A STUDY OF THE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN WORK

VALUES, JOB INVOLVEMENT AND ORGANISATIONAL

COMMITMENT AMONG TAIWANESE NURSES

BY

Chin-Chih HO

Bachelor of Business (FCU), Master of Health Administration (USC)

A thesis submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Health

Science in the Centre for Health Research,

Queensland University of Technology,

Australia

November 2006

STATEMENT OF ORIGINAL AUTHORSHIP

The work contained in this thesis has not been previously submitted to meet

requirements for an award at this or any other higher education institution. To the

best of my knowledge and belief, the thesis contains no material previously

published or written by another person except where due reference is made.

Signature:

Date:

ii

KEY WORDS

Work values

Job involvement

Organisational commitment

Taiwanese nurses

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ABSTRACT

Aim: The aim of this study is to investigate the relationship between work values,

job involvement and organisational commitment among Taiwanese nurses in Taiwan.

The objectives of this study are to: (1) describe the work values of Taiwanese nurses;

(2) describe the job involvement of Taiwanese nurses; (3) describe the organisational

commitment of Taiwanese nurses; (4) identify variables that affect work values, job

involvement, and organisational commitment among Taiwanese nurses; and (5)

identify the mediating effects of job involvement on work values and organisational

commitment among Taiwanese nurses.

Design: The study utilises a cross-sectional survey design. The sample consisted of

RNs (N=1,047) recruited from a convenience sample in nine regional and teaching

hospitals in Taiwan.

Methods: Data was collected using a survey instrument consisting of 86 questions,

including sociodemographic data, work values, job involvement, and organisational

commitment. The data was analysed using descriptive bivariate analysis, Pearson

Product Moment Correlation (PPMC), General Linear Model (GLM) analysis with

random effect, and structural equation modelling (SEM).

Findings: Four sociodemographic variables, age, SES (i.e., education status, personal

income, and position) were shown to be partially statistically significant to work

values, job involvement and organisational commitment. Subsequent GLM analysis

were shown work values were positively related to job involvement and

organisational commitment, and job involvement is positively related to

organisational commitment. Results of the proposed model using SEM revealed that

job involvement could play an important role with mediation, and that establishing a

higher level of job involvement may be more important than focusing only on

organisational commitment.

Conclusions: This study has implications for organisations attempting to enhance

organisational commitment through increased job involvement. It is anticipated that

by improving these various factors the outcome will be reduced turnover and

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absenteeism and more effective organisations. A more effective organisational

environment will be more conducive to good nursing practice.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPER ONE: INTRODUCTION ......................................................... 1 1.1 Research background ........................................................................ 11.2 Research objectives ........................................................................... 31.3 Justification for the research ............................................................. 41.3.1 Areas for further investigation .......................................................... 41.3.2 Implications of successful research ................................................... 51.4 Research questions ............................................................................ 81.5 Benefits of the study .......................................................................... 91.5.1 Theoretical development ................................................................... 91.5.2 Implication towards policy ................................................................ 91.6 Theoretical framework ...................................................................... 101.6.1 Theoretical explanations ................................................................... 121.6.2 Summary of variables investigated ................................................... 131.7 Conclusion ......................................................................................... 15 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ......................................... 16 2.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 162.2 Work values ....................................................................................... 162.2.1 Work values: Definition and measurement ....................................... 172.2.2 Sociodemographic variables as related to work values ..................... 252.2.3 Summary ........................................................................................... 282.3 Job involvement ................................................................................ 282.3.1 Job involvement: Definition and measurement ................................. 282.3.2 Relevant theoretical models for understanding job involvement ...... 322.3.3 Sociodemographic variables as related to job involvement .............. 382.3.4 Summary ........................................................................................... 412.4 Organisational commitment .............................................................. 422.4.1 Organisational commitment: Definition and measurement .............. 432.4.2 Antecedents and consequences of organisational commitment ........ 492.4.3 Sociodemographic variables as related to organisational

commitment ...................................................................................... 55

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2.4.4 Summary ........................................................................................... 582.5 The interrelationships between work values, job involvement and

organisational commitment ............................................................... 592.5.1 Research on work values and job involvement ................................. 602.5.2 Research on work values and organisational commitment ............... 622.5.3 Research on job involvement and organisational commitment ........ 652.5.4 Randall and Cote’s original and revised models ............................... 672.6 Conclusion ......................................................................................... 70 CHAPTER THREE: STUDY METHODS .............................................. 73 3.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 733.2 Research structure ............................................................................. 733.3 Recruitment strategy ......................................................................... 743.3.1 Study design and sampling ................................................................ 743.3.2 Sample size ........................................................................................ 753.4 Data collection ................................................................................... 763.5 Ethical considerations ....................................................................... 773.6 Research hypotheses ......................................................................... 783.7 Survey instrument ............................................................................. 793.7.1 Survey questionnaire ........................................................................ 793.7.2 Assessments of validity .................................................................... 833.7.3 Assessments of reliability .................................................................. 863.7.4 Testing the research instrument results ............................................. 873.8 Data analysis ..................................................................................... 973.8.1 Descriptive analysis ........................................................................... 973.8.2 Inferential analysis ............................................................................ 973.9 Limitations to the research design ..................................................... 1023.9.1 Internal validity ................................................................................. 1023.9.2 External validity ................................................................................ 1033.10 Data cleaning ................................................................................... 1033.11 Data considerations to improve analysis ........................................... 1053.12 Sociodemographic profile ................................................................. 1063.13 Definition of terms ............................................................................ 1193.14 Conclusion ......................................................................................... 119

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CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS ................................................................. 121 4.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 1214.2 Descriptive statistics for study variables ........................................... 1214.3 Testing of hypotheses ........................................................................ 1254.3.1 Results for research Hypothesis 1 ..................................................... 1314.3.2 Results for research Hypothesis 2 ..................................................... 1344.3.3 Results for research Hypothesis 3 ..................................................... 1384.3.4 Results for research Hypothesis 4 ..................................................... 1414.3.5 Results for research Hypothesis 5 ..................................................... 1444.3.6 Summary ........................................................................................... 1504.4 Conclusion ......................................................................................... 152 CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS ..................... 153 5.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 1535.2 Summary of the study ....................................................................... 1535.3 Discussion of the findings ................................................................. 1545.3.1 Relationships of socio-demographic groups with work values, job

involvement and organisational commitment ................................... 1545.3.2 The relationship between work values, job involvement and

organisational commitment ............................................................... 1625.4 Implications for both theory and practice ......................................... 1665.4.1 Implications for theory ...................................................................... 1665.4.2 Implications for practice .................................................................... 1705.5 Strengths of the study ........................................................................ 1815.6 Limitations of the study ..................................................................... 1825.7 Recommendations for further research ............................................. 1835.8 Conclusions ....................................................................................... 187 APPENDICES ............................................................................................ 188 Appendix A: Sociodemographic Profile ...................................................... 188Appendix B: Work Values Inventory (WVI) ............................................... 190Appendix C: Job Involvement Questionnaire (JIQ) ..................................... 195Appendix D: Organisational Commitment Questionnaire (OCQ) ............... 197

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Appendix E: Sampling Strategy and Sample Size Calculation .......................... 199Appendix F: Cover Letter ............................................................................ 201Appendix G: Ethical Approval Document ................................................... 204Appendix H: Item-Total Statistics for Job Involvement Questionnaire ....... 210Appendix I: Correlations of Variables ......................................................... 212 REFERENCES ........................................................................................... 214

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 2-1 Relevant scales and dimensions of work values ………...... 18Table 2-2 Summary of the Wu et al. (1996) Work Values Inventory

(WVI) ................................................................................... 23Table 2-3 Relevant scales and dimensions of organisational

commitment ……………………………………………….. 43Table 3-1 Description of instruments used in previous studies ............ 79Table 3-2 Factor loadings, measurement errors, t values for CFA of

Work Values Inventory ........................................................ 88Table 3-3 Goodness of Fit (GOF) statistics for Work Values

Inventory .............................................................................. 90Table 3-4 Measures of reliability for the Work Values Inventory ....... 90Table 3-5 Factor analysis and reliability of Job Involvement

Questionnaire ....................................................................... 92Table 3-6 Factor loadings, measurement errors, t values for CFA of

Organisational Commitment Questionnaire ......................... 95Table 3-7 Goodness of Fit (GOF) statistics for the Organisational

Commitment Questionnaire ................................................. 96Table 3-8 Measures of reliability for the Organisational Commitment

Questionnaire ....................................................................... 96Table 3-9 Identification of outliers ....................................................... 105Table 3-10 New groupings of classes within certain categories ............. 105Table 3-11 Questionnaire response rates ................................................ 107Table 3-12 Comparison between this study and previous studies

showing key demographic features ……………………….. 116Table 4-1 Mean and standard deviation for scales and subscales and

ranking for major variables .................................................. 122Table 4-2 Correlations between sociodemographics and the 17

variables ............................................................................... 132Table 4-3 Correlations between work values and job involvement

variables ............................................................................... 135Table 4-4 Estimated influence of work values on job involvement

after adjusted for demographics, design effect and organisational commitment .................................................. 137

Table 4-5 Correlations between work values and organisational commitment variables .......................................................... 138

Table 4-6 Estimated influence of work values on organisational commitment after adjusted for demographics, design effect and job involvement ............................................................. 140

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Table 4-7 Correlations between job involvement and organisational commitment variables .......................................................... 141

Table 4-8 Estimated influence of job involvement on organisational commitment after adjusted for demographics, design effect and work values .................................................................... 143

Table 4-9 Model fit statistics ................................................................ 145Table 4-10 Model comparisons .............................................................. 145Table 4-11 Relationship regression weight between work values, job

involvement and organisational commitment ...................... 146Table 4-12 Summary of standardised direct, indirect and total effects

for the hypothesised model .................................................. 149

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1-1 The research model .............................................................. 12Figure 2-1 The Expectancy Theory Model of Vroom (1964) ................ 33Figure 2-2 The Job Involvement Theory Model of Rabinowitz and

Hall (1977) ........................................................................... 34Figure 2-3 Schematic representation of the motivational approach to

involvement and alienation .................................................. 36Figure 2-4 Classification of antecedents, correlates, and consequences

of job involvement ............................................................... 37Figure 2-5 Steers’ “causality” model theorem of organisational

commitment .......................................................................... 50Figure 2-6 The “role sense” model theorem of Stevens, Beyre and

Trice ..................................................................................... 50Figure 2-7 Morris and Sherman’s “multiple forecast” model theorem

for organisational commitment ............................................ 51Figure 2-8 Mowday, Porter and Steers’ “causality” of organisational

commitment .......................................................................... 52Figure 2-9 Mathieu and Zajac’s “causality” model theorem of

organisational commitment .................................................. 53Figure 2-10 The causal variables of organisational commitment

proposed by Huang, Kou-Rong (1986) ................................ 54Figure 2-11 A model of relationships among work commitment

constructs .............................................................................. 68Figure 2-12 Randall and Cote’s revised model ........................................ 69Figure 3-1 Age breakdown of respondents ............................................ 108Figure 3-2 Age distribution of the respondents ..................................... 109Figure 3-3 Marital status of respondents ................................................ 109Figure 3-4 Employment status of respondents ....................................... 110Figure 3-5 Education status of respondents ........................................... 111Figure 3-6 Personal income of respondents ........................................... 111Figure 3-7 Occupational position of respondents .................................. 112Figure 3-8 Occupational position tenure ................................................ 113Figure 3-9 Hospital tenure ..................................................................... 113Figure 3-10 Nursing tenure ...................................................................... 114Figure 4-1 A proposed model with latent constructs for exogenous

and endogenous variables ..................................................... 130

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Figure 4-2 Estimated standardized direct, indirect and total effects for the revised model ……………………………………… 148

Figure 5-1 The revised model ................................................................ 167

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KEY TO ABBREVIATIONS

NHI National Health Insurance

PWE Protestant Work Ethic

SES Socioeconomic Status

WVI Work Values Inventory

JIQ Job Involvement Questionnaire

OCQ Organisational Commitment Questionnaire

SET Social Exchange Theory

EFA Exploratory Factor Analysis

CFA Confirmatory Factor Analysis

SEM Structural Equation Modelling

NFI Normed Fit Index

CFI Comparative Fit Index

GFI Goodness of Fit Index

RMSEA Root-Mean Square Error of Approximation

ICC Intracluster Correlation Coefficient

DEFF Design Effect

PPMC Pearson Product-Moment Correlation

GLM General Linear Model

CLT Central Limit Theorem

SCT Social Cognitive Theory

RJPs Realistic Job Previews

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Professor Brian Oldenburg and Dr.

Gary Day for helping and supporting me through the completion of this dissertation.

I would also like to thank Dr. Diana Battistutta for her kind assistance and

specialised knowledge in statistics.

I would also like to thank Dr. Jing Sun, who assisted me in the use of the LISREL

software program for data analysis in the study. A special thanks to Martin Reese

who was committed to improving my scientific writing skills.

I would like to express my appreciation of my best friend, Dr. Vinesh Oommen,

classmate and room mate during my 3 years of doctoral study, for his strong support

and encouragement in everything I did.

I wish to thank Professor Dang-Ming Horng and Dr. Cheng-I Chu, who allowed me

the necessary time required to study at Queensland University of Technology (QUT).

I plan to apply this knowledge which I have gained from QUT to improve the overall

performance of my organisation.

I would like to acknowledge my heartfelt love to my beloved family, especially to

my wife (Jui Hsin), my daughter (Lee An), my son (Alan), and parents-in-law. Their

love, patience, encouragement, and understanding helped me throughout my course

of study.

Finally, I would like to thank all the lecturers at the School of Public Health who

have taught me and who have guided me during this 3 years of my doctoral studies.

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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

The current research examines the relationships between work values, job

involvement and organisational commitment as evidenced by a population of nurses

in Taiwan. This chapter describes the background and the importance of the present

study. It identifies the importance of understanding more about the relationships

between these variables. The chapter then presents the justification for this research,

the research questions, the benefits of the study, and the research framework.

1.1 Research background

After the implementation of the National Health Insurance (NHI) system in

Taiwan in 1995, successive governments have developed policies which aim to

enhance the effectiveness and efficiency of Taiwan’s healthcare system (Tzeng,

2002). There has been an increase in the health consciousness of the population,

associated with a greater focus on measuring people’s satisfaction with the health

system. Along with the reform of hospital organisations, a higher proportion of

hospital employees have pursued further education. It is also likely employees’

perceptions of work and work organisations have changed.

Chinese professional journals have recently documented important changes

in work ethics among the Taiwanese workforce. Employees’ belief in the traditional

work ethic, which dictates that hard work is a virtue in its own right and that hard

work and diligence are important attributes, has significantly declined in recent times

(Wang, 2000). Society’s views about employment and organisations have also

1

undergone dramatic changes, due to many different environmental, political, social

and organisational influences (Hung & Liu, 2003; Rosina, Linda, & Page, 1997).

These transformations have led Taiwanese workers to expect fulfilment of their

human needs from their employment, in addition to receiving a regular income and

job security. Moreover, this new form of work ethic has made employers realise that

employees’ loyalty to the organisation can no longer be taken for granted (Wang,

2000). In the future, unless organisations are able to meet a range of employee needs,

employees cannot be expected to be highly involved in their jobs or organisations

(Morrow, 1993).

The macro-economic environment has also changed over time to address

issues such as cost containment, the over-supply of nurses and an inflexible career

system. As a result, average turnover rate of new staff nurses in Taiwan’s hospitals

has varied between 22% to 40% in recent years (Chuang, 2002). Advances in

technology and the shortening length of patient hospitalisation have contributed to

decreased job satisfaction (Pierce, Hazel, & Mion, 1996; Tzeng, 2002).

It is important for managers of healthcare organisations to assess the impact

of these various influences on the way their employees view their jobs, and address

these challenges to the thinking, recruitment, motivation, and retention of their best

and brightest staff. In order to compete successfully in the healthcare environment,

and attract and retain the most qualified and experienced nurses, it is important for

organisations to implement strategies which increase job involvement and

organisational commitment (Brown, 2002). Reilly and Orsak (1991) argue that

future research can improve our understanding of the mechanisms that produce

turnover, absenteeism, and burnout in such a demanding profession.

2

Research which attempts to understand these important workforce issues can

produce improved outcomes for organisations. For instance, if employee

commitment to their organisation is a desirable outcome, it is necessary to find out

how commitment can be cultivated. Employees develop commitment and positive

interaction styles when they perceive value in their interactions and experiences

within the organisation (Smallwood, 1998). The lack of positive employee values

and attitudes can make or break any system designed to create goodwill and loyalty

among staff. Dissatisfied employees can easily develop negative attitudes and

perceptions that can negatively influence other staff (Smallwood, 1998). In addition,

employees can intentionally or unintentionally convey their own attitudes to external

organisational contacts. Therefore, listening to and understanding the views of

employees, and using this information to satisfy their needs, is an essential step in

building commitment in a workforce. To this end, work values, job involvement and

organisational commitment are the issues investigated in this study, with a particular

focus on organisational effectiveness.

1.2 Research objectives

The aim of this study is to investigate the relationship between work values,

job involvement and organisational commitment among Taiwanese nurses in Taiwan.

