as doctors or non-female staff working in
hospitals. For example, if employees in various generations or professions are
186
defining work values differently, further research needs to determine if this
difference will have an impact on the organisation. The organisation may not need to
create separate programs when targeting various groups, thereby saving time and
resources.
5.8 Conclusions
The current results add to the understanding of work values and their
relationships with job involvement and organisational commitment among
Taiwanese nurses. These analyses included selected sociodemographic variables
incorporated into this study. Moreover, this study indicates that job involvement
mediates the relationship between work values and organisational commitment. The
findings of the present study have implications for organisations which are
attempting to enhance organisational commitment through increased job
involvement. It is anticipated that improving these factors will be associated with
reduced turnover and absenteeism and hence the establishment of more effective
organisations. A more effective organisational environment, that implements
participatory management, recognises the value of professional nursing practice, and
values communication between clinical nurses and leadership, will be conducive to
good nursing practice. This research has added to the existing nursing literature,
providing key information about links between work values, job involvement, and
organisational commitment. This study provides a theoretical and empirical basis for
further study of nursing issues in Taiwan, and in other parts of the world.
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APPENDICES
Appendix A Sociodemographic Profile
188
Please tick the appropriate response or write in the space provided Q1. Gender 1 Female 2 Male
Q2. Age in years years
Q3. Marital status 1 Single 2 Married 3 Separated
4 Divorced 5 Widowed
Q4. F/P time status 1 Full time 2 Part time
Q5. Religious affiliation
1 Buddhist 2 Christian 3 Catholic 4 Taoist 5 Other
1
Q6. What is your current position?
1 Staff nurse
2 Nurse specialist
3 Head nurse
4 Supervisor 5 Other
1
Q7. Education 1 Vocational school of nursing
2 Certificate of graduation
3 Bachelor degree
4 Graduate school
5 Others 1
1 Less than NT$ 360,000 Q8. Personal income
2 NT$360,001~NT$720,000
3 NT$720,001~NT$1,080,000
4 NT$1,080,001~NT$1,420,000
5 More than NT$1,420,001
Q9. How long have you been with your current position? years
Q10. How long have you been with your current employers? years
Q11. How long have you been nursing? Years
189
Appendix B Work Value Inventory (WVI)
190
Please tick the appropriate response. There are no right or wrong answers.
The organisation allows me the opportunity of self-growth by:
Least important
Not important
Neutral Important Most
important
Q13. Enabling staff to obtain new knowledge and techniques continuously while working
1 2 3 4 5
Q14. Offering opportunities to learn while working
1 2 3 4 5
Q15. Encouraging staff to analyse and study things in depth while working
1 2 3 4 5
Q16. Providing the chance of trying new working methods while working
1 2 3 4
Q17. Permitting staff to be creative while working
1 2 3 4 5
Q18. Consenting to staff devoting oneself to a prospective task
1 2 3 4 5
Q19. Permitting staff to fully create one’s own work career
1 2 3 4 5
The organisation provides me with the freedom for self-realisation by:
Least
importantNot
importantNeutral Important
Most important
Q20. Permitting staff to specialize within the job
1 2 3 4 5
Q21. Fulfilling their dreams 1 2 3 4 5
Q22. Satisfying their personal ambition 1 2 3 4 5
Q23. Promoting quality of life through work
1 2 3 4 5
Q24. Making one’s life more colourful through work
1 2 3 4 5
Q25. Endorsing staff to contribute meaningfully to society
1 2 3 4 5
Q26. Allowing staff through work to serve or improve society
1 2 3 4 5
5
191
My self-esteem is improved through organisational work by:
Least
importantNot
importantNeutral Important
Most important
Q27. Feelings of achievement while working
1 2 3 4 5
Q28. Feelings of achievement observed through one’s own concrete product of work