The objectives of this study are to, (1) describe the work values of Taiwanese nurses;

(2) describe the job involvement of Taiwanese nurses; (3) describe the organisational

commitment of Taiwanese nurses; (4) identify variables that affect the work values,

job involvement, and organisational commitment among Taiwanese nurses; and (5)

3

identify the mediating effects of job involvement on work values and organisational

commitment among Taiwanese nurses.

1.3 Justification for the research

A better understanding of the complex interrelationships between theory and

practice in the healthcare workforce in Taiwan will result in practical benefits for

healthcare organisations, with a particular emphasis on creating a positive

environment at work. Documenting the relationships between work values, job

involvement, and organisational commitment can thus play a role in enhancing the

performance and quality of the overall Taiwanese health care system, by providing

clear parameters within which areas of need can be targeted, and identifying

opportunities for building a positive work environment.

1.3.1 Areas for further investigation

Although research into these topics has been carried out in non-health work

organisations, those findings cannot necessarily be generalised to the healthcare

system. This is because the hospital work environment is one of most complex work

environments in any sector, requiring staff to constantly upgrade their professional

skills. Thus further research across a wider range of professions and work

organisations is needed to more completely describe the various relationships

between the key variables outlined above. Moreover, within the literature one of

these variables in particular, the role of job involvement, has not been adequately

addressed. More specifically, job involvement as a mediator on the influence of

work values on various facets of organisational commitment (including values, effort

and retention commitment) remains unclear, and needs to be explored in this context.

4

To take a closer look at the three facets of organisational commitment,

“values commitment” refers to the concept of a strong belief in, and acceptance, of

the organisation’s goals and values, “effort commitment” indicates the employee’s

willingness to exert considerable effort on behalf of the organisation, and “retention

commitment” refers to an employee’s strong desire to maintain membership in the

organisation (Mowday, Porter, & Steers, 1982). In addition, the degree of

organisational commitment has yet to be shown to be related to the actual amount of

nursing work or labour intensity required in any nursing care environment (Corser,

1998; Tumulty, Jernigan, & Kobut, 1995).

1.3.2 Implications of successful research

The second justification for this research is that the potential benefits of this

study may be valuable in both a theoretical and practical sense. From a theoretical

perspective, the findings of this study may improve understanding of the potential

mediating role of job involvement in work values in particular, and various facets of

organisational commitment in a non-western work context.

From a practical perspective, the significance of work values within

organisations is high, because they influence a variety of organisational behaviours

and outcomes, such as organisational commitment (Aranya, Barak, & Amernic, 1981;

Knoop, 1994a; Saadia & Naeem, 2001), satisfaction and subsequent job behaviours

(Blood, 1969), and job performance (Sidani & Gardner, 2000; Siu, 2003). Better

work values can thus decrease costs to the organisation related to absenteeism and

turnover (George & Jones, 1996; Sims & Kroeck, 1994; Talyor & Covaleski, 1985).

Furthermore, identification of individuals’ work-value profiles, as described by

5

Abboushi (1990), has been shown to be useful for managerial purposes. Brown

(1976) argues that individuals’ work values can be used to evaluate individual

motivation in certain jobs. Mankoff suggests that the organisation’s ability to

influence individuals’ work values can change workers’ feelings of achievement at

work (Mankoff, 1974). It should be noted that where a work environment is

perceived as being positive, employees are more likely to take personal

responsibility for their health and report a more positive social environment.

In terms of the practical value of the current investigation, previous research

has shown that decreasing job involvement and organisational commitment leads to

high staff turnover and increased absenteeism, both of which may result in lower

standards of patient care and productivity, as well as budgetary problems (Blau &

Boal, 1987; Brown, 1996; Koberg & Chusmir, 1989; Martin & Hafer, 1995; Mathieu

& Zajac, 1990; Mowday, Steers, & Porter, 1979; Steers, 1977). With cost

containment currently an important focus of hospital administration, it is clear that

initiatives which prevent staff problems will also reduce costs. It is expensive to

recruit and orient new nursing staff, and so the desired approach is to retain existing

staff through meeting their expressed needs. In one study, Jones (1990) noted that an

increase of one half standard deviation of job involvement could reduce absenteeism,

turnover, and shortage, thus saving one bank an estimated total of $11.31 per

month/per teller in expense, a saving of $125,160 per year. Scott, Cox, and Dinham

(1999) also found that job commitment has been linked to employee mental

wellbeing, both as a determinant and as an outcome.

Employee commitment to an organisation is vital because loyal employees

who identify closely with the organisation are viewed as an organisation’s most

6

important resource. Donald and Siu (2001) demonstrated that organisational

commitment is a significant predictor of mental health outcomes such as

contentment, resilience and peace of mind for white-collar workers. Turnover is

lower among committed employees, thus reducing costs and increasing productivity

(Mowday et al., 1982). Research into these issues may be able to draw practitioners’

attention to the influence of work values on job involvement and various facets of

organisational commitment, and consequently the necessity to deal with these effects

in order to improve their organisation.

Current findings on the relationship between the study variables and socio-

demographic characteristics (e.g., age, education status, personal income, and

occupational position) are inconsistent (Abboushi, 1990; Hu, 1999; Lodahl & kejner,

1965; Mathieu & Zajac, 1990; Saal, 1978). However, the results of some of those

studies indicate that differences in work values exist across cultures, socio-

demographics, and gender (Aldag & Brief, 1975; Hofstede, 1980). A more detailed

examination of these factors can thus provide empirical evidence for the importance

of socio-demographic characteristics as determinants of the study variables.

There is a growing awareness of the relationship between working conditions

and individual health, such that health and safety in the workplace is now a key area

of concern within organisations. The World Health Organisation (WHO) defines

health as, “a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely

the absence of disease or infirmity” (World Health Organisation, 1986). Thus health

is not merely the absence of ill-health, but rather when all three elements, physical,

mental and social well-being, are in harmony.

7

Research has shown that the high levels of stress which are experienced in

many work environments can have a negative effect on individuals, such as low

morale and reduced job performance (Jackson & Schuler, 1985; Jex, 1998). If an

organisation can provide individuals with the basic elements they value, stress is

reduced (Knoop, 1994b). Work values are those values that individuals seek to attain

and gain through their job. Stress arises when individuals are confronted with a

demand which exceeds the person’s capabilities for meeting that demand (Locke,

1976; McGrath, 1976).

Low morale can lead to decreased efficiency and effectiveness at work,

which in turn is associated with increased absenteeism. In Australia, about 4% of the

workforce has taken leave from work for at least one day, costing Australian

industry about $7 billion a year (Health Services Australia, 2002). Frequent

absenteeism leads to elevated levels of industrial conflict and issues with worker’s

compensation (Health Services Australia, 2002). Taiwanese studies have reported

comparable statistics (Yang & Huang, 2005).

In order to understand why low morale affects nursing staff in Taiwan, it is

necessary to discover the relationship between work values, job involvement, and

organisational commitment in this context. This research will allow a better

understanding of the effect of low morale on Taiwanese nurses.

1.4 Research questions

This research seeks to answer two key research questions:

8

1. Are there differences in work values, job involvement and organisational

commitment across socio-demographic characteristics for Taiwanese nurses?

2. What are the relationships between work values, job involvement and

organisational commitment for Taiwanese nurses?

1.5 Benefits of the study

1.5.1 Theoretical development

This initial study will provide a theoretical and empirical basis for further

study of nursing issues in Taiwan. A review of the nursing literature in Taiwan

reveals that little attention has been given to a simultaneous investigation of work

values, job involvement, and organisational commitment in Taiwanese nurses.

Moreover, previous research has not attempted to investigate the relationships

between work values, job involvement, and organisational commitment among

Taiwanese nurses. Thus, some practical and potential strategies for improving

workplaces in the healthcare environment may have been overlooked. The current

theoretical model may be used as a basis for similar studies in other health-related

organisations.

1.5.2 Implications for policy

As previously discussed, increased competition and workforce mobility in

healthcare environments has led organisations to heavily invest in recruiting, training,

and retaining new staff nurses, which in turn has passed an increased financial

burden to staff members (Yang, Peng, Chen, Yang, & Chao, 2004), and led to

problems with the quality of patient care (Cooper, 2003). According to Jones (1990),

9

the costs of nursing turnover can be over US$10,000 per Registered Nurse (RN), the

equivalent of 11% of annual nursing salaries in a hospital. In Taiwan, the mean

hiring cost per RN was documented as US$1,090 in a private hospital in 1988 (Yang,

1992). Of course, along with the financial costs of staff turnover there is also the

inevitable loss of experience, knowledge and commitment that contribute to the

overall workplace environment (Izzo & Withers, 2002).

An increased understanding of the complex interrelationship between work

values, job involvement and organisational commitment, and the factors that

contribute to the development of these relationships, can help to facilitate

appropriate measures to counteract the issue of high turnover and low morale within

an organisation. It is thus possible that organisational costs due to lower staff

turnover and decreased absenteeism can be reduced, by increasing job involvement

and organisational commitment. In a similar manner, such measures may be able to

improve an organisation productivity. Organisations need employees whose values

align with their organisational culture, as well as possessing the knowledge, skills

and abilities needed for the job. They also rely heavily on employees with a high

level of organisational commitment and who invest time and effort in the job and the

organisation to enhance overall organisation performance (Sidani & Gardner, 2000;

Siu, 2003).

1.6 Theoretical framework

It is proposed that work values and a sense of life purpose can be major

factors in the level of commitment and personal involvement people have in their

workplace. This study focuses on three specific determinants of work commitment,

10

namely work values, job involvement and organisational commitment. The

framework for this study is based on a modified version of Randall and Cote’s

Model (Randall & Cote, 1991) and Randall and Cote’s Revised Model (Cohen,

1999). These models were chosen because the various determinants of work

commitment have not been the focus of much comparative study in Taiwan, and as

such are not yet fully understood (Randall & Cote, 1991). Furthermore, most

existing studies treat the facets of work commitment in isolation (Morrow, 1983).

Randall and Cote (1991) and Cohen (1999) are two of the few investigations that

have focused on the interrelationships and linkages between different facets of work

commitment. As these studies are fundamental to the research design, they will be

discussed in more detail. A proposed model, with linkages supported by a literature

review, provides the framework for the examination of relationships among variables

in the current study (see Figure 1-1). These major concepts in this framework are

sociodemographics, work values, job involvement and organisational commitment.

11

Figure 1-1. The research model.

Work values

Terminal values: 1.Self-growth 2.Self-realisation 3.Self-esteem Instrumental values: 1.Social interaction

considerations 2.Security and economic

considerations 3.Stability and freedom from

anxiety considerations 4.Recreation, health and

transport considerations

Job involvement

Organisational commitment

Values commitment Effort commitment Retention commitment

Sociodemographics

Age Socioeconomic status (SES): 1.Education status 2.Personal income 3.Occupational position

1.6.1 Theoretical explanations

A path model (Figure 1-1) is used to depict the relationships among the

variables investigated by the current study. The model describes the effect of work

values and job involvement on organisational commitment. It is hypothesised that

individuals who are highly committed to the importance of work may develop a

strong loyalty to the organisation where they work. It is also hypothesised that

having work values results in increased job involvement which would subsequently

lead to increased organisational commitment.

The basic structural framework of the proposed research model is based on

Randall and Cote’s model (1991), Randall and Cote’s revised model (Cohen, 1999)

and involves a synthesis of the models of job involvement of Rabinowitz and Hall

12

(1977), Kanungo (1982) and Brown (1996). It is also incorporates the organisational

commitment models of Steers (1977), Stevens, Beyer, and Trice (1978), Morris and

Sherman (1981), Mowday et al. (1982), Mathieu and Zajac (1990) and Huang (1986).

These models will be discussed in Chapter Two. Randall and Cote’s original and

revised model explains that job involvement is an important and influential causal

factor in the development of organisational commitment. Job involvement itself was

also strongly affected by the Protestant work ethic (PWE), which has a key role in

influencing an employee’s affective responses in the workplace.

There is, however, an essential difference between the proposed research

model and Randall and Cote’s original and revised models which needs to be

highlighted. These earlier authors suggest that in the future a direct relationship

between Protestant work ethic and organisational commitment might need to be

included in constructs of work commitment in general (Randall & Cote, 1991). The

present model, therefore, includes more tentative causal relationships between work

values, job involvement, and organisational commitment.

1.6.2 Summary of variables investigated

The theoretical significance of each specific variable, and its linkage with the

proposed model, will now be discussed. The following section briefly summarises

the empirical evidence presented in Chapter Two. This study concentrates on three

dependent variables, work values, job involvement, and organisational commitment.

The study sites are regional teaching hospitals in Taiwan.

Sociodemographics: Given the general consensus that work values, job

involvement, and organisational commitment are influenced by dispositional

13

characteristics (Brown, 1996; Huang, 1986; Mathieu & Zajac, 1990; Morris &

Sherman, 1981; Mowday et al., 1982; Rabinowitz & Hall, 1977; Steers, 1977;

Stevens et al., 1978; Torres & Kapes, 1990), four personal demographic values will

be examined as the antecedent correlates to work values, job involvement, and

organisational commitment. This research explores a complex set of demographic

variables such as age, socioeconomic status-SES (e.g., education status, personal

income, and occupational position) in the context of work values, job involvement

and organisational commitment.

Work values: Zytowski (1970) and Super (1970a) suggest that people hold

values, called “work values”, which are related to the characteristics of certain

occupations. Values indicate a strong personal preference for what is important to

the individual. In general, work values are personal values that lead to expectations

about work. Rosenberg (1957) posits the origins of work values on the deficit need

status within the individual. Note that this notion is similar to the hierarchy of needs

presented by Maslow (1943).

Job involvement: The most commonly used definition of job involvement is

the early formulation put forward by Lodahl and Kejner (1965). In this original

treatise, job involvement was defined by Lodahl and Kejner (1965) as, “the degree to

which a person’s work performance affects his/her self esteem” (p.25). Subsequent

conceptualisations by Kanungo (1982) have further developed the concept in an

effort to overcome the conceptual ambiguities and measurement inadequacies which

were inherent in the previous assessments (Morrow, 1993). Kanungo (1982) regards

job involvement as a term descriptive of an individual’s beliefs about one’s present

job, a function of the satisfaction of the individual’s present needs.

14

Organisational commitment: Organisational commitment is defined as the

relative strength of an employee’s identification with, and involvement in, a

particular organisation (Mowday et al., 1979). Many studies have found that

organisational commitment increases productivity. Although research findings have

not always been consistent, they suggest that organisational commitment is related to

several desirable outcomes, including low turnover and low absenteeism (Mowday et

al., 1979; Steers, 1977). Mathieu and Zajac (1990) also found that organisational

commitment was related to a number of attitudinal variables including job

satisfaction, occupational commitment, and job involvement.

1.7 Conclusion

This first chapter has provided an introduction to the study, and a summary of

the background theory, research objectives, justification and benefits of the study,

and the key research questions. Chapter Two provides a detailed review of relevant

literature examining work values, job involvement and organisational commitment,

and their interrelationships. Chapter Three describes the study methodology and

research hypotheses, and Chapter Four presents the results of the study. The final

chapter includes a discussion of the findings, implications for both theory and

practice, the strengths and limitations of the study, and recommendations for further

research.

15

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

The purpose of this chapter is to review the current literature on work values,

job involvement, and organisational commitment. The first section explores the

development of definition of these variables, the different categorisation systems that

have been proposed, and their use in various environments. This provides a

comprehensive overview from which to identify the most relevant areas for study.

2.2 Work values

There are major differences between Western and Taiwanese culture, such

that Taiwanese people are described as being situation-centred, valuing family and

tradition, harmony, emotional restraint, conformity, and obedience to authority (Ho,

1986; Yang, 1970), whereas those in the West value individualism, autonomy, and

original thinking (Feather, 1986; Gardner, 1989; Hsu, 1972). However,

modernization has had an effect on traditional Taiwanese work values (Hui & Tan,

1996). The Taiwanese have recently become more individualistic and egalitarian

with respect to work values than previous generations (Marsh, 1996). Thus, these

changing Taiwanese work values need to be studied closely.

In this first section of the literature review, work values are defined with a

particular view to establishing the most relevant definition for a Taiwanese context.

A discussion of the complex development of categorisation of work values that has

16

taken place is then presented. Instruments to be used in this study are reviewed,

again with particular attention to their use in the Taiwanese context. Justifications for

category choices are stated, by synthesising the key values repeatedly recognised by

researchers. This section then presents a comparison of use of these values in

different empirical studies, commenting upon their relevance to this study.

2.2.1 Work values: Definition and measurement

Before proceeding with reviewing the concept of work values, it is necessary

to examine the meaning of values as a wider concept. A value is a principle or

standard held in high esteem by an individual, and is related to all aspects of one’s

personal and work life. Values develop so that individuals can meet their needs in

socially acceptable ways (Rokeach, 1973). The more individuals know about their

own values, the better they will be at determining which work environment best fits

their personal and professional needs, and the skills they want to use and develop

there. Research suggests that values are stable and predictable of behaviour over

time (Meglino, Ravlin, & Adkins, 1989; Rokeach, 1973). Thus, values play a central

role in human motivation and achievement (Mankoff, 1974) and decision-making

processes (Brown & Assoiates, 2002). Work values are thus one aspect of an

individual’s values system.

Various studies have developed a multitude of conceptualisations of work

values, and have developed instruments to measure what they define as work values.

Table 2-1 provides a depiction of these studies. Like most attitudinal concepts which

social scientists wish to research and understand, there is no “gold standard” measure

of work values.

17

Table 2-1. Relevant scales and dimensions of work values.Author Work Value Scale Dimensions of Work Values

Ginzberg, Ginsburg, Axelrod, & Herma (1951)

1. Intrinsic work values: interesting, useful to society, challenging, achievement, independence, creativity, and the inside satisfaction of employees

2. Extrinsic work values: pay, promotions, job security and prestige.

3. Concomitant values: social relations (supervisory relations)

Blood (1969) Protestant Work Ethic - PWE (8 items)

1.Pro-Protestant ethic 2.Non-Protestant ethic

Super (1970a)

Work Values Inventory - WVI (45items)

15 dimensions: Altruism, Aesthetics, Creativity, Intellectual Stimulation, Achievement, Independence, Prestige, Management, Economic Returns, Security, Surroundings, Supervisory Relations, Associates, Way of Life and Variety.

Wollack, Goodale, Wijting, and Smith (1971)

Survey of Work Value - SWV (54 items)

1. Intrinsic aspects of work: pride in work, job involvement and activity preference

2. Extrinsic aspects of work: attitude toward earnings and social status of job

3. Mixed characters: upward striving and responsibility to work

Hales and Fenner (1972)

Ohio Work Values Inventory - OWVI (77 items)

11 dimensions: altruism, object orientation, job security, control, self-realization, independence, money, solitude, task satisfaction, idea/data, prestige

Rokeach (1973)

Rokeach Value Survey

1. Terminal values: a comfortable life, an exciting life, a sense of achievement, a world at peace, equality, family security, freedom, happiness, inner harmony, mature love, pleasure, salvation, self-respect, social recognition, true friendship, and wisdom

2. Instrumental values: ambitious, broad-minded, capable, cheerful, clean, courageous, forgiving, helpful, honest, imaginative, independent, intellectual, logical, loving, obedient, polite, responsible, and self-controlled

Miller (1974) 1. Intrinsic: Altruism, Esthetics, Creativity, Intellectual Stimulation, Achievement, and Management

2. Extrinsic: Independence, Prestige, Economic Returns, Security, Surroundings, Supervisory Relations, Associates, Way of Life, and Variety

Kalleberg (1977)

1. Intrinsic work value 2. Extrinsic dimensions: convenience, financial,

relationships with co-workers, the opportunities the job provides for a career, and resource adequacy

Lofquist and Dawis (1978)

Minnesota Important Questionnaire - MIQ (210 items)

12 dimensions: ability utilization, achievement, activities, compensation, independence, security, variety, work condition, advancement, authority, recognition, status, co-worker, moral values, social service, company policies, supervision of human relations, creativity, responsibility, supervision of technical skills

Jurgensen (1978)

10 dimensions: security, hours, pay, benefits, working conditions, advancement, type of work, company, co-workers, and supervisor

18

Table 2-1. Relevant scales and dimensions of work values (continued). Author Work Value Scale Dimensions of Work Values

Pryor (1979) Work Aspect Preference - WAPS (52 items)

13 dimensions: self development; security; independence; creativity; helping others; supervision; money; prestige; friendships; physical activity; detachment; life style; environment

Hofstede (1980)

Value Survey Module - VSM (31 items)

4 dimensions: Power Distance, Uncertainty Avoidance, Individualism and Masculinity

Elizur (1984, 1996)

1. Modality of the outcome: material or instrument (i.e., pay, hours of work, security, and working conditions), affective or social (i.e., co-workers, supervisor, recognition for doing a good job and esteem), and psychological or cognitive (i.e., advancement, type of work, status, achievement, responsibility, independence, influence, use of ability, meaningful work, contribution to society and company)

2. Task performance: reward or resource Chen (1987) 15 dimensions: Altruism, Aesthetics, Creativity,

Intellectual Stimulation, Achievement, Independence, Prestige, Management, Economic Returns, Security, Surroundings, Supervisory Relations, Associates, Way of Life, and Variety

Peirson, Simnett, and Pratt (1989)

4 dimensions: Career Orientation, Certainty Seeking, Altruism, and Conflict-Avoidance

Harrington and O'Shea (1993)

14 dimensions: creativity, good salary, high achievement, independence, job security, leadership, physical activity, prestige, routine activity, supervised work, variety-diversion, work with hands, work with mind and work with people.

Wang (1993) 1.Terminal values: internal remuneration, external remuneration, collective benefit and security

2. Instrumental values: capability, rationality, modesty, grace, self obedience, pragmatism and incorruptibility

Wu, Lee, Liu, and Ou (1996)

Work Values Inventory - WVI (49 items)

1. Terminal values: self-growth tendency, self-realisation tendency and self-esteem tendency

2. Instrumental values: social interaction tendency, organization security and economic benefit tendency, stability and anxiety-free tendency and recreation health and transport tendency

Meyer, Irving, and Allen (1998)

3 dimensions: Comfort and Security (Comfort), Competence and Growth (Competence), and Status and Independence (Status)

19

Work values are the values that individuals hold a “desired end state” of their

participation at work. Thus these work values assist in defining career paths and

goals (Brown & Assoiates, 2002). An individual entering an organisation will be

affected by their work values and will use these values to guide how they “should”

function. Locke and Henne (1986) suggested that the work values of individuals

affect their work desire or goal, as well as their effort and work performance.

Some researchers (Blood, 1969; Wollack et al., 1971) have focused on work

values as a system of ethics. Blood (1969) argues that work values played a key role

in influencing employees’ affective responses both to work in general and to specific

task characteristics. Zytowski (1970) defines work values as, “a set of concepts

which mediate the person’s affective orientation and classes of external objects

offering similar satisfactions” (p.176). Wollack et al. (1971) defines work values as,

“a person’s attitudes toward work in general, rather than his feelings about a specific

job” (p.133). To summarise, work values refer to the endurable and preferable

thoughts and attitudes an individual creates and applies to specific work, the

formation of which is a gradual accumulative socialization process (Wollack et al.,

1971).

Blood (1969) developed an eight-item scale measuring “pro-Protestant Ethic”

and “non-Protestant Ethic” attitudes. Wollack et al. (1971) went on to establish the

Survey of Work Values (SWV), which was based on elements of the Protestant Ethic,

to evaluate employees’ work values. Three aspects were assessed, intrinsic aspects of

work, extrinsic aspects of work, and mixed characters.

20

Super (1970b) and Holland (1973) have proposed theories of vocational

choice, suggesting that people seek vocations and work environments consistent with

the values and attitudes they hold. According to early authors Paine, Deutsch, and

Smith (1967), the perceptions that an individual has of her/his job and the factors

which satisfy her/his needs are important in goal setting. Further research by Super

(1970a) suggests that a person’s “valued work outcomes” can determine his or her

choice of a career or training program. Chen (1987) argues that work values are the

overall subjective value determination for work experience or work achievement,

and belong to the attitude or emotional response area. As a result, Chen (1987)

suggests that individuals’ assessments of the relative importance of their jobs depend

on the variance between the actual and expected values in their work environments.

The most well-known classification of work values is described in Super

(1970b). Super (1970b) suggests that to understand the values of students, customers,

or employees, it is helpful to identify their goals and establish a variety of training

systems. In order to test the practicability of his own theory, Super (1970a)

developed a set of Work Values Inventory (WVI) undertaken within a career pattern

study, to quantify and evaluate the psychologically systematic ideal for individuals

in their working conditions. The research explored work values as divided into 15

dimensions related to the value of individual life experience. Miller (1974) suggested

that Super’s WVI could be sub-classified into intrinsic and extrinsic scales.

Pryor (1979) focuses on work values in their function as preferences. Pryor

(1979) argues that the term “work value” is poorly formulated and ambiguous, and

to deal with this developed work aspect preferences. They were defined as, “a

statement of the relation between a person (the subject of the relation) and a

21

particular quality of work (the object of the relation). The nature of the relation

between these two is of greater or lesser liking when the person has the opportunity

to make a choice” (p.254). According to Pryor (1979), it is important that work

values should be associated more with “preference” than “moral imperatives”.

However, whenever someone shows preference for a position, work values are

frequently and closely correlative to moral imperatives. Lee (1994) also indicates

that work values can be viewed as a proportion of personal value systems, and that

all evaluations and preferences related to work can be held as the expression of work

values.

Wu (1996) defines work values as endurable beliefs and standards which

judge the worth of what is done through work, justify the work experience and

express one’s working behaviours and the pursuit for work goals whenever the

individual is engaging in his or her own job. Wu et al. (1996) examined college

students and university graduates in order to develop a localised inventory about

work values. They divided work values into two major realms, “terminal values” and

“instrumental values”. The two major realms and seven dimensions are detailed in

Table 2-2.

Chen (1987) modified the dimension-measuring-inventory created by Super

(1970b). They applied this modified dimension-measuring inventory to high school

students preparing for the College Entrance Examination, to serve as a consulting

reference for degree majors and future career options. After the modification, the

dimension-measurement inventory of work values emerged with 15 dimensions.

Wang (1993) adopts the two major realms of “terminal values” and “instrumental

values” to create the dimension-measuring inventory for work values.

22

Table 2-2. Summary of the Wu et al. (1996) Work Values Inventory (WVI). Realm Dimension Definition

Terminal values

The degree of importance which an individual places on pursuing personal growth, exerting personal talent and creativity, improving quality of life, obtaining a sense of achievement and leadership and also commanding respect and recognition from others during the course of their work.

Self-growth The degree of importance which an individual places on acquiring new knowledge, self growth, exerting creativity, and promoting personal development during the course of their work.

Self-realisation The degree of importance which an individual places on fulfilling their lifelong goals, application of personal talent, improving quality of life and enhancing their social welfare during the course of their work.

Self-esteem The degree of importance which an individual places on a sense of personal achievement, self recognition and autonomy, respect from others and senior management during the course of their work.

Instrumental values

The degree of importance which an individual places on obtaining a level of excellence in social interaction, a harmonious social relationship, freedom from worry, and where their life desires are sufficiently satisfied through balance achieved between services within the organizational systems, and a holistic environment to fulfil their sense of security and to maintain their needs while they are working.

Social interaction considerations

The degree of importance which an individual places on achieving an excellent level of social interaction and sharing their daily emotional experiences with colleagues and superiors, as well as establishing harmonious social relationships with others during the course of their work.

Security and economic considerations

The degree of importance which an individual places on reaching reasonable economic remuneration through holistic organizational systems, to satisfy their sense of security during the course of their work.

Stability and freedom from anxiety considerations

The degree of importance which an individual places on regularly and stably performing his job without tension, anxiety, chaos or fear.

Recreation, health and transport considerations

The degree of importance which an individual places on attaining sufficient physical energy, recreation activities and availability of convenient traffic transport options during their work.

Work values, as proposed by Chen (2000), provide an internal impetus, in

that they drive the individual to chase lifelong goals and orient his/her behaviours,

direction and motives. Chen (2000) also argues that they influence personal

standards that allow individuals to measure and prioritise their tasks. On a more

23

personal level, work values include the individual’s overall understanding of,

orientation to, and satisfaction with the workplace.

Rokeach (1973) argues that work values and attitudes are independent

concepts. Researchers have investigated work values as correlates of attitude, and

personal values can help individuals explain and understand their attitudes and the

behaviours in which they engage. However, Rong (1998) states that merely

observing the attitude of an individual cannot help us predict the values one holds.

In summary, a review of the literature has demonstrated the importance of

work values as an influence on attitudes to work. Although researchers have

attempted to establish a consistent definition of the construct, the term work values is

currently used to encompass a variety of notions, ranging from work ethics (Blood,

1969), and personal needs (Super, 1970a), to work preferences (Pryor, 1979). As

discussed earlier, some researchers have posited two themes of work values along an

intrinsic-extrinsic dimension, or a terminal–instrumental dimension. This two-factor

concept of work values has been applied to the majority of the concepts and

instruments researchers have used to measure work values (Miller, 1974; Super,

1970a; Wu et al., 1996). On the basis of the existing literature work values in the

current study are operationally defined as enduring beliefs and standards that

influence an individual when he/she evaluates his/her job and work environment.

Work values was measured using a localised Work Values Inventory (WVI)

developed by Wu et al. (1996), based on Super’s WVI.

24

2.2.2 Sociodemographic variables as related to work values

According to various sociodemographic indicators there has been increase in

the diversity of the work force in recent years, which has raised questions about the

needs and values of diverse groups of employees (Jehn, Chadwick, & Thatcher,

1997). In Taiwan, women constitute about 2.2% of the yearly increment of the

labour force (Taiwan Council of Labour Affairs in Executive Yuan, 2004). Female

nurses form a very high proportion (99.0%) of the healthcare system in Taiwan

(Chen, 1998). Consequently, there is a growing interest in the unique characteristics

of members of this group, as concerns their attitudes towards work, such as work

values. Previous research on the role of various sociodemographic variables in work

values has included examinations of socio-economic status, ethnicity, society and

economic conditions (Torres & Kapes, 1990). Thus these are the types of factors

which may influence the development of an individual’s expectations and work

values. The following section reviews and discusses the key variables viewed as

being important when understanding work values.

Age

Cherrington (1977) reports that senior employees are more work-oriented

than younger staff, due in part to the personal socialisation process, in which a

worker’s experience affects individual work values. Jurgensen (1978) finds that as a

worker’s age increases, some work values undergo enhancement while others are

diminished. Pu (1988) demonstrates that as workers age, they emphasise internal

values of work and social status more, but give remuneration less attention. Chiu

(1993), in contrast, found that younger employees pay more attention to “social

25

relations considerations” than older employees. In another recent study, results

suggested that respondents of different ages showed variance on the dimensions of

“stability and freedom from anxiety considerations” (Lee & Chung, 2001). Liau

(2001) studied 320 nursing staff born between 1965 and 1980, finding that values of

nursing staff did not vary significantly as they age. McNeese-Smith and Crook (2003)

examined 412 nurses in three hospitals in Los Angeles County (California, U.S.A.).

They found that the values of nurses from different generations differed little,

although younger generations placed higher values on economic returns and variety

in employment.

Wu (1996) states that job takers in the 19-30 age bracket, with a bachelor’s

degree, show higher scores on “social interaction considerations”, “security and

economic considerations”, and “stability and freedom from anxiety considerations”

than those of job takers in the 31-40 and 41-50 age brackets with similar educational

backgrounds. Chang (2001) concluded that when comparing respondents’ ages, work

values and organizational commitment, there was no significant difference in either

“terminal values” or “instrumental values”.

Education status

Pu (1988) found that employees with higher educational backgrounds were

more attentive to internal values, promotion and social status values of work, while

employees with less education paid more attention to work remuneration values.

Chiu (1993) supported this earlier study by demonstrating that higher educated

employees are more attentive to self-confirmation and performance than lower

educated employees. Lee and Chung (2001) found that employees who only had a

26

high-school level of education were more attentive to “self-growth” and “security

and economic considerations” than those of university-level educated employees.

However, research by Liau (2001) with nursing staff introduced earlier did not show

variance in value measures between employees of different education levels.

Similarly, Chang (2001) found educational preparation had no significant

relationship with “terminal values” or “instrumental values”.

Income

Paine et al. (1967) found a positive correlation between family income and

monetary benefits, and a negative correlation between family income and the need

for security. As might be expected, those respondents who indicated a relatively low

family income tended to place a high emphasis on job security.

Occupational position

Tayyab and Tariq (2001) examined the work values and organisational

commitment of 210 middle level public and private executives in Pakistan. Results

revealed that the private sector executives had higher mean scores on intrinsic work

values. Tang (2000) focused on the interior auditors of private and public

organisations, with the findings showing statistically significant relationships

between different positions and overall work values. Lee and Chung (2001) explored

the relationship between corporate culture, employees’ work values and

organisational commitment in the business cultures of Taiwan. They found that

employees in more senior positions were more attentive to “self-growth” and

“security and economic considerations” than employees with lower positions in the

organisation.

27

2.2.3 Summary

Many studies have been conducted into work values in general, as well as

possible differences in work values across different cultures, socio-economic groups

and gender. The results of some studies (Aldag & Brief, 1975; Hofstede, 1980)

suggest that differences in work values exist. The current study will shed light on the

relationship between work values, job involvement, and organisational commitment

among Taiwanese nurses.

2.3 Job involvement

In theory, job involvement is necessary for nurses’ professional growth. It is

assumed that the higher the level of involvement, the higher the degree of

professional growth (Elloy, Everett, & Flynn, 1995). Job-involved individuals who

perceive opportunities for growth in their job have less intention to leave or suffer

burnout (Elloy et al., 1995). However, given that the current nursing workforce

experiences a relatively unstable health field, it is possible that these disturbances

may have a negative affect on how involved nurses are in their jobs (Morrow, 1993).