1 2 3 4 5
Q29. Being responsible for specific tasks
1 2 3 4 5
Q30. Gaining self-affirmation and self-confidence through work
1 2 3 4 5
Q31. Gaining boss’s full authorization while working
1 2 3 4 5
Q32. Obtaining other person’s affirmation through work
1 2 3 4 5
Q33. Having total power of control while working
1 2 3 4 5
My friendships and social interaction are satisfied through organisational work by:
Least
importantNot
importantNeutral Important
Most important
Q34. The boss being considerate of employees
1 2 3 4 5
Q35. Colleagues taking care of each other
1 2 3 4 5
Q36. A lack of aggression or selfishness among colleagues
1 2 3 4 5
Q37. Staff that can happily work together with colleagues to finish a job
1 2 3 4 5
Q38. Colleagues who can get along harmoniously
1 2 3 4 5
Q39. Staff in a working environment with good personal connections (relationships)
1 2 3 4 5
Q40. Staff that work honestly and sincerely with co-workers
1 2 3 4 5
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I feel security, both financially and in my work when:
Least
importantNot
importantNeutral Important
Most important
Q41. Staff can get appropriate care while sick
1 2 3 4 5
Q42. The safety of employees is the most important aspect of work
1 2 3 4 5
Q43. The organisation provides good insurance
1 2 3 4 5
Q44. Salary allocation is fair and reasonable
1 2 3 4 5
Q45. Appropriate salary promotion is obtained
1 2 3 4 5
Q46. One’s own devotion to work can gain reasonable reward
1 2 3 4 5
Q47. The organisation provides a good staff benefit scheme
1 2 3 4 5
I feel relaxed and Stable in my life when:
Least
importantNot
importantNeutral Important
Most important
Q48. Work hours fully correlate with one’s living schedule
1 2 3 4 5
Q49. One can be engaged in a full range of work, not monotonous and untidy
1 2 3 4 5
Q50. The individual does not have to deal with many complicated or alternatively trivial things at work
1 2 3 4 5
Q51. A variety of worry and anxiety derived from work competition can be avoided
1 2 3 4 5
Q52. One does not often feel stressful while at work
1 2 3 4 5
Q53. One does not often need to worry about job affairs after work
1 2 3 4 5
Q54. One feels job secure 1 2 3 4 5
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Access to work and opportunities for recreation are improved by my organisation when:
Least
importantNot
importantNeutral Important
Most important
Q55. Working under a non-harmful (no damage to physical and mental health) environment
1 2 3 4 5
Q56. The individual is being engaged in outdoor activities or physical activities after work
1 2 3 4 5
Q57. Flexible hours are provided allowing for more personal freedom
1 2 3 4 5
Q58. Longer annual vacation is provided, enabling the individual to pursue leisure activities
1 2 3 4 5
Q59. One can avoid excessive social intercourse in order to keep healthy
1 2 3 4 5
Q60. One’s work place is close to home or easily accessible
1 2 3 4 5
Q61. One can avoid traffic congestion and road rage while travelling to or from work
1 2 3 4 5
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Appendix C Job Involvement Questionnaire (JIQ)
195
Please tick the appropriate response. There are no right or wrong answers.
Answer the following questions as they apply to you in your job:
Strongly disagree
Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly
agree
Q62. The most important things that happen to me involve my present job
1 2 3 4 5
Q63. To me, my job is only a small part of who I am
1 2 3 4 5
Q64. I am very much involved personally in my job
1 2 3 4 5
Q65. I live, eat and breathe my job 1 2 3 4 5
Q66. Most of my interests are centred around my job
1 2 3 4 5
Q67. I have very strong ties with my present job which would be very difficult to break
1 2 3 4 5
Q68. Usually I feel detached from my job
1 2 3 4 5
Q69. Most of my personal life goals are job-oriented
1 2 3 4 5
Q70. I consider my job to be very central to my existence
1 2 3 4 5
Q71. I like to be absorbed in my job most of the time
1 2 3 4 5
196
Appendix D Organisational Commitment Questionnaire (OCQ)
197
Please tick the appropriate response. There are no right or wrong answers.