Therefore, continuing job involvement under such circumstances requires close

study, both to determine the salience of the concept of job involvement, and the

factors that affect it. This section introduces definitions of job involvement, together

with measurements of job involvement, relevant theories and empirical studies.

2.3.1 Job involvement: Definition and measurement

The term job involvement is used to refer to many different aspects of

employment (Lodahl & Kejner, 1965). Newton and Keenan (1983), Saleh (1981),

28

and Saleh and Hosek (1976) have conducted research which explores the complexity

of the concept of job involvement. Lodahl and Kejner (1965) have proposed two

types of definitions for job involvement, one relating to self-esteem, and the other to

self-image. They argue that job involvement is considered by many to be intimately

tied to a strong work ethic and people who place work at, or near, the centre of their

lives (Lodahl & Kejner, 1965). Lodahl and Kejner (1965) believe the main

determinant of job involvement is a value orientation toward work learned early in

the socialisation process. An individual who has internalised the work ethic will thus

probably be highly “job involved”, regardless of the context within which he or she

might be employed (Rabinowitz & Hall, 1977).

Bass (1965) points out that job involvement is representative of the

employee’s ego-involvement in his/her job and is thus related to performance.

Lawler and Hall (1970) argue there was no difference between the two (self-esteem

and self-image) definitions proposed by Lodahl and Kejner (1965). These

researchers believe that the first definition means the real essence of job involvement,

whereas the second definition was in consistent with expectancy theory, namely the

concepts of internal motivation. Lawler and Hall (1970) refer to internal motivation

as the degree to which a jobholder is motivated to perform well because of some

subjective reward or internal feelings they expect to experience as a result of

performing well. Thus, intrinsic motivation is correlated with personal performance.

However, job involvement does not always correlate with personal performance. Job

involvement rather represents personal concentration or emotional commitment to

one’s job. The goal identified by job involvement is the job itself.

29

Both Lawler and Hall (1970), and Blau (1985) propose that job involvement

involves only a single aspect, namely, the degree to which a person perceives the

total work situation to be an important part of life, and to be central to their identity,

because of the opportunity to satisfy important needs. Blau (1985) proposes that an

individual engaged in his/her job would care about the tasks to be undertaken.

Although one might hence conclude that job involvement and job satisfaction are

essentially identical, they have generally been considered distinctly different

concepts. Job involvement is the psychological identification with, or importance of

one’s job, while job satisfaction is the emotional state of liking one’s job (Lawler &

Hall, 1970).

Saleh and Hosek (1976) reviewed a range of literature related to job

involvement and from this formulated four definitions for job involvement. These

were, “the job is of critical importance in personal life”, “the individual will be

actively involved in his/her own job”, “the individual will cognise the influence of

personal performance onto self-esteem”, and “the congruence between work

performance and self-concept”. Saleh and Hosek (1976) suggest that whenever these

four definitions are satisfied, the individual will be involved in his/her own job.

Rabinowitz and Hall (1977) also assessed definitions and literature

discussing job involvement. They concluded that, at that early point, more research

needed to be undertaken to isolate dimensions related to job involvement. Their

paper identifies two classes of definitions of job involvement. The first class links

performance to “self-esteem”, essentially the extent to which “self-esteem” is

affected by level of performance. The second class identifies job involvement as a

30

component of an individual’s self-image, that is, the degree to which the individual

psychologically identifies with his/her job.

According to Kanungo (1982), involvement either in the context of a

particular job, or with work in general, can be viewed as a cognitive state of

psychological identification. An individual’s psychological identification with a

particular job (or with work in general) in turn depends on the salience of his or her

needs (both extrinsic and intrinsic) and the perceptions he or she has about the need-

satisfying potentialities of the job (or work) (Kanungo, 1982). Kanungo (1982)

further suggested that individuals will be affected by their past socialised

experiences, and that their current social codes are associated with various value

orientations. Thus values drive individuals to develop various external and internal

desires. Whenever the desires are unsatisfied, one’s surroundings will become

alienating. According to Kanungo (1982), job alienation and involvement are two

superficial phenomena of a single object, two polarised trends of one aspect. When

job involvement is decreased to a certain extent, it will trigger job alienation.

However, whenever job alienation is reduced a certain extent, it creates a sense of

job involvement (Kanungo, 1982).

In previous studies, investigating job involvement has been characterised by

conceptual ambiguities and problems related to measurement (Lodahl & Kejner,

1965; Rabinowitz & Hall, 1977; Saleh & Hosek, 1976). Because the construct of job

involvement is associated with many different definitions (as described above), it has

become a major source of conceptual ambiguity (Kanungo, 1982). Kanungo

attempted to resolve this uncertainty (Elloy, Everett, & Flynn, 1991). According to

Kanungo (1982), earlier job involvement questionnaires, such as those of Saleh and

31

Hosek (1976) and Lodahl and kejner (1965), did not differentiate between work

involvement and job involvement. Job involvement and work involvement are

hypothesised to be two distinct constructs (Paullay, Alliger, & Stone-Romero, 1994).

One other problem with Lodahl and Kejner’s (1965) scale in particular is that

although the scale has factor stability, because there is some similarity in the factor

structure across different groups, there is no interpretation of the nature of the factors

(Cummings & Bigelow, 1976).

Kanungo (1982) went on to develop another ten-item scale in which job

involvement is defined as the importance of the job to one’s self-image. Kanungo’s

measures are more internally consistent than previous instantiations, even though

many of the items are based upon the earlier Lodahl and Kejner (1965) job

involvement measurements (Blau, 1985; Blau & Boal, 1987; Kanungo, 1982;

Morrow & Wirth, 1989). According to Blau (1985), the job involvement

questionnaire developed by Kanungo (1982) is more appropriate for assessing job

involvement than the earlier Lodahl and Kejner (1965) measurement. Kanungo’s Job

Involvement Questionnaire (JIQ) instrument has been used in many studies and its

reliability and validity examined extensively. The Cronbach’s α across the samples

ranged from .74 to .90.

2.3.2 Relevant theoretical models for understanding job involvement

Relevant models for understanding the relationship between job involvement

and its antecedent and outcome variables include Expectancy Theory (Vroom, 1964),

Integrated Theory (Rabinowitz & Hall, 1977), the Motivational Approach (Kanungo,

1982) and Causality Theory (Brown, 1996).

32

Expectancy Theory

Expectancy Theory suggests that administrators should make good use of

personal expectancy to inspire employees. This is based on the rudimentary concept

that inclination for an individual’s action is determined by possible expected results

and the relationship between the results and the action adopted. To take a different

approach, job involvement for an employee is determined by his/her expectancy

level, which results in incentives for action. The results of this interaction are

displayed in Figure 2-1. If expectations are lower than the inducement provided by

the organisation, job involvement will increase. On the other hand, when

expectations are higher than the inducement provided by the organisation then job

involvement will decrease.

Figure 2-1. The Expectancy Theory Model of Vroom (1964).

Expectancy < inducement offered by organisation = job involvement

Expectancy > inducement offered by organisation = job involvement

Integrated Theory Model

Rabinowitz and Hall (1977) reviewed and integrated previous research in this

field and used this basis to develop three major conceptualisations. For Rabinowitz

and Hall (1977), job involvement is related to three classes of working variables, the

dispositional approach held by the individual, the situational determined approach

held, and the influence of the interaction between these approaches. In this model no

single class of variables shows a stronger relationship to job involvement than any

other. That is, dispositional and situational variables are about equally important in

33

explaining job involvement (Rabinowitz & Hall, 1977). The integrated theory model

of job involvement is depicted in Figure 2-2.

Dispositional

Situation

Interaction: Dispositional Situation

Job involvement

Figure 2-2. The Job Involvement Theory Model of Rabinowitz and Hall (1977).

In the dispositional approach, job involvement is viewed as dependent on

individual personalities. The influence exerted by some stable personal

characteristics such as age, gender, marital status, external and internal control

features, job seniority, dwelling locations, the intensity of high-level work demands

in terms of time and responsibility, and the Protestant work ethic will ensure

individuals hold different work attitudes and behaviours. Two such work attitudes

are job involvement and job satisfaction. The individual is thought to own a certain

amount of desire or value, and the demand or value will drive them to work harder or

impede them from job involvement (Sekaran & Mowday, 1981).

Job involvement is also a personal characteristic, and thus it is never changed

easily within an organization (Rabinowitz & Hall, 1977). In a situation-determined

approach (Rabinowitz & Hall, 1977), job involvement can be viewed as the personal

attitude towards the particular job. In this conceptualisation, job involvement will be

affected by leadership style, the opportunities the individual has to be involved in

decision-making, social factors, job features and other conditional influences. Values

are thus internalised with job attitude.

34

The interaction between disposition and situational approaches is labelled the

dispositional situation. In this approach, personal characteristics and the environment

in interaction are used to explain personal work attitudes and behaviours. When

personal characteristics and the situation reach congruence, the individual will

develop high job involvement.

Motivational Approach

The motivational approach of Kanungo (1979, 1982) integrates the different

approaches to job involvement, including both psychological and sociological

factors, using the basic concept that job involvement is affected by the potential for

personal socialisation experience and the likelihood that the work environment can

satisfy personal demand. A diagrammatic representation of Kanungo (1979, 1982)

motivational approach is outlined in Figure 2-3.

Kanungo (1979, 1982) hypothesises that employee perceptions concerning a

job’s potential to satisfy their needs represents a more proximal influence on job

involvement. Kanungo contends that individuals develop beliefs that a job’s context

potentially provides an opportunity for them to satisfy their most important future

needs. Consequently, job involvement depends on employees’ needs (both extrinsic

and intrinsic), as well as their perceptions of the job’s potential to satisfy those needs.

35

Figure 2-3. Schematic representation of the motivational approach to job involvement and alienation. Source: Kanungo, R. N. (1979) ‘The Concepts of Alienation and Involvement Revised’, Psychological Bulletin, vol.86, no.1, pp.119-138.

Causality Theory Model

The job involvement theory proposed by Brown (1996) incorporates the

findings of previous research shown as Figure 2-4. This model includes antecedents

(i.e., personality variables-concept of work ethic), the pivotal mediator role of job

involvement, and its consequences such as organisational commitment. This model

also depicts the relationships between job involvement and organisational

36

commitment. In addition, work ethic is shown to play a significant role in job

involvement.

Figure 2-4. Classification of antecedents, correlates, and consequences of job involvement. Source: Brown, S. P. (1996) ‘A Meta-Analysis and Review of Organizational Research on Job Involvement’, Psychological Bulletin, vol.120, no.2, pp.235-255.

In summary, the antecedents and products of job involvement have been

extensively studied. Available evidence supports the argument that personal and

situational factors are strong influences on job involvement. Job involvement is also

an important factor in other work related attitudes, and is linked to work behaviours.

37

2.3.3 Sociodemographic variables as related to job involvement

The literature on job involvement highlights the role played by personal and

situational factors, as well as attitudinal concepts such as organisational commitment,

job satisfaction and achievement motives. Individuals are affected by a range of

antecedent variables which may impact on their identification with, and attitudes

towards their job. Although Rabinowitz and Hall (1977) found personal and

situational variables play equally important roles in explaining job involvement,

other researchers have argued that personal factors play a more crucial role than

situation variables in influencing an individual’s job involvement (Lodahl & Kejner,

1965). Personal characteristics examined in this review are sociodemographic

variables. This section focuses on the experimental results of international and local

research projects with particular reference to key variables in the current study.

Age

Lodahl and Kejner (1965) conducted research using 137 nurses, revealing

that the age of nurses was positively correlated with job involvement (r = .26, p <

0.01). While older nursing personnel tended to be more job involved, no relationship

was found between age and job involvement for a different employment group,

engineers. Rabinowitz, Hall, and Goodale (1977) also found a positive relationship

between age and job involvement, but this was not significant. Saal (1978) reported a

significant positive correlation between age and job involvement (r = .34, p < 0.05),

based on the data of 218 employees in a medium-sized company. In a longitudinal

study, Hall and Mansfield (1975) found that job involvement steadily increased with

age, from a sample of professional engineers and scientists. Chuang (2001)

38

conducted research into the correlation between the work values and job

involvement of nurses from Christian hospitals. The findings show that the greater

the nurse’s age, the higher job involvement was shown to be. One possibly

explanation for this is that as age increases, an individual is exposed to more

opportunities for promotion in the organisation. Therefore, older individuals tend to

be more job involved.

Huang (1993) conducted research on nurses from the Taipei Nursing College

Hospital and showed that job involvement of senior employees was higher than that

of younger workers. Tang (2000) focused on the interior auditors of private and

public organisations, with the results again revealing a statistically significant

relationship between age and job involvement. Pan and Yeh (1998) conducted

research on the nursing staff of Taipei Hospital and also demonstrated that age

positively influences the extent of job involvement. In contrast to these studies, a

study conducted by Hu (1999) using nurses from a university hospital in Taiwan

found that age was negatively correlated with job involvement (using a professional

commitment subscale).

Education status

A number of studies have commented on a positive relationship between

education and job involvement (Elloy et al., 1991; Pan & Yeh, 1998; Rabinowitz &

Hall, 1977). Chuang (2001) demonstrated that nursing staff with varying education

levels enter their jobs with varying levels of job involvement. Staff with higher

educational levels generally showed higher levels of job involvement. Abboushi

(1990) also found that education had a positive relationship with job involvement.

39

However, negative correlations between education status and job involvement have

also been reported. Saal (1978) reported a low but a significant negative correlation

between education status and job involvement (r = -.14, p < .05). Shore, Thornton,

and Shore (1990) found a negative but non-significant relationship between

education and job involvement. Similar results were obtained by Chen, Wu, Tsai,

and Chen (1998), who measured job involvement in mass-production workers.

However, Hu (1999), studying employees in a university hospital in Taiwan, found

that education is not necessarily related to job involvement and professional

commitment.

Income

Chen et al. (1998) conducted research on 197 mass-production employees,

finding that the salary of employees was significantly correlated with job

involvement. Other studies have reported similar findings, that higher income

employees tend to demonstrate increased levels of job involvement compared with

lower income employees (Aleem & Khandelwal, 1988; Chadha & Kaur, 1987; Joshi,

1999; Tang, 2000). In contrast, Friss (1983) surveyed 82 directors of nursing (DON)

in 150 hospitals in Southern California. The research project attempted to answer

how to motivate and retain directors of nursing, and was designed to measure job

involvement, organisational commitment, and background characteristics of the

DON’s. The findings indicated that, at least in this group, salary is not related to job

involvement.

40

Occupational position

In a study conducted by Lodahl and Kejner (1965), an individual’s position

within an organisation was found to be not related to that person’s job involvement.

In contrast, in their study of work commitment among Department of Transport

employees, Morrow, McElroy, and Blum (1988) found that supervisory employees

showed higher levels of commitment to the job than non-supervisory employees did.

Tang (2000) also found that those employees holding higher positions showed more

job involvement than those holding lower positions.

2.3.4 Summary

Job involvement has been one of the most highly researched constructs in

organizational psychology (Brown, 1996). In the current research, the Kanungo

(1982) definition and measurement of job involvement is used. This section

examined several models relating to job involvement. Multiple variables have been

linked to job involvement. Evidence suggests that personal characteristics influence

job involvement, and job involvement also has been linked to work ethic and to

internal motivation (Brown, 1996). Situational factors at work play an important

part in job involvement. The importance of personal and job-related factors has been

identified. However, there have been inconsistent findings in terms of the

relationships between various personal characteristics and job involvement. Further

examination of these factors can provide a better indication of the variables which

need to be considered when setting strategies to achieve organisational goals.

Moreover, while there is some evidence that the factors examined in the current

study are related to job involvement (and hence can provide information that may

41

benefit nursing regarding issues such as turnover, burnout, organisational

commitment and satisfaction), the argument is not well-defined for the specific

population of Taiwanese nurses. The current study will hopefully provide additional

knowledge as to the job involvement of Taiwanese nurses.

2.4 Organisational commitment

Research on organisational commitment was first initiated by Becker (1960).

Thereafter, Grusky (1966) and Brown (1969) soon undertook studies exploring

organizational commitment. In the early 1980’s, Morrow (1983) reviewed literature

on organisational commitment and found at least 25 different concepts and relevant

measurements. Commitment as a whole is considered a multidimensional construct

(Allen & Meyer, 1993; Etzioni, 1961; Kanter, 1968; Morrow, 1983; Morrow &

McElroy, 1994; Reicher, 1985) and is affective or attitudinally oriented (Tumulty et

al., 1995). Commitment to the organisation as one aspect of commitment is

frequently studied, and is referred to as organisational commitment (Mathieu &

Zajac, 1990). The following section will review a variety of concepts related to

organisational commitment and summarise scales and dimensions of organisational

commitment (as outlined in Table 2-3). Due to the organisation of the model

proposed in the current study, antecedents and consequences of organisational

commitment will be discussed in a short summary of each model, and then presented

together with the relevant sociodemographic variables in organisational commitment.

42

Table 2-3. Relevant scales and dimensions of organisational commitment.

Author Organisational Commitment Scale

Dimensions of Organisational Commitment

Etzioni (1961)

moral involvement, calculative involvement and alienative involvement.

Kanter (1968)

continuance commitment, cohesion commitment and control commitment

Hrebiniak and Alutto (1972)

Commitment scale - CS (12 items)

Pay, job freedom, status, friendliness of coworkers

Porter, Steers, Mowday, and Boulian (1974)

OCQ (15 items) 1. a strong belief in and acceptance of the organisation’s goals and values 2. willingness to exert considerable effort on behalf of the organisation 3. a strong desire to maintain membership in the organisation

Staw (1977) behavioral commitment and attitudinal commitment Stevens et al. (1978)

Normative commitment and exchange commitment

Wu and Yang (1982)

OCQ (15 items) Values commitment, effort commitment and retention commitment

Reicher (1985)

attributions, exchange and individual/organisational congruent goals

Allen and Meyer (1990)

OCQ (15 items) affective commitment, continuance commitment and normative commitment

2.4.1 Organisational commitment: Definition and measurement

Becker (1960) created the concept of “exchange approach”, suggesting that

commitment is achieved by making “side bets”, which are the losses that might be

incurred if one leaves the organisation (Cohen, 1999). When an individual is

reluctant to lose his or her benefits, and perceives benefits as positive elements in an

exchange, he will be more likely to stay with that organisation because of the side

bets made to that organisation (Stevens et al., 1978). Individuals are willing to utilise

their skills and expertise to further an organisation because this behaviour leads to

benefits for both the employee and the organisation.

According to Etzioni (1961), there are three distinct approaches to

categorising organisational commitment, moral involvement, calculative

43

involvement and alienative involvement. Moral involvement is based on the trend of

internalising organisational goals and values, and makes individuals more likely to

identify with authority. Calculative involvement is based on the reasonable exchange

between interest and reward, namely a relationship of lower intensity. Alienative

involvement often comes within exploitation, which results in negative orientation.

Kanter (1968) proposed that organisational commitment be defined as the

personal loyalty and individual dedication individuals are willing to give to their

organisation. If an employee considers that leaving their current organisation will be

costly, then he/she may be less likely to leave that organisation. Kanter (1968)

proposed three types of organisational commitment, continuance commitment,

cohesion commitment and control commitment. Continuance commitment means the

personal investment and sacrifice an individual will make for the organisation. This

type of commitment means that when an individual leaves an organisation, they do

so either in terms of extremely high cost, or at least with the possibility of

continuous devotion to the organisation. Cohesion commitment means the degree to

which subordination extends to individuals subject to organisational societies.

Because the individual has publicly forsaken formerly existing social relationships, it

thus increases the coherence and sense of subordination within the current

organisation. Control commitment is attached to organisational codes, and also

affects the behavioural desires of the worker.

Sheldon (1971) defines the process of organisational commitment as

individuals dedicating time and effort and make commitments to their own

organisation to create identification. Porter et al. (1974) proposed that organisational

commitment refers to an individual’s overall viewpoint about one particular

44

organization. That is, the committed employee is concerned with the well-being of

the organisation. Staw (1977) integrated previous research and divided

organisational commitment into behavioural commitment and attitudinal

commitment. Stevens et al. (1978) also proposed two types of commitment,

normative commitment and exchange commitment. Normative commitment

emphasises the personal internal idealisation of organisational goals and values, such

that the individual is willing to stay in the organisation to expend individual effort.

Exchange commitment represents the utilisation or calculation of organisational

commitment with an emphasis on personal investment return rate. After an

evaluation of the differences between giving and receiving, the individual can reach

a conclusion as to whether being committed to the organisation is beneficial for

him/her.

Mowday and colleagues have suggested that many of these definitions should

be categorised as behaviours and attitudes (Mowday et al., 1979). Mowday et al.

(1979) argue that behavioural commitment is the external expression of commitment

on the basis of individual investment. Through rationalisation or self-defence, it can

prove the correct rationale to join the organisation. However, attitudinal commitment

emphasises the value of the individual congruent goals’s and the organisation’s

reaching “mental” harmony. Mowday et al. (1982) and Reicher (1985) found that

attitudinal commitment leads to the creation of behavioural commitment, which in

turn reinforces commitment attitudes. Thus an organisational commitment cycle of

attitude-behaviour is formed.

Mowday et al. (1982) suggest that organizational commitment is related to

the relative strength of an individual’s “identification with and involvement in” their

45

workplace. Mowday et al. (1982) divided organisational commitment into three

aspects, including a strong belief in and acceptance of the organisation’s goals and

values, a willingness to exert considerable effort on behalf of the organisation, and a

strong desire to maintain membership in the organisation. Their instrument aims to

measure the extent of the respondent’s commitment to the organisation.

Based on this argument, Reicher (1985) divided organisational commitment

into three forms, attributions, exchange and congruent goals between individuals and

organisations (individual/organisational goal congruence). The concept of attributes

implies that commitment is the link between the individual and their behaviour.

Namely, after devotion to purposeful, obvious and unchangeable behaviours, the

individual will attribute this behaviour to the personal commitment made to his/her

own organisation. The concept of exchange means that employees who receive

benefits from their organisation are likely to perceive it positively, whereas

employees who do not receive benefits are likely to perceive it negatively. When an

individual’s job seniority in the organisation increases, commitment will typically

increase. The concept of congruence between the organisation and the individual

refers to the commitment which is generated when the individual identifies and

dedicates to the common goals and values of the organisation.

Meyer and Allen (1991) have provided yet another view on organisational

commitment. These authors suggest if three different types of organisational

commitment are considered at the same time, the relationship between employees

and their organisation will reach a mutually harmonious agreement. Models of these

three aspects of organisational commitment are now outlined. Firstly, affective

commitment is where employees attach to the organisation emotionally, identify

46

with and involve themselves in the organisation. Continuance commitment is

employees’ knowledge about the cost of leaving their organisation. For employees

with high continuance commitment, the benefits of staying will be higher than that

of leaving. Normative commitment is when employees conceptualise their staying in

the organisation to be an obligation.

One use for the concept of organisational commitment was proposed by Lee,

Chung, and Lin (2000). These authors suggest that organisational commitment is

insightful knowledge about the importance of employee behaviours within the

organisation. Lee et al. (2000) argue that organisational commitment can be viewed

as an indicator of the relationship between employees and their organisation.

Currently, methods for measuring organisational commitment are mainly

undertaken using questionnaires. Among them, the most representative

organisational commitment questionnaires have been developed by Hrebiniak and

Alutto (1972) and Porter et al. (1974).

Hrebiniak and Alutto’s Commitment Scale was developed to describe the

exchange approach, and was refined in terms of Becker’s (1960) side-bet theory

(Homans, 1961). It was designed to measure personal involvement in the

organisation, totalling four items of scale tables. It had a Cronbach’s α value of 0.88.

On this survey the respondents are questioned about pay level, status, professional

creativity freedom, collegial friendships and job retention desires.

The Organisational Commitment Questionnaire (OCQ) was developed by Porter

et al. (1974) to measure commitment to the organisation. Lee et al. (2000) reported

that this measure yields a three-factor solution, identifying three types of

47

commitment referred to as “value commitment”, “effort commitment” and “retention

commitment”. Factor I reflects the concept of a strong belief in, and acceptance of,

the organisation’s goals and values, and is referred to as a “value commitment”.

Items of Factor II (effort commitment) indicate the employee’s willingness to exert

considerable effort on behalf of the organisation. Factor III is called “retention

commitment”, and indicates an employee’s desire to maintain membership in the

organisation. This instrument is designed to measure an individual’s loyalty to the

organisation, their desire to reach organisational goals, and the individual’s

acceptance of organisational values. The questionnaire covers items about morals

and behaviour and emphasises employees’ moral involvement with the organisation

(Lee et al., 2000).

Ferris and Aranya (1983) did not regard Hrebiniak and Alutto’s instrument as

providing a sufficient basis for the prediction of differential relationships between

their scales (personal factors and other work attitudes). In an effort to resolve this

shortcoming, Porter et al. (1974) created an organisational commitment

questionnaire which used a 15-item Likert scale. This scale has been used in

behavioural studies by other researchers, as an instrument to describe how

committed employees are to their organisation (Ferris & Aranya, 1983). Liang (1989)

conducted a comparison of these two scales, revealing that the reliability, validity

and coverage of OCQ proposed by Porter et al. (1974) is generally superior to the

organisational commitment questionnaires of Hrebiniak and Alutto.

According to Tumulty et al. (1995), most concepts and measurements of

organisational commitment have been influenced by Mowday et al. (1982). In the

current study, the definition of organisational commitment is derived from Porter et

48

al. (1974) and Mowday et al. (1982), and uses Mowday et al.’s measure of

organisational commitment.

2.4.2 Antecedents and consequences of organisational commitment

The research on organisational commitment has shown that there is a wide

range of variables that are related to this concept, including job satisfaction,

organisational climate, and organizational citizenship behaviours. However, at

present there is still no complete model to cover all the variables which are

associated with organisational commitment. In the present study, the review of

literature may provide insights into relationships between the pertinent antecedent

variables and organisational commitment, and organisational commitment and

outcome variables. The following section will discuss the breadth of current thinking

on organisational commitment.

“Causality” model theory of organisational commitment (Steers, 1977)

Steers (1977) divided the antecedent variables of organisational commitment

into personal characteristics, job characteristics and working experience. This author

found support for all three categories as influences on organisational commitment.

Consequent variables were divided into desire to remain, attendance, employee

retention and job performance with causality, as shown in Figure 2-5. Among these

outcomes, organisational commitment is moderately related to both desire to remain

and intent to remain. Steers’ theory provided a landmark study in the field and

established the foundation of the organisational theory model (Liu, 1994).

49

Figure 2-5. Steers’ “causality” model of organisational commitment. Source: Steers, R. M. (1977) ‘Antecedents and Outcomes of Organisational Commitment’, Administrative Science Quarterly, vol.22, p46-56.

The role sense model (Stevens et al., 1978)

The role sense model of organisational commitment was created by

combining the psychological views and exchange views, as depicted in Figure 2-6.

Stevens et al. (1978) argue that personal attributes, role relevant factors and

organisational factors affect individual roles in the organisation. By means of the

process of exchange and evaluation, attitudinal and behavioural roles are formed,

with ultimate influence on employees’ desires to retain their jobs or leave them.

Figure 2-6. The “role sense” model of Stevens, Beyre and Trice. Source: Stevens, J. M., Beyre, J. M. and Trice, H. M. (1978) ‘Assessing Personal, Role, and Organisational Predictors of Management Commitment’, Academy of Management Journal, vol.21, no.3, p.380-396.

50

“Multiple forecasts” model theory of organisational commitment (Morris & Sherman,

1981)

Morris and Sherman (1981) developed a theory based on their conclusion

that research into organisational commitment was too narrow at that time. The

exchange viewpoint of models trend proposed by Stevens et al. (1978) refers to the

integration of two models into the “multiple forecast” type model of Morris and

Sherman (1981) shown in Figure 2-7. This model replaces “Task Characteristic” in

the Steers model with “Role Factor”, with Personal Characteristics and Work

Experiences as independent variables. The researchers used multiple regression

analyses to examine the predictive utility of the independent variables for

organisational commitment. The results indicated that there were six independent

variables that were important in the prediction of organisational commitment.

Figure 2-7. Morris and Sherman’s “multiple forecast” model for organisational commitment.

Source: Morris, J. H. and Sherman, J. D. (1981) ‘Generalisability of an organisational commitment model’, Academy of Management Journal, vol.24, pp.512-526.

“Causality” of organizational commitment (Mowday et al., 1982)

This model is similar to the “Causality” framework proposed by Steers

(1977), but is more comprehensive in terms of explaining the development of the

individual factors, and the importance of them at each stage. Mowday et al. (1982)

51

proposed that there are four antecedent variables and five consequent variables

within organizational commitment (see Figure 2-8). Antecedent variables are

personal characteristics (age, seniority, education level, race and personality), role

characteristics (including work scope, challenge, role conflict and role confusion)

structure characteristics (organizational normative, association involvement, control

of command, formalization, authority assignment degree and decision-making

involvement degree) and working experience (including dependability, emphasis on

personal sense and group codes). The consequent variables are job performance,

seniority, job absence, job tardiness and resignation.

Figure 2-8. Mowday, Porter and Steers’ “causality” of organisational commitment. Source: Mowday, R. T., Porter, L. W. and Steers, L. M. (1982) ‘Employee-Organisation Linkage-The Psychology of Commitment Absenteeism and Turnover’, N.Y.：Academic Press.

Causality model of organisational commitment (Mathieu & Zajac, 1990)

The causality model integrates 26 antecedent variables, 14 correlated

variables and 8 consequent variables (as depicted in Figure 2-9). The antecedent

variables are personal attributes consisting of age, sex, education, marital status,

position tenure, organization tenure, perceived personal competence, ability, salary,

the Protestant work ethic and job level. Role states are role ambiguity, role conflict

and role overload. Job characteristics include skill variety, task autonomy, challenge,

52

and job scope. Organization attributes consist of organizational size and

organisational centralisation. Group/Leader relations are group cohesiveness, task

independence, leader initiating structure, leader consideration, leader communication,

and participative leadership. Correlated variables include motivation (consisting of

overall, internal, job involvement, stress, occupational commitment and union

commitment) and job satisfaction (overall, intrinsic, extrinsic, supervision, co-

workers, promotion, pay and work itself). Subsequent variables include job

performance, consisting of others’ ratings, output measures, perceived job

alternatives, intention to search, intention to leave, attendance, lateness, and turnover.

Figure 2-9. Mathieu and Zajac’s “causality” model of organisational commitment. Source: Mathieu, J. E. and Zajac, D. M. (1990) ‘A Review and Meta-Analysis of the Antecedents, Correlates, and Consequences of Organisational Commitment’, Psychological Bulletin, vol.108, no.2, pp.171-194.

The causal variables of organisational commitment proposed by Huang (1986)

According to the frameworks of Steers (1977), Stevens et al. (1978), Morris

and Sherman (1981) and Huang (1986), the causal variables of organisational

commitment can be divided into personal attributes and situational variables. Huang

(1986) proposes that organisational commitment will be mutually affected by

53

personal and situational status, as shown in Figure 2-10. In this model causal

variables include personal attributes (demographic statistical variables such as age,

gender, seniority), personality features (such as achievement motives, personal

values and sex roles), and cognition and expectation (e.g., personal investment

against the organisation and interest received from the organisation for

remuneration). Situational variables consist of the organisational environment (such

as leadership style and organisation climate), work characteristics (autonomy and

priority) and working experience (such as role confirmation, attitude towards groups

against organisation, and emphasis on the individual received from the organisation).

Figure 2-10. The causal variables of organisational commitment proposed by Huang, Kou-Rong (1986). Source: The Research of High School Organisational Commitment proposed by Huang, Kou-Rong (1986), National Chengchi University Academic Report, vol. 53.

To summarise, literature on organisational commitment suggests that it has a

major effect on workers’ behaviour, particularly in relation to resignation and

unreasonable levels of job absence (Ingersoll, Kirsch, Merk, & Lightfoot, 2000; Ko,

Price, & Mueller, 1997; Laschinger, Finegan, Shamian, & Casier, 2000). Research

suggests that organisational commitment acts as a better predictor of attendance,

absenteeism and resignation compared to job satisfaction and other job attitudes

54

(Ferris & Aranya, 1983; Morris & Sherman, 1981; Mowday et al., 1982). Some

studies (Huang, 1986; Mathieu & Zajac, 1990) also suggest that most causal

variables of organisational commitment are personal attribute and situational factors.

2.4.3 Sociodemographic variables as related to organisational commitment

There are numerous studies examining employees’ organisational

commitment within hospitals, with an emphasis on organisation culture, job

satisfaction, professional commitment, citizen’s behaviour, stress response and

resignation desires. Based on the above review, there is some indication that

personal and situational factors have an effect on organisational commitment. It is

clear that employees’ demographics affect their perceptions of their organisation

(Lambert, Hogan, & Barton, 2001). However, a more detailed analysis of relevant

variables is needed in order to provide empirical support for the proposed model.

The next section discusses previous findings of experiments of organisational

commitment.

Age

Research suggests that age is positively associated with organisational

commitment (Aldag & Brief, 1975; Angle & Perry, 1981; Brown, 1969; Hrebiniak &

Alutto, 1972; Mathieu & Zajac, 1990; Morris & Sherman, 1981; Sheldon, 1971;

Shore et al., 1990; Steers, 1977; Stevens et al., 1978). These studies demonstrate that

with increasing age comes higher organisational commitment. In terms of exchange

theory, the more an individual has accumulated organisational resources (e.g., tenure,

position, and benefit), the greater his/her commitment to the employing organisation.

McNeese-Smith (2000) found that older nurses tend to have more satisfaction and

55

commitment to the organisation than younger nurses. Other research with nursing

staff in southern Taiwan also found a link between age and organisational

commitment (Tsai, Huang, & Yeh, 2003). Yang (2002) and Chang (2001) found that

older teachers exhibit higher organisational commitment overall and in each separate

dimension. As employees become older, they accumulate valued resources in the

employment system, and thus they are less inclined to change organisations

(Hrebiniak & Alutto, 1972; Mathieu & Zajac, 1990; Morris & Sherman, 1981).