Answer the following questions about your commitment to your current job: Strongly
disagreeDisagree Neutral Agree
Strongly agree
Q72. I am willing to put in a great deal of effort beyond that normally expected in order to help this organisation be successful
1 2 3 4 5
Q73. I talk up this organisation to my friends as a great organisation to work for
1 2 3 4 5
Q74. I feel very little loyalty to this organisation
1 2 3 4 5
Q75. I would accept almost any type of job assignment in order to keep working for this organisation
1 2 3 4 5
Q76. I find that my values and the organisation’s values are very similar
1 2 3 4 5
Q77. I am proud to tell others that I am part of this organisation
1 2 3 4 5
Q78. I could just as well be working for a different organisation as long as the type of work were similar
1 2 3 4 5
Q78. This organisation really inspires the very best in me in the way of job performance
1 2 3 4 5
Q79. It would take very little change in my present circumstances to cause me to leave this organisation
1 2 3 4 5
Q70. I am extremely glad that I chose this organisation to work for, over others I was considering at the time I joined
1 2 3 4 5
Q71. There’s not too much to be gained by sticking with this organisation indefinitely
1 2 3 4 5
Q72. Often, I find it difficult to agree with this organisation’s policies on important matters relating to its employees
1 2 3 4 5
Q73. I really care about the fate of this organisation
1 2 3 4 5
Q74. For me this is the best of all possible organisations for which to work
1 2 3 4 5
Q75. Deciding to work for this organisation was a definite mistake on my part
1 2 3 4 5
198
Appendix E Sampling Strategy and Sample Size Calculation
199
68 regional teaching hospitals in Taiwan
Convenient sampling 24 regional teaching hospitals
Sent letters of consent
Obtained consent from 9 regional teaching hospitals
Sample size was determined by assuming a difference betweengroups of 1 point on the five Likert scale previously used and astandard deviation .9, and allowing a 5% type I error (2-tail) and10% type II error and the assumptions of a response rate (40%),confounder (15%), and contingency (10%):
Sample size per group => 2 * (3.24)2 * (.9)2 / 12 = 17
Comparing max 9 categories within group => 17 * 10 = 170
Response rate (40%) => 170 * 1.6 = 272
Confounder (15%) => 272 * 1.15 ≈ 313
Contingency (10%) => 313 * 1.1 ≈ 345
200
Appendix F Cover Letter
201
Queensland University of Technology
A study of the relationships between work values, job involvement, and organisational commitment among Taiwanese nurses
Principal investigator: Chin-Chih Ho, School of Public Health, Queensland University of Technology, Australia. Ph. +617 (07) 38645478. Department of Health Administration, Tzu Chi College of Technology, Taiwan. Ph. (03) 8572158 ext. 422.
This research project is being undertaken by Chin-Chih Ho, a Health Service Management doctorate student, School of Public Health at the Queensland University of Technology.
The purpose of this research is to identify nurses work values, whether their work values influence their commitment to the organisation through job involvement and how work values, job involvement and organisational commitment related to one another among Taiwanese teaching hospitals. The study is seen as significant as most of the research come from education or industry. The restricted range of professional fields sampled may limit our understanding, because findings from education or industry may not be generalisable to the healthcare system. Research in diverse professions may be needed to fully describe the relationship of these concepts.
The research findings may be used to improve recruitment and training and assist managers and organisations in developing strategies to ensure better alignment of work values between the organisation and individuals.
Your hospital is one of the organisations selected for this study and all Registered Nurses here are being approached for their views in this regard. Your participation will be a valuable contribution to this significant research project. If you agree to participate, you would be asked to complete a questionnaire and return the same in the attached stamped envelope. The questions are three scales and tick boxes that require you to record your perceptions and thoughts. There are also a few standard questions about your social demographic characteristics, such as age, gender, income and length of service. The questionnaire will take approximately 25 minutes of your time, with the information used to develop a clearer understanding of what associates organisational commitment positively or negatively. Participation in the research is voluntary and there is no obligation or penalty for not participating. The survey will be completely anonymous, with your information de-identified and aggregated with other nurses. The findings of this research will be published in peer reviewed journals, however no individual comments or results will be reported. Aggregated data will be available to organisations to assist in improving the workplace.