Lee and Chung (2001) demonstrated in their study that respondents of

various ages show little difference in “value commitment”, however found a

statistical link between aged and “retention commitment” and “effort commitment”.

Tsai et al. (2003) also found that there was a positive correlation between “retention

commitment” and “effort commitment” and age. Chen (2001) conducted research to

investigate pressure and response to pressure in relation to organisational

commitment. It indicated that older respondents demonstrate higher organisational

commitment. However, Hu (1999), in contrast to previous studies, reported a

negative relationship between age and each dimension of organisational commitment

in a study of 395 nurses in a district teaching hospital in Taiwan.

Education status

Research has revealed positive relationships between education level and

organisational commitment (Pu, 1988; Putti, Aryee, & Liang, 1989). However, other

studies showed a negative correlation between educational level and organisational

commitment (Allen & Meyer, 1993; Angle & Perry, 1981; Mathieu & Zajac, 1990;

Morris & Sherman, 1981; Mowday et al., 1982; Steers, 1977; Taur, 1998; Tsai et al.,

56

2003). This second set of researchers argue that respondents with greater educational

preparation show lower organisational commitment and tend to have greater

opportunities for alternative employment, and therefore tend to be less committed to

the organisation. Based on Social Exchange Theory (SET), highly educated

employees have greater expectations but the organisation may be unable to meet

these expectations. A U-shaped relationship between education status and

organisational commitment was demonstrated by Chen (2001) in a sample of 304

hospital staff. Chen (2001) reported higher organisational commitment by staff with

high school diplomas and Master’s degrees than staff with Bachelor’s degrees. Staff

with high school diplomas scored higher on “retention commitment” than Masters’

and Bachelor’s degree staff (Chen, 2001).

Lee and Chung (2001) found that employees with only high school-level

education are more attentive to “values commitment” and “retention commitment”

than diploma-level employees. Research undertaken by Hu (1999) using nurses

found that education was not significantly related to “retention commitment” for this

group, but that there was a positive relationship between education and “value

commitment” (r = .10, p < .05) and “effort commitment” (r = .11, p < .05). Stevens

et al. (1978) examined the relationship between personal attributes and

organisational commitment of 634 supervisors in 71 federal government

organisations. Their correlation analyses revealed that education was not related to

organisational commitment, but had a positive correlation with federal commitment.

Research by Chen (2002) reported that there was no relationship between having a

university degree and organisation commitment. Shore et al. (1990) found that

correlations between organisational commitment and education were negative but

57

not significant. The results suggest that further research is required to determine the

relationship between education status and organisational commitment.

Income

Friss (1983) surveyed 82 directors of nursing (DON) in 150 hospitals in

Southern California. The findings indicated that higher tenure and salary were

positively associated with organisational commitment. Hu (1999), in contrast,

reported that salary level was strongly negatively associated with each individual

dimension of organisational commitment (“values commitment”, r = -.95, p < .01;

“effort commitment”, r = -.95, p < .01; “retention commitment”, r = -.87, p < .01).

Hu (1999) notes that the nature of, and reason for the inverse relationship between

the two variables remains unclear.

Occupational position

Generally, occupational position has a positive relationship to organisational

commitment, such that the higher the respondent’s position, the more organisational

commitment one shows (Morrow et al., 1988; Xiao & Lu, 1996). For instance, Lee

and Chung (2001) demonstrated that managers show higher mean scores than staff in

“values commitment”, “effort commitment” and “retention commitment”.

2.4.4 Summary

This section has provided a review of the different definitions of organisational

commitment, ranging from those with an attitudinal perspective to those using a

behavioural approach. The different categories of organisational commitment

outlined by different authors were highlighted. This section also provided an analysis

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of a number of instruments commonly used by researchers in organisational

commitment, and justified the decision in the current study to select the instrument

by Mowday et al. (1979). Finally, this section examined the various causal models of

organisational commitment, and relevant empirical studies were discussed. Corser

(1998) has suggested that understanding of organisational commitment for nurses is

limited, and more research on organisational commitment and related variables

among nurses is needed (Corser, 1998; Tumulty et al., 1995).

2.5 The interrelationship between work values, job involvement and

organisational commitment

A literature review revealed that although some studies of the interrelationships

between work values, job involvement and organisational commitment have been

conducted in Asian countries, none of these has undertaken a simultaneous

investigation of all three variables. For example, Lau and Huang (1999) conducted a

study involving 191 retail salespersons in Singapore. This study determined whether

job satisfaction, work motivation, organisational commitment and job involvement

had an impact on customer orientation. Tayyab and Tariq (2001) collected data from

210 middle level executives and examined the work values and organisational

commitment of public and private sector executive in Pakistan. No previous studies

have conducted a simultaneous investigation of work values, job involvement, and

organisational commitment in the subject population, Taiwanese nurses.

Furthermore, no study to date has attempted to explain any causal relationship

between these factors for Taiwanese nurses. This section discusses what evidence

there is for interrelationships between these constructs.

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2.5.1 Research on work values and job involvement

Work values are a particularly important work commitment construct, as they

play a key role in influencing an employee’s affective responses in the workplace.

Some researchers (Wollack et al., 1971) argue that work values are learned, in part,

as a result of past experience. They suggest that the personal characteristics of an

individual interact with various stimuli and environmental conditions to form work

values. Research into job involvement has suggested that, like organisational

commitment, it is related to three classes of variables, (1) personal characteristics, (2)

situational characteristics, and (3) work outcomes. Work values have been

commonly viewed as a personality variable (Brown, 1996; Huang, 1986; Mathieu &

Zajac, 1990; Mowday et al., 1982; Rabinowitz & Hall, 1977), a strong antecedent of

all three work attitudes (e.g., job involvement, organisational commitment, and

career salience) (Shore et al., 1990) and a relatively unchanged feature over an

individual’s life course (Morrow, 1983).

Rokeach (1973) suggests that values represent the psychological investment

of a person in his/her environment. Value orientations are learned during the

socialisation process. Although the most significant value learning occurs in the

home during an individual’s early formative years, many of our values continue to

be shaped and formed in other settings, especially school and work.

Lodahl and Kejner (1965) state that job involvement is considered by many

to be closely tied to a strong work ethic, and people who place work at, or near, the

centre of their lives (Christopher & Jones, 2002). Weber (1958) discussed work

values as related to the ideals of the Protestant work ethic (PWE). Lodahl and Kejner

60

(1965) and Blau (1985) further argue that the main determinant of job involvement is

a value orientation towards work that is learned early in the socialisation process.

Anyone who has internalised these traditional values will probably be “job involved”,

regardless of the context within which he or she might be employed (Rabinowitz &

Hall, 1977). Indirect empirical evidence suggests a relationship between the PWE

and job involvement (Randall & Cote, 1991).

Many of the factors that are related to work values and job involvement have

been highlighted in this literature review. Job involvement is associated with an

individual’s attitude and is considered to be a different concept than values. In

research conducted by Lodahl and Kejner (1965) and Saal (1978), and the theory by

Rabinowitz and Hall (1977) and the motive mode of Kanungo (1982), work values

are all assumed to be key variables in job involvement. Rabinowitz and Hall (1977)

suggest that there is a level of internal control and work belief inherent in the

Protestant work ethic practiced by individuals, and this can positively predict job

involvement (β = .16). Research by Morrow and McElroy (1987) points out that

work values are the key to job involvement and other emotional reactions, and they

found direct evidence that work values are positively related to job involvement in

the work force (r = .38). Randall and Cote (1991) also found that individuals holding

strong work values were more involved with their jobs.

A number of studies have found that when work values of individuals match

those of the organisation, workers become more involved in their jobs (Blau, 1985;

Dong, 2001; Tang, 2000). Research by Wu (1995), Huang and Wu (1996) has found

that work values and job characteristics are influential determinants of job

involvement. Chuang (2001) conducted a study investigating the work values and

61

job involvement of medical attendants in Christian hospitals, also revealing that

individual work values and job involvement are positively related. This research

suggests that when an organisation recruits new staff a quantitative table of work

values matching organisational values could be used as a means for successful

selection of personnel bearing work values similar to those of the organisation.

Although the several studies reviewed above found a positive relationship

between work values and job involvement, one study did not. Aldag and Brief's

(1975) study using 131 employees of a manufacturing firm reported that job

involvement was not significantly related to either of the two subscales (pro-

Protestant Work Ethic and non-Protestant Work Ethic) of the Protestant Work Ethic.

2.5.2 Research on work values and organisational commitment

Some researchers (Bruning & Snyder, 1983; Mottaz, 1988) have argued that

demographic variables (e.g., age, sex, education, and tenure) may have a relationship

with organisational commitment, but they are not determinants of commitment. For

example, employees with advancing age or longer tenure tend to hold higher

positions, make more rewards, and have excellent social relations. Therefore, it is

not age or tenure itself, but rather different levels of work values which are

associated with age or tenure that influence organisational commitment (Mottaz,

1988). Thus, Mottaz (1988) suggested that work values may mediate the effect of

demographic variables on organisational commitment.

Although commitment is an attitude that manifests itself in behaviour, it is

not an attitude that results from monetary or occasional enthusiasm (Krathwohl,

Bloom, & Masia, 1964). Rather, it results from a value or set of values held by an

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individual over an extended period (O'Reilly, 1989). Several authors have considered

values in general, and work values specifically, as important variables in explaining

organisational commitment (Huang, 1986; Kidron, 1978; Putti et al., 1989).

Charanyanada (1980) suggests that commitment is strengthened through investment

of time and energy in the work role, particularly when there is reciprocal value

perceived in one’s efforts. This conceptualisation implies a reciprocal relationship

between commitment and behaviour, such that by acting on behalf of and according

to his values, an individual strengthens his/her commitment, which in turn makes

his/her future behaviour more predictable.

As is the case for the interaction between behaviour and the environment, the

relationship between these personal characteristics is reciprocal and dynamic. Over

time and through the individual’s learning experience, these beliefs will be either

reinforced or weakened. If they are reinforced, the employee will probably retain and

possibly increase his/her commitment. If these beliefs are weakened, the individual

may well lose his/her commitment and leave the organisation.

A number of studies have been conducted investigating the connection

between work values and organizational commitment (Chen & Lu, 1997; Huang,

1999; Huang, 1986; Kidron, 1978; Lee & Chung, 2001; Liang, 1999; Pu, 1988;

Rabinowitz & Hall, 1977). Putti et al. (1989) conducted a study which revealed that

intrinsic work values relate more closely to organisational commitment than either

extrinsic work values or overall work values. Knoop (1994a, 1994b, 1994c) found

that work values are significant predictors of job satisfaction and organisational

commitment. Values of the Protestant ethic have been shown to be correlated with

organisational commitment, job involvement and career salience (Shore et al., 1990).

63

Intrinsic work values were also related to normative (norm-based) commitment and

extrinsic work values were related to instrumental (reward-based) commitment in

another study (Butler & Vodanovich, 1992). Tayyab and Tariq (2001) found a

significant positive correlation between intrinsic work values and organisational

commitment of private sector executives. Some researchers report that individuals

were more committed to the organisation when their values were congruent with

those of their managers (Sagie, Elizur, & Koslowsky, 1996).

In a study conducted by Huang (1986), values such as responsibility and

achievement tended to facilitate and predict organisational commitment. Chen and

Lu (1997) believe that the higher the work values rise, the more organisational

commitment and job involvement improves. A study conducted by Liang (1999)

investigating work values and organisational commitment, suggests that work values

have minimal impact on organizational commitment. In contrast, Lee and Chung

(2001) discovered that “instrumental values” and organisational commitment were

statistically correlated. The “stability and freedom from anxiety considerations” of

employees was the strongest influencing factor on “retention commitment”. The next

most influencing factor was the value of “security and economic consideration”. The

“social interaction considerations” of employees showed the strongest influence on

their “values commitment”. The work values of “security and economic

considerations” had the strongest influence on an employee’s “effort commitment”.

Knowing which intrinsic and extrinsic factors can influence changes in

organisational commitment may be able to further contribute to an understanding of

how factors could be employed in work settings, helping to foster such attitudes

among nurses.

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2.5.3 Research on job involvement and organisational commitment

Job involvement and organisational commitment have been major themes of

organisational research in recent years (Keller, 1997). Until recently, studies have

typically included either job involvement or organisational commitment, rather than

both of these variables in the same study, at least for studies undertaken in Taiwan

(Chen, 2000). It is necessary to further assess this relationship in order to provide

additional information about work commitment in this context.

According to Randall and Cote’s model (1991) of interrelationships among

work commitment constructs, job involvement mediates the relationships among

Protestant work ethic, occupational commitment and two forms of organisational

commitment. The relationship between job involvement and organisational

commitment is based on Social Exchange Theory (SET), where people tend to

reciprocate those who are a benefit to them. Thus, a reciprocal relationship exists

between job involvement, positive work experiences and high organisational

commitment (Cohen, 1999). The argument for a role for employee reciprocation is

supported by Meyer et al. (1998) in their summary of research on the antecedents of

organisational commitment. They concluded that higher affective commitment to the

organisation is more likely for those employees who have had positive work

experiences. Job involvement is a personal characteristic which has been found to be

positively related to organisational commitment (Stevens et al., 1978).

In a recent meta-analysis, Brown (1996) reported a strong positive

relationship between job involvement and organisational commitment in the

workplace (average r = .49). Many relationships between personal characteristics,

65

job-related characteristics, work experiences and organisational commitment may be

explained in terms of the Exchange Theory (Hrebiniak & Alutto, 1972). Individuals

come to organisations with certain needs, desires, skills, and so on, and expect to

find an environment which uses their abilities and satisfies many of their basic needs.

When the organisational environment is dependable, and these needs are satisfied,

the probability of increasing commitment is enhanced. When an organisation fails to

make effective use of its employees, commitment levels tend to diminish. The

negative relationship between educational levels and organisational commitment

could be predicted by SET, because it may be more difficult for organisations to

provide sufficient rewards for employees with higher levels of education.

There are published studies which report correlations between job

involvement and organisational commitment. As has been highlighted earlier in this

chapter, organisational commitment is different from job involvement.

Organisational commitment is oriented by identification with the organisation, while

job involvement refers to identification with the job. This makes the latter more

vulnerable to individual work values, among other factors. Job involvement reflects

the individual’s level concentration on the job, showing how important personal

identification with the job can be, and suggesting an influence of personal pride on

one’s performance (Lodahl & Kejner, 1965). Organisational commitment is a

different work attitude from job involvement, however a number of studies have

highlighted the connection between organisational commitment and job involvement

(Blau, 1989; Morrow, 1983; Morrow & McElroy, 1986; Mowday et al., 1982;

Mowday et al., 1979). Job involvement, as a function of early socialisation

experiences (Kanungo, 1982), is more stable than organisational commitment (Blau

66

& Boal, 1987). Moreover, both variables are thought to influence some work-related

behaviour independently (Robbins, 1993) and result in significant interactive

relationship (Blau & Boal, 1987).

A prior study (Mathieu & Zajac, 1990) indicates that organisational

commitment is positively related to employee motivation, job involvement and job

satisfaction, and negatively related to absenteeism and turnover. Some studies have

found that there is a significant correlation between job involvement and

organisational commitment, and that these factors are negatively associated with

employee turnover intentions (Igbaria & Siegel, 1992; Koberg & Chusmir, 1989;

Martin & Hafer, 1995; Porter et al., 1974). Employees who have high turnover

intentions have lower levels of job involvement and organisational commitment, thus

confirming earlier correlational results (e.g. Mowday et al., 1982; Rabinowitz & Hall,

1977). Studies by Stevens et al. (1978), Mowday et al. (1979), Morrow (1983) and

Buffardi and Niebisch (1988), have found that job involvement has a strong and

positive effect on the forecast of organisational commitment. Knoop (1995)

conducted research using 171 nurse educators and registered nurses, finding that job

involvement was moderately related to commitment to the employing organisation.

Huang (1993) found that organisational commitment was positively correlated with

job involvement, and that job involvement varies across gender, age, marital status,

seniority and salary.

2.5.4 Randall and Cote’s original and revised model

Randall and Cote’s model (see Figure 2.11) of five forms of work

commitment includes the Protestant work ethic, work group attachment, job

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involvement, organisational commitment, and career commitment. Strong

relationships have been found between job involvement and organisational

commitment, and job involvement and career salience (Randall & Cote, 1991). In

addition, job involvement was significantly influenced by the Protestant work ethic.

Work-group attachment, however, appeared to influence organisational commitment

only through job involvement. This model included only one form of organisational

commitment.

Figure 2-11. A model of relationships among work commitment constructs. Source: Randall, D. M. and Cote, J. A. (1991) ‘Interrelationships of work commitment constructs’, Work and Occupations, vol.18, no.2, pp.194-211.

Randall and Cote’s revised model (see Figure 2.12), proposed by Cohen

(1999) specifies that the Protestant work ethic affects job involvement, which in turn

influences affective organisational commitment directly. Career commitment

mediates the relationship between job involvement and affective organisational

commitment. Job involvement only affects the ‘low alternatives’ dimension of

continuance commitment. Career commitment has a significant negative relationship

with the full scale of continuance commitment. Job involvement is the key focus, as

it mediates the relationship between the exogenous variables, Protestant work ethic,

and the dependent variables, organisational commitment and career commitment.