Should you become distressed as a result of participating this research, you may wish to contact the Nursing Department within your organisation. The contact details for this services can be accessed by referral through your supervisor. Any question concerning the project can be directed to chief investigator, Chin-Chih Ho, at the School of Public Health, Queensland University of Technology on +617 (07) 38645460, Australia, or the department of Health Administration at Tzu Chi College of Technology, Taiwan, on (03) 8572158.
202
This research project has been approved by the University Human Research Ethics Committee at Queensland University of Technology. You may contact the Research Ethics Officer on +617 (07) 38642340 or email ethicscontact@qut.edu.au, should you have any complaints about the conduct of the research, or wish to raise any concerns. All complaints will be treated in confidence, investigated full and you will be informed of the outcome.
Thank you for your interest in the study
203
Appendix G Ethical Approval Document
204
Date: Fri 3 Dec 11:51:52 EST 2004 From: Wendy Heffernan <w.heffernan@qut.edu.au> Add To Address Book | This is Spam Subject: Expedited Ethical Review - 3794H To: c6.ho@student.qut.edu.au Cc: b.oldenburg@qut.edu.au
Dear Chin Chih I write further to the application for expedited ethical clearance requested for your project, "A study of the relationships between work values, job involvement and organisational commitment among Taiwanese nurses" (QUT Ref No 3794H). This application was recently considered by the University Human Research Ethics Committee (UHREC) Expedited Ethical Review Panel. On behalf of the Panel I wish to advise that your project has been granted conditional ethical approval. This approval is subject to clarification regarding the names of the 10 participating hospitals (these are provided in the appendices, but no English translation of the name of the person providing the approval or the name of the institution has been included). Please provide me with the revisions/additional information outlined in the above by 24 December 2004. Failure to submit this information by the due date may result in withdrawal of this conditional ethical approval. Please do not hesitate to contact me further if you have any queries regarding this matter. Regards Wendy Wendy Heffernan Research Ethics Officer Office of Research O Block Podium Tel: 07 3864 2340 Fax: 07 3864 1304
205
Date: Mon 13 Dec 13:29:50 EST 2004 From: Wendy Heffernan <w.heffernan@qut.edu.au> Add To Address Book | This is Spam Subject: Re: Expedited Ethical Review - 3794H To: c6.ho@student.qut.edu.au Cc: b.oldenburg@qut.edu.au Dear Chin Chih I write further to the response received in relation to your project, "A study of the relationships between work values, job involvement and organisational commitment among Taiwanese nurses" (QUT Ref No 3794H). On behalf of the Chair, University Human Research Ethics Committee (UHREC), I wish to advise that this response has addressed the additional information required for your project. Consequently, you are authorised to immediately commence your project on this basis. The decision is subject to ratification at the 15 February 2005 meeting of UHREC. I will only contact you again in relation to this matter if the Committee raises any additional questions or concerns in regard to the clearance. The University requires its researchers to comply with:
• the University’s research ethics arrangements and the QUT Code of Conduct for Research;
• the standard conditions of ethical clearance;
• any additional conditions prescribed by the UHREC;
• any relevant State / Territory or Commonwealth legislation;
• the policies and guidelines issued by the NHMRC and AVCC (including the National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Research Involving Humans).
Please do not hesitate to contact me further if you have any queries regarding this matter. Regards Wendy
206
University Human Research Ethics Committee Information in relation to ethical clearance
What is the duration of my ethical clearance? The ethical clearance awarded to your project is valid for three years commencing from 1 December 2004. Recruitment, consent and data collection / experimentation cannot be conducted outside the duration of the ethical clearance for your project. Please note that a progress report is required annually on 1 December or on completion of your project (whichever is earlier). You will be issued a reminder around the time this report is due. The progress report proforma can be located on the Research Ethics webpage. Extensions to the duration of your ethical clearance within the 3-5 year limit must be made in writing and will be considered by the Chair under executive powers. Extensions beyond 5 years must be sought under a renewal application. Standard conditions of approval The University’s standard conditions of approval require the research team to: 1. conduct the project in accordance with University policy, NHMRC / AVCC guidelines and regulations, and the provisions of any relevant State / Territory or Commonwealth regulations or legislation; 2. respond to the requests and instructions of the University Human Research Ethics Committee (UHREC) 3. advise the Research Ethics Officer immediately if any complaints are made, or expressions of concern are raised, in relation to the project; 4. suspend or modify the project if the risks to participants are found to be disproportionate to the benefits, and immediately advise the Research Ethics Officer of this action; 5. stop any involvement of any participant if continuation of the research may be harmful to that person, and immediately advise the Research Ethics Officer of this action; 6. advise the Research Ethics Officer of any unforeseen development or events that might affect the continued ethical acceptability of the project; 7. report on the progress of the approved project at least annually, or at intervals determined by the Committee; 8. (where the research is publicly or privately funded) publish the results of the project is such a way to permit scrutiny and contribute to public knowledge; and 9. ensure that the results of the research are made available to the participants. Modifying your ethical clearance The University has an expedited mechanism for the approval of minor modifications
207
to an ethical clearance (this includes changes to the research team, subject pool, testing instruments, etc). In practice this mechanism enables researchers to conduct a number of projects under the same ethical clearance. Any proposed modification to the project or variation to the ethical clearance must be reported immediately to the Committee (via the Research Ethics Officer), and cannot be implemented until the Chief Investigator has been notified of the Committee’s approval for the change / variation. Requests for changes / variations should be made in writing to the Research Ethics Officer. Minor changes (changes to the subject pool, the use of an additional instrument, etc) will be assessed on a case by case basis and interim approval may be granted subject to ratification at the subsequent meeting of the Committee. It generally takes 5 -10 days to process and notify the Chief Investigator of the outcome of a request for a minor change / variation. Major changes to your project must also be made in writing and will be considered by the UHREC. Depending upon the nature of your request, you may be asked to submit a new application form for your project. Audits All active ethical clearances are subject to random audit by the UHREC, which will include the review of the signed consent forms for participants, whether any modifications / variations to the project have been approved, and the data storage arrangements. Wendy Heffernan Research Ethics Officer Office of Research O Block Podium Tel: 07 3864 2340 Fax: 07 3864 1304 At 12:04 PM 11/12/2004 +1000, you wrote: Hi Wendy I am Chin Chih. I have sent 10 copies of revision statement of project agreement in those days. Each e-mail represents one revision statement of project agreement for one hospital. If these are available, please print them out. If not, please let me know. Thank you. Kind regards, Chin Chih
208
Date: Fri 24 Mar 10:44:12 EST 2006 From: "Janette Lamb" <jd.lamb@qut.edu.au> Add To Address Book | This is Spam Subject: PROGRESS REPORT -- 3794H To: <c6.ho@student.qut.edu.au> Dear Mr Chin Ho
Thank you for providing the Progress Report in relation to ethical clearance for your project, QUT Ref 3794H – A study of the relationships between work values, job involvement and organisational commitment among Taiwanese nurses, which has ethical clearance until 1 December 2007.
In accordance with the National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Research Involving Humans and QUT policy, I have noted the following on the ethics database:
The Progress Report will be provided to the University Human Research Ethics Committee at its next meeting. I will only contact you again in relation to this matter if the Committee raises any additional questions or concerns.
Ø The project is in progress; Ø The project is being carried out in accordance with the original application; Ø Any unforeseen risks have been identified and managed; and Ø No other ethical concerns have emerged from the study.
Please do not hesitate to contact me if you have any further queries in relation to this matter.
Yours sincerely
Janette Lamb
Research Ethics Support Officer Office of Research | Level 3 O Block Podium
Gardens Point Campus | Queensland University of Technology GPO Box 2434 | BRISBANE QLD 4001 Phone: 07 3864 5123 | Fax: 07 3864 1304 Email: jd.lamb@qut.edu.au | CRICOS No: 00213J
Web: http://www.research.qut.edu.au/oresearch/ethics/
209
Appendix H Item-Total Statistics for Job Involvement
Questionnaire
210
Item-Total Statistics for Job Involvement Questionnaire
Item Scale Mean if Item Deleted
Scale Variance if Item Deleted
Corrected Item-Total Correlation
Squared Multiple
Correlation
Cronbach's Alpha if Item
Deleted
27.05 18.776 .603 .401 .814
3 26.93 18.963 .616 .450 .813
4 27.74 18.116 .627 .550 .810
5 27.52 17.666 .710 .626 .800
6 27.47 18.251 .641 .519 .809
26.98 23.191 -.084 .206 .891
8 27.56 18.121 .649 .579
9 27.42 17.673 .689 .571 .802
10 27.07 18.381 .652 .464 .808
1
7
.808
211
Appendix I Correlations of Variables
212
213
Age 1
Age Edu income Poistion WV TV SG SR SE IV SI SS SA RH JI CINV SINV OC VC EC
Edua .06 1
.42** 1
Incomeb .18**
Position .24** .24** .28** 1
WVc .06 .10** .04 1
TVd
SI .09**
.94**
.01
.09** .12** .15** .09** .88** 1
SGe .08 .10** .15** .06 .85** .95** 1
SRf .08 .12** .13** .06 .84** .95** .86** 1
SEg .09 .12** .13** .11** .78** .91** .78** .78** 1
IVh -.03 .01 .05 .00 .94** .66** .64** .63** .56** 1i .01 .02 .03 .86** .63** .63** .59** .52** .90** 1
OSj -.03 -.00 .04 .00 .85** .57** .56** .55** .48** .92** .78** 1
SAk -.06 .03 .04 .01 .89** .63** .61** .61** .54** .80** .83** 1
RHl -.03 -.00 -.04 .79** .55** .52** .52** .49** .87** .69** .70** .77** 1
JIm .14** .01 .03 .01 .28** .32** .29** .30** .21** .20** .20** .17** .19** 1
CINVn .10** -.00 .01
.39** .38** .38** .36** 1
.01 .17** .22** .19** .21** .21** .10** .10** .11** .08** .10** .96** 1
SINVo .18** .02 .08 .02 .42** .41** .35** .33** .30** .31** .84** .64**
OCp .31** -.01 .29** .27** .25** .16** .20** .18** .10** .10** .43** .34** .51** 1
VCq .01 .86**
.37** .41** .41**
.19** .07 .07 .02 .02
.21** .13** .05 .21** .30** .28** .29** .26** .12** .16** .16** .07 .07 .49** .43** .48** 1
ECr .33** .01 .27** .10** .37** .36** .28** .30** .26** .24** .23** .42** .30** .55** .77** .57** 1
RCs .26** -.04 .05 .07 .08 .09** .06 .05 .10** .15** .07 .26** .78** .40** .50**1. a: Edu= education status; b: Income= personal income; c: WV= work values; d: TV= “terminal values”; e: SG= “self-growth”; f: SR= “self-realisation”; g: SE= “self-esteem”; h: IV= “instrumental values”; i: SI=
“social interaction considerations”; j: SS= “security and economic considerations”; k: SA= “stability and freedom from anxiety considerations”; l: RH= “recreation, health and transport considerations”; m: JI= job involvement; n: CINV= complete involvement; o: SINV= strong involvement; p: OC= organisational commitment; q: VC= values commitment; r: EC= effort commitment; s: RC= retention commitment.
2. **P<.01.
.22** .07 .23** .29**
.29**
.03
213
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