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Figure 2-12. Randall and Cote’s revised model. Source: Cohen, A. (1999) ‘Relationships among five forms of commitment: an empirical assessment’, Journal of Organisational Behaviour, vol.20, no.3, pp.285-308.

According to these two models, the Protestant work ethic is a personality

variable, one’s belief in the importance of hard work (Cohen, 1999). The Protestant

work ethic is an exogenous variable, directly affecting job involvement. Cohen

(1999) explains that people with a strong work ethic are more likely to be job

involved than those with a lower level of Protestant work ethic. Job involvement is

viewed as an individual’s psychological identification with one’s job (Kanungo,

1982). Job involvement in particular is a powerful influence on commitment to the

organisation.

Shore et al. (1990) collected data from 449 employees (305 men and 144

women) from a medium-sized Western city and examined the relationship between

the four work attitudes, work values, job involvement, organisational commitment

and career salience. Job involvement was measured by a job involvement scale

developed by Lodahl and Kejner (1965). The Organisational Commitment

Questionnaire (Mowday et al., 1979) was used to measure organisational

commitment. Work values were measured by the Protestant Ethic Scale (Blood,

1969). A significant relationship was found between all four variables, and work

69

values was a strong antecedent of all three work attitudes, such as job involvement (r

= .39), career salience (r = .52), and organisational commitment (r = .29).

Cohen (1999) compared Morrow’s (1993) model with the conceptualisation

proposed by Randall and Cote (1991). He reports that results of path analysis reveal

that Randall and Cote’s model fits the data much better than Morrow’s model.

According to Cohen (1999), the relation between job involvement and organisational

commitment is based on social exchange theory, where people are likely to

reciprocate to those who benefit them. The model therefore includes a direct link

between job involvement and organisational commitment.

2.6 Conclusion

This chapter has reviewed research and theoretical models related to

sociodemographics, work values, job involvement, and organisational commitment

and examined evidence for the relationships between these variables. The first

section presented studies on work values, which appear to support work values as a

potential criteria for selecting employees, and suggests that this construct influences

a variety of organisational behaviour. This was followed by a description of the

categories of work values and associated empirical studies. A brief discussion of the

work values inventory followed. The second section considered job involvement,

which refers to an individual’s psychological identification with a particular job.

Relevant theoretical models suggest that job involvement is positively related to

organisational commitment, and is also influenced by work values. The third section

reviewed organisational commitment, which was viewed as an independent

phenomenon influenced by several factors. The background of the questionnaires

70

was discussed to in order to facilitate understanding of the research leading to

instrument development. The importance of socio-demographic factors has also been

identified. Further investigation of these factors should better indicate the variables

which need to be considered when planning job and career development strategies.

Finally, the chapter looked at relationships among work values, job

involvement, and organisational commitment. Relevant theoretical models were

discussed. The research suggests that workplace values and attitudes are strongly

correlated, and that personal values can explain an individual’s attitude and

behaviour. Nearly all of the research reviewed in this chapter indicated a positive

relationship between job involvement and organisational commitment, such that

employees having high job involvement have greater organisational commitment, or

vice versa.

In summary, there is a clear association between work values and job

involvement, work values and organisational commitment, and organisational

commitment and job involvement in the literature. Work values, job involvement

and organisational commitment are three dimensions of the broader framework of

commitment. Lack of any of these elements of work commitment may account for

employee absenteeism, turnover, reduced effort, and job dissatisfaction (Morrow,

1993). In addition, these variables are appropriate for current study because they can

be measured at the individual level, regardless of employment location. However,

there is a dearth of studies which explore the possibility of indirect connections

between work values and organisational commitment through the mediator of job

involvement. Many studies simply combined the results of employees of different

genders, making generalisation difficult to either male or female workers

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independently. These variables have been examined in many different populations,

but the current study proposes that these concepts may be particularly important to a

profession composed primarily of female nurses in Taiwan. The present study will

allow the relationship between these constructs to be explored more deeply. This will

be of immediate value when developing work commitment theories. Additional

study using these constructs is needed to strengthen this field and improve the

generalisability of findings.

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CHAPTER THREE

STUDY METHODS

3.1 Introduction

This chapter discusses the study design and methods that were used to fulfil

the research objectives (section 1.2). Objectives 1 to 3 were met using descriptive

approaches, while objectives 4 to 5 required formal hypothesis testing.

3.2 Research structure

The research was conducted according to the following steps.

1. The literature was reviewed in relation to work values, job involvement and

organisational commitment, including selection and development of the

survey instrument (for more details see stage 5 below).

2. The study was designed based on the research objectives and the literature

review.

3. Ethical approval was obtained from the Queensland University of

Technology.

4. After necessary approval to conduct the investigation was obtained from the

administrators in the Taiwanese hospitals, individuals were given

questionnaires through nursing units within the nursing departments of the

hospitals selected for this study.

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5. The survey instrument was distributed. The instrument was composed of the

following measures.

• A sociodemographic profile was developed by the author to collect

personal data (see Appendix A).

• The Work Values Inventory (WVI) (Wu et al., 1996) was designed to

measure the work values of participants (see Appendix B).

• The Job Involvement Questionnaire (JIQ) (Kanungo, 1982) was included

to measure the job involvement of nurses in the sample (see Appendix C).

• The Organisational Commitment Questionnaire (OCQ) (Mowday et al.,

1979) was designed to measure participants’ commitment towards their

employer (see Appendix D).

6. Data analysis.

7. Data interpretation, summarising the findings, drawing conclusions, and

identifying specific implications.

3.3 Recruitment strategy

3.3.1 Study design and sampling

The study utilised a cross-sectional survey design. The samples were

recruited via convenience sampling (see Appendix E). The target population for this

study consisted of Registered Nurses (RN) who worked in regional teaching

hospitals in Taiwan. The samples were recruited using the following strategy. First,

24 hospitals were selected from a list of Hospital Accreditation and Teaching

74

Accreditation issued by the Department of Health, the Executive Yuan, Taiwan,

R.O.C. (2004). There are a total of 67 regional teaching hospitals available in

Taiwan. However, only one-third of the hospitals were selected to participate in this

study due to financial feasibility and accessibility issues. A letter of invitation to

participate in the study was sent out to the selected hospitals. A total of nine agreed

to participate, producing a participation rate of 38%.

In those hospitals that agreed to participate, there were approximately 2800

nurses available. Participants were selected to take part in this survey based on the

following inclusion criteria, (1) be a RN, (2) be employed full-time or part-time and

have to have completed at least three months of service (to ensure that participants

have at least some familiarity with the job and organisation), and (3) be willing to

participate. Subjects who met the inclusion criteria were invited to be part of the

study and asked to fill in the questionnaire.

3.3.2 Sample size

A sample size of 170 was considered the minimum data set for this study

based on a sample size calculation. The minimum sample size was determined by

assuming a difference between groups of 1.0 point on the five point Likert scale

previously used and a standard deviation of 0.9, allowing a 5% type I error and 10%

type II error (statistical power = 90%). The sample size was inflated to 345 subjects

taking into consideration a response rate of 40%, confounder (15%) and contingency

(10%).

Base on the above figure, a minimum sample size of 38 nurses per hospital is

considered sufficient. However, a total of 1300 nurses from the participating

75

hospitals were eligible for the survey. All eligible nurses were surveyed, as a large

sample size provides distinct advantages such as decreasing sampling error and

increasing the power to detect relationships that exist. Of the 1300 questionnaires

distributed, 1053 were completed and returned, a response rate of 81%.

3.4 Data collection

This study was conducted in regional teaching hospitals located across Taiwan.

The principal investigator used the following procedures to collect data.

1. The principal investigator approached selected hospitals and contacted the

nursing manager who was assigned to assist with distributing the

questionnaires.

2. The principal investigator worked with the nursing manager to obtain a list of

nursing units (e.g. medicine, surgery, pediatrics, etc.). This list was used to

randomly select nursing units.

3. Each selected nursing unit was provided with questionnaires for each eligible

nurse. The questionnaires were distributed by the head nurse of the unit.

4. Each nurse from the selected nursing unit was provided with a questionnaire

package. This included a cover letter (Appendix F) explaining the purpose of

the study, details of confidentiality, detailed instructions about completing the

questionnaire, and a request to complete and return the questionnaire within

two weeks. The cover letter also explained procedures for returning the

questionnaire in the envelope provided. Demographic information and all

instruments were incorporated into a single questionnaire. The three-part

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survey questionnaire asked nurses questions concerning their work values,

organisational commitment and job involvement.

5. Respondents were asked to return the completed questionnaire (in a sealed

envelope) to the hospital lodgement box, which was left by the principal

investigator in the office of the Department of Nursing. For those surveys

which were not returned after two weeks, a reminder notice was issued to all

participants by the nursing head of the respective units, followed by a follow-

up communication by the Director of Nursing representing each organisation.

At the end of the data collection period, the completed questionnaires from

each selected hospital lodgement box were collected by the principal

investigator. The data collection was completed over a six week period.

3.5 Ethical considerations

Ethical approval was obtained from the Queensland University of

Technology Human and Research Ethics Committee. Ethical approval was also

sought from each participating hospital’s Research Committee prior to data

collection commencing. A copy of the application and letter of approval is included

in Appendix G.

Participants were provided with information about the study using an

information sheet. Subject participation was voluntary and anonymity was

maintained (there was no identifiable information on the questionnaire). A

completed questionnaire from the respondent was deemed a sign of their consent to

participate in the study. The principal investigator ensured that participants were

clear that all information collected was confidential and would not be divulged to

77

any third party. Participants were asked to place completed questionnaires in the

envelope provided, and seal it, so that only the principal investigator would have

access to the responses. This study was deemed to not have an adverse impact (either

immediately or in future) on the lives or employment of the respondents. Only de-

identified, aggregated data will be presented in the analysis section of this thesis and

in future reports and publications.

3.6 Research hypotheses

To meet the fourth research objective (section 1.2), the following specific

hypotheses were formally tested in this study.

Hypothesis 1: Age and socioeconomic status (SES) will be positively associated

with work values, job involvement and organisational commitment.

Hypothesis 2: Work values will be significantly associated with job involvement.

Hypothesis 3: Positive work values will be significantly associated with

organisational commitment.

Hypothesis 4: Job involvement will be significantly associated with organisational

commitment.

To meet research objective 5, the following hypothesis was also tested.

Hypothesis 5: Job involvement will mediate any relationship between work values

and organisational commitment.

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3.7 Survey instrument

3.7.1 Survey questionnaire

This study used an adaptation of the Work Values Inventory (WVI), the Job

Involvement Questionnaire (JIQ) and an Organisational Commitment Questionnaire

(OCQ), as well as a sociodemographic questionnaire. Table 3-1 shows the reliability

values of the study instruments that have been previously tested.

Table 3-1 Description of instruments used in previous studies

Instrument Reliability reported in previous studies (Cronbach’s α) # of items

Wu et al’s (1996) WVI .97 49

Kanungo’s (1982) JIQ .81 10

Mowday et al’s (1979) OCQ .90 15

Prior to the main study, a similar study was conducted using nurses from a

religious hospital in Taiwan at the end of 2002, using identical survey instruments.

In this study, the entire questionnaire was reviewed by four health-related

professionals in order to establish clarity of the instructions, face validity, the

research items, and overall format of the questionnaire. Following the review, items

that were ambiguous were either corrected or deleted. The revised questionnaire was

administered to a sample group consisting of 102 staff nurses working in the hospital

setting. Reliability analysis was conducted. The results showed that for the work

values scale and its subscales, Cronbach’s α ranged from .91 to .98. For job

involvement, Cronbach’s α was .81. For the organisational commitment scale and

associated subscales, Cronbach’s α ranged from .80 to .85. These alphas were

considered relatively high, and so these scales were considered satisfactory in terms

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of reliability. The results of this preliminary study suggest that reliability was

comparable to other similar studies conducted in this field (see Table 3-1). This

implies that the questionnaire is appropriate for use in the Taiwanese context.

Sociodemographic profile

A sociodemographic profile measure was developed for use in this study.

This survey collected personal data about each subject, including organisation,

gender, age, martial status, employment status, religious affiliation, education status,

personal income, occupational position, position tenure, organisation tenure and

nursing tenure.

Work Values Inventory (WVI)

Work values were measured using a Mandarin translation of a modified

indigenous version (49 items) of Super’s Work Values Inventory (WVI) (Wu et al.,

1996). There are a total of 49 items for measuring the level of work values, rather

than using only the 4 items of Protestant Work Ethic (PWE) (Randall & Cote, 1991).

There were no reverse-scored items, and scores are computed for each value

dimension (refer to p.23) by adding the scores for the seven items representing that

dimension. A response to each statement was made on a 5-point Likert-type scale

ranging from 1, not important to 5, very important. Thus, the maximum score for

each dimension was 35 and the minimum score was 7. A higher score reflects a

higher placing importance on values of work.

According to Wu et al. (1996), the WVI is a reliable instrument with a high

level of construct, content and concurrent validity. Norms on the WVI have been

carefully developed and research has indicated that work values do not seem to differ

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with age. Recent Taiwanese researchers (Chen, 2000; Chuang, 2002; Lee & Chung,

2001) have reported coefficient alphas ranging from .79 to .94.

Job Involvement Questionnaire (JIQ)

Job involvement is defined in the current study as the psychological

importance of one’s job, and was measured with the 10-item Job Involvement

Questionnaire (JIQ) (Kanungo, 1982). The JIQ instrument has been used in many

research studies and its reliability (Chen, 1998, 2000; Chuang, 2002; Kuo, Jaw,

Wang, & Chen, 2004; Leong, Huang, & Hsu, 2003) and validity examined

extensively (Leong et al., 2003). Of these studies, three were Taiwanese studies

(Chen, 1998, 2000; Chuang, 2002; Kuo et al., 2004), for which the Cronbach’s alpha

ranged from .76 to .84. Responses were scored on a 5-point Likert scale (ranging

from 1, strongly disagree to 5, strongly agree). The 10 items were summed to

provide a total involvement score, two of which are negatively phrased and hence

reverse scored. High scores reflect a higher level of job involvement. In addition,

there were complete agreements on 10 items for inclusion in the JIQ and 4 items for

inclusion in Randall and Cote’s scale.

Organisational Commitment Questionnaire (OCQ)

Organisational commitment is defined as the relative strength of an

employee’s identification with, and involvement in, a particular organisation. The

questionnaire used to test organisational commitment was based on a translation of

Mowday et al’s (1979) scale into Mandarin by Wu and Yang (1982). This scale used

a 15-item Likert scale, six items of which are negatively phrased and reverse scored.

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The instrument used a five-point response scale ranging from 1 (strongly

disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) and included three dimensions, “values commitment”,

“effort commitment”, and “retention commitment”. An overall score is achieved by

summing the responses. The higher the score, the greater the employee’s

commitment to the organisation. Empirical studies that have employed the OCQ

have demonstrated good internal consistency reliability (Cook, Hepworth, Wall, &

Warr, 1981; Lee et al., 2000; Liang, 1989; Price & Mueller, 1986a; Ting, 1987).

Moreover, Ting (1987) conducted an Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) on results

from Wu and Yang’s (1982) translation Mandarin version of Mowday et al’s (1979)

OCQ. The participants were 639 employees from six Taiwanese firms. Results of the

factor analysis indicated the organisational commitment items form three separate

factors, namely, “values commitment”, “effort commitment”, and “retention

commitment” (Hsu, 1990; Wang, 1991). Two separate reliability studies suggest

these factors form a reliability scale with an alpha of .93 and Spearman-Brown split-

half reliability of .87. Subsequent Taiwanese researchers (Chang, Yeh, & Yang,

2001; Hu, 1999) have reported coefficient alphas ranging from .81 to .95 for samples

of hospital staff nurses. Results of Ting’s three-factor structure of organisational

commitment will be used in current study. In addition, the inventory used in Randall

and Cote’s organisational commitment items will be used in this study to measure

organisational commitment.

In summary, the questionnaires used here to assess work values, job

involvement and organisational commitment have been frequently used in

organisational behaviour studies in Taiwan in recent years. However, this study is

the first in which the three instruments will be used together in the nursing field.

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Validity of these measurement scales has been demonstrated in Taiwan in the fields

of education and business (Chen, 2000; Chen et al., 1998; Lee & Chung, 2001;

Wang, Yang, & Wang, 2001; Wu & Lin, 2003), but there is no published evidence

about the JIQ’s construct validity in Taiwan (Chen, 1998, 2000; Chuang, 2002; Kuo

et al., 2004). Therefore, as a preliminary step in analysis of the current research data,

the validity and reliability of the measures used was established.

3.7.2 Assessments of validity

The WVI and OCQ were analysed using Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA)

and the JIQ by using EFA. CFA and EFA are two statistical approaches that can be

used to examine the internal reliability of a measure. CFA was used because it is a

powerful tool for testing an existing theory, allowing the researcher to test and

systematically compare specified a priori models. Most importantly, CFA is a useful

tool that can be used to assess measurement error. This analysis is considered more

appropriate if prior hypotheses exist based on theory or previous analysis (De Vet,

Ader, Terwee, & Pouwer, 2005). EFA was undertaken for the JIQ, as this analysis

does not have well specified a priori restrictions on the structure of the model

(Segars & Grover, 1993). Both statistical approaches can provide strong evidence for

the internal validity and reliability of a measure.

Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA)

CFAs using LISREL 8.71 were employed to confirm the factor structure of

work values and organisational commitment constructs. CFA, with maximum

likelihood (ML) estimation, was conducted to specify correlated measurement error

and to estimate the true correlations (factor loadings) between the underlying

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constructs (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001). The factor loadings were significant,

meaning that they effectively reflected factor structure. Furthermore, CFA was

performed to determine adequacy of the model’s fit to the data. Structural Equation

Modelling (SEM) is a largely confirmatory technique (Hoyle, 1995), which can be

manipulated by LISREL 8.71. The analysis is reported in detail in the next section.

A factor loadings or factor structure matrix indicating a matrix of correlations

between observed variables and their factors (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001) was

examined for the study variables (i.e., work values, job involvement and

organisational commitment). The general rule is that factor loadings greater than .3

in absolute value are considered to be significant (Nunnally, 1978). In CFA, a

finding that indicators have high loadings on the predicted factors indicates

convergent validity, which is a form of construct validity, and refers to the principle

that indicators for a given construct should be at least moderately correlated among

themselves. A CFA was used to test the study’s main construct, namely, work values

and organisational commitment.

Goodness of fit (GOF) indicators

When using goodness-of-fit measures, Kline (1998) recommends that a

minimum of four fit indices should be reported. There are six common approaches

reported in the literature to analysing model fit, including Chi square statistics (χ2),

chi-square to degrees of freedom ratio (χ2/df), the Normed Fit Index (NFI; Bentler &

Bonett, 1980), the Comparative Fit Index (CFI; Bentler, 1990), the Goodness of Fit

Index (GFI) and the Root-Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA).

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A “good fit” is indicated by a nonsignificant χ2. In practice, Chi-square is

sensitive to sample sizes (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001). If the chi-square to degrees of

freedom ratio (χ2/df) is around 3, this is generally accepted as a moderate fit. A score

below this suggests good fit of the model to the data (Kline, 1998). The large χ2 and

the likelihood ratio indicate the fit is still not as good as it could be. However,

according to Hertzog (1988), a model can still be considered useful even when the

likelihood ratio chi-square test is statistically significant. Therefore, though the Chi-

square statistic and the likelihood ratio are reported here, these should not be

interpreted as a measure of fit.

The NFI represents a measure of covariance (Hoyle, 1995). NFI appears to

perform well in large samples (n > 400) (Boomsma, 1982, 1983). The CFI performs

a valid index of estimating model fit in all samples (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001). The

CFI provides a measure of complete covariation in the data (Byrne, 2001). The GFI

is a measure of relative variance and covariance that relates closely to the population

covariance matrix (Byrne, 2001). The GFI values are very susceptible to variations

in sample size (Byrne, 2001).

The NFI, CFI and GFI range between zero and one, with values higher

than .9 generally accepted as representing a reasonable model fit. RMSEA is an

index of model fit, as it corrects for both sample size and degrees of freedom (Brown

& Cudeck, 1993). Values of .05 or less indicate a good fit and a value ranging

from .05 to .1 is indicative of reasonable fit for the RMSEA index (Brown & Cudeck,

1993). A RMSEA value of .10 or higher indicates a poorly fitting model.

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Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA)

EFA was conducted on job involvement in order to explore this new factor

structure. EFA using SPSS version 13.0 was conducted on JIQ in order to develop a

model that more closely fit the data. EFA seeks to discover the underlying factor

structure of a relatively large set of variables or a construct (Tabachnick & Fidell,

2001). EFA was conducted using a Principal Components Analysis (PCA), with a

varimax rotation. The analysis utilised all of the items that were included in the

scales.

3.7.3 Assessment of reliability

A reliability coefficient (Cronbach’s α) was used to measure the reliability of

scales used in the study. A Cronbach’s α of .7 or higher indicates a sufficient level of

internal reliability (Nunnally, 1978). The aim of the questionnaire was to create a

positive scale to measure job involvement and organisational commitment.

Therefore a number of questions were reverse-coded (JIQ’s questions 2, 7, and

OCQ’s questions 3, 7, 9, 11, 12 and 15) to ensure consistency of results. Although

instruments selected in this study were all well-established, it was necessary to

confirm their reliability once again for this study, because of its usage in the

Taiwanese hospital context. This is particularly relevant when new instruments are

being developed, or when previously validated instruments are translated and used in

different countries (Nystedt, Sjoberg, & Hagglund, 1999).

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3.7.4 Testing the research instrument: Results

Work values

After collecting the data for the study, a maximum likelihood CFA was

conducted to examine the factor structure. Table 3-2 provides the factor loadings of

the resultant model, revealing that the factor loadings were all positive, with most

exceeding .4. No negative error variances were present, and the t-values, which are

the factor loadings divided by the respective standard error, were all statistically

significant.

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Table 3-2. Factor loadings, measurement errors, and t values for CFA of Work

Values Inventory. Dimensions of work values Dimensions of work values Item

number SG† SR† SE† SI† Item

number SS† SA† RH† 1 loading ME‡ t-value

.59

.22 29.99

29 loading ME t-value

.59

.24 29.19

2 loading ME t-value

.63

.12 35.47

30 loading ME t-value

.67

.21 32.48

3 loading ME t-value

.65

.12 36.16

31 loading ME t-value

.72

.19 34.11

4 loading ME t-value

.64

.15 34.38

32 loading ME t-value

.78

.18 35.95

5 loading ME t-value

.60

.16 32.74

33 loading ME t-value

.77

.18 35.75

6 loading ME t-value

.53

.17 30.51

34 loading ME t-value

.77

.17 36.13

7 loading ME t-value

.55

.29 26.38

35 loading ME t-value

.75

.20 34.44

8 loading ME‡ t-value

.57 .16

32.15

36 loading ME t-value

.70 .22

32.57

9 loading ME t-value

.66 .15

34.60

37 loading ME t-value

.66 .21

31.98

10 loading ME t-value

.64 .17

33.52

38 loading ME t-value

.69 .32

29.37

11 loading ME t-value

.65 .25

30.41

39 loading ME t-value

.64 .37

26.60

12 loading ME t-value

.65 .24

30.77

40 loading ME t-value

.61 .32

27.18

13 loading ME t-value

.54 .21

28.51

41 loading ME t-value

.57 .30

26.56

14 loading ME t-value

.55 .22

28.67

42 loading ME t-value

.54 .31

25.40

Note 1: †: SG: “self-growth”; SR: “self-realisation”; SE: “self-esteem”; SI: “social interaction considerations”; SS: “security and economic considerations”; SA: “stability and freedom from anxiety considerations”; RH: “recreation, health and transport considerations”. Note 2: ‡: ME: measurement error

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Table 3-2. Factor loadings, measurement errors, t values for CFA of Work Values Inventory (continued).

Dimensions of work values Dimensions of work valuesItem number SG† SR† SE† SI†

Item number SS† SA† RH†

15 loading ME t-value

.56.16

31.32

43 loading ME t-value

.65.20

32.2716 loading ME t-value

.56.19

30.19

44 loading ME t-value

.66.27

30.0917 loading ME t-value

.59.22

29.38

45 loading ME t-value

.63.23

30.4218 loading ME t-value

.55.22

28.68

46 loading ME t-value

.62.20

31.3619 loading ME t-value

.47.22

25.66

47 loading ME t-value

.64.20

31.8520 loading ME t-value

.59.17

31.89

48 loading ME t-value

.63.21

31.1821 loading ME t-value

.40.37

18.49

49 loading ME t-value

.59.30

27.0522 loading ME t-value

.64.23

31.27

23 loading ME t-value

.63.11

36.18

24 loading ME t-value

.67.13

36.44

25 loading ME t-value

.68.06

40.60

26 loading ME t-value

.66.06

40.63

27 loading ME t-value

.66.07

39.38

28 loading ME t-value

.59.12

34.76

Note 1: †: SG: “self-growth”; SR: “self-realisation”; SE: “self-esteem”; SI: “social interaction considerations”; SS: “security and economic considerations”; SA: “stability and freedom from anxiety considerations”; RH: “recreation, health and transport considerations”. Note 2: ‡: ME: measurement error.

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According to results of the CFA (see Table 3-3), these fit indices (NFI = .97,

CFI = .98, GFI = .73, and RMSEA = .084) indicate a reasonable model fit. The

seven-factor structure hypothesised to underlie the work values scale was confirmed.

Table 3-3. Goodness of Fit (GOF) statistics for Work Values Inventory.

Chi-square df Χ2/df NFI CFI GFI RMSEA

7802.86** 1106 7.06 .97 .98 .73 .084

**p < .01

Cronbach’s α for the WVI was calculated. As summarised in Table 3-4, the

reliability coefficient of WVI was .98. The reliability coefficients were also high for

all WVI’s subscales, ranging from .9 to .96. All Cronbach’s α for the WVI were

above .9 and thus were considered adequate for this study.

Table 3-4. Measures of reliability for the Work Values Inventory.

Dimensions of work values

SG† SR† SE† SI† SS† SA† RH†

Subscale α .93 .93 .90 .96 .95 .91 .92

Full scale α .98 Note: †: SG: “self-growth”; SR: “self-realisation”; SE: “self-esteem”; SI: “social interaction considerations”; SS: “security and economic considerations”; SA: “stability and freedom from anxiety considerations”; RH: “recreation, health and transport considerations”.

Job involvement

EFA using a Principal Components Analysis (PCA) was conducted to

investigate the construct of job involvement (with a varimax rotation) using the JIQ.

The analysis extracted factors with eigenvalues, which indicate the amount of

variance in a set of variables explained by a factor. Results of the EFA were

evaluated by considering the following criteria, (1) the factor loading was lower

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than .3, as well as (2) each item loaded on only factor (even if they loaded higher

than .3). Items meeting these criteria were left out of the analysis.

Before EFA was conducted, two tests assessing the suitability of data for

structure detection were run. As shown in Table 3-5, the high value (ranging

from .88 for the first phase to .89 for the second phase) from the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin

(KMO) test (Kaiser, 1970, 1974), which measures sampling adequacy, indicated that

a factor analysis would be useful with the data. The significant Bartlett’s Test of

Sphericity (ranging from Χ2 = 4453.45, p < .01 for the first phase to Χ2 = 4367.36, p

< .01 for the second phase) (Bartlett, 1954) indicated that the data were suitable for

structure detection. Therefore, EFA was performed.

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Table 3-5. Factor analysis and reliability of Job Involvement Questionnaire.

First phase (N§ = 1038) Second phase (N§ = 1040) Item number

Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Factor 1 Factor 2

5 .83 .82

8 .83 .81

4 .79 .80

6 .78 .78

9 .75 .73 .32

3 .38 .74 .32 .73

7 -.45 .71 -.48 .72

10 .51 .60 .50 .61

1 .47 .60 .50 .61

2 .966

Eigenvalues 3.990 1.930 1.083 3.931 1.993

% of Variance 39.90 19.30 10.83 43.68 22.15

Cumulative % 39.90 59.20 70.03 43.68 65.83

Subscale α .88 .63 .88 .76

Full scale α .81 .89

KMO .88 .89

Bartlett’s test Χ2 = 4453.45, p < .01 Χ2 = 4367.36, p < .01 §: N’s vary because of listwise deletion of missing data in SPSS procedure.

In the first phase of PCA analysis (Table 3-5), three factors were extracted.

Factor 3 contained only one item (item 2) and was dropped. In the second phase of

analysis, it was found that the best solution was a two-factor solution. Factor 1

consisted of five items (4, 5, 6, 8 and 9) with a Cronbach’s α of .88, and Factor 2,

included items 1, 3, 7 and 10, with a reliability of .76. Inspection of the corrected

item-total correlation revealed that the coefficient for item 7 was below .3 (-.084)

(see Appendix H). Corrected item-total correlations should be considered the

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minimum acceptable evidence of construct validity (Pallant, 2005). They are

important because they give researchers an indication of the extent to which each

item contributes to a scale or subscale. Item 7 was thus dropped, increasing

Cronbach’s α to .76 for factor 2.

Thus the items loaded on two factors, accounted for 65.83% of total variance,

and had a Cronbach’s α of .89. Factor 1 accounted for 43.68% of the variance

observed and demonstrated high factor loadings (i.e. .60 or greater). Factor 2

accounted for 22.15% of the variance observed and 3 items (1, 3, and 10) loaded

highest.

Once all significant loadings were identified, there was an attempt to assign

some meaning to the factors based on the patterns of the factor loadings. Factor 1

was named “Complete Involvement” (CINV), and is defined as an orientation

toward the job that overlaps strongly with the subject’s life. These individuals derive

the most life fulfilment through their professional role. Factor 2, labelled “Strong

Involvement” (SINV), is defined as an orientation toward the job that, while not

reaching the levels of involvement demonstrated by high CINV participants,

nevertheless derive strong personal fulfilment from achievement of professional

goals. Reliability data for the JIQ’s subscales ranged from a low of α = .76 on

“strong involvement” to a high of α = .88 on “complete involvement”. The

Cronbach’s α of eight items in JIQ was .89, which is presented in Table 3-5. The

instrument was therefore considered acceptable in terms of validity.

Kanungo (1982) had indicated that his 10-item JIQ was a uni-dimensional

construct. However, this study revealed that job involvement involves at least two

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factors in the Taiwanese setting, including complete involvement (i.e., “I live, eat

and breathe my job”, “most of my interests are centred around my job”, “I have very

strong ties with my present job which would be very difficult to break”, “most of my

personal life goals are job-oriented” and “I consider my job to be very central to my

existence”) and strong involvement (i.e., “The most important things that happen to

me involve my present job”, “I am very much involved personally in my job” and “I

like to be absorbed in my job most of the time”). Huang (1986) and Van Wyk,

Boshoff, and Owen (1999) caution that instruments are not generally or necessarily

applicable to different cultures, since there are cultural differences associated with

perceptions of work organisation. Anastasi (1990) and Lee and Tu (1991) argue that

cultural differences may lead to group differences that affect responses to particular

psychometric instruments, thus reducing the validity of an instrument for specific

groups. It is possible that individual items are interpreted differently by persons in

different cultures. In addition, although Kanungo’s (1982) JIQ has previously been

used in other Taiwanese industrial samples (Chen, 1998, 2000; Chuang, 2002; Kuo

et al., 2004), it had not been implemented in a nursing sample. Therefore,

professional differences may also influence the study findings.

Organisational commitment

After collecting the data, CFA was conducted to examine the factor structure

of organisational commitment. Table 3-6 provides the factor loadings of the resultant

model. The factor loadings were all positive, with most exceeding .4. No negative

error variances were present, and the t-values were all statistically significant.

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Table 3-6. Factor loadings, measurement errors, t values for CFA of Organisational Commitment Questionnaire.

Item number Values commitment Effort commitment Retention commitment

2 loading ME‡

t-value

.85

.28 35.63

4 loading ME

t-value

.62

.61 20.92

5 loading ME

t-value

.79

.38 27.22

6 loading ME

t-value

.87

.23 25.44

8 loading ME

t-value

.76

.43 27.84

10 loading ME

t-value

.80

.36 36.83

14 loading ME

t-value

.75

.44 26.10

1 loading ME

t-value

.85 .28

35.63

3 loading ME

t-value

.46 .79

10.13

13 loading ME

t-value

.65 .58

18.03

7 loading ME

t-value

.44 .81

11.64 9 loading ME

t-value

.74 .45

28.13 11 loading ME

t-value

.91 .17

52.18 12 loading ME

t-value

.60 .64

21.84 15 loading ME

t-value

.86 .26

42.84 Note: ‡: ME: measurement error

As shown in Table 3-7, the results of CFA revealed that NFI = .97, CFI = .97,

GFI = .81 and RMSEA = .078, thus indicating a reasonable model fit. The three-

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factor structure hypothesised to underlie the organisational commitment scale was

confirmed.

Table 3-7. Goodness of Fit (GOF) statistics for the Organisational Commitment Questionnaire.

Chi-square df Χ2/df NFI CFI GFI RMSEA

620.29** 87 7.13 .97 .97 .81 .078

**p < .01

Cronbach’s α reliability coefficients for the OCQ were calculated (see Table

3-8). The reliability coefficient for OCQ overall was .88. The reliability data for the

OCQ’s subscales ranged from a low of α = .58 on “effort commitment” to a high of

α = .86 on “values commitment”. The relatively lower α obtained from the “effort

commitment” scale could be due to the fact that fewer items are used in this scale

(Omran, 1984), and/or because items in scales can be interpreted differently by

persons in other cultures (Lee & Tu, 1991).

Table 3-8. Measures of reliability for the Organisational Commitment Questionnaire.

Dimensions of organisational commitment

Values commitment Effort commitment Retention commitment

Subscale α .86 .58 .81

Full scale α .88

In summary, various statistical analyses were used to examine the construct

validity and reliability of work values, job involvement and organisational

commitment. A factor model for each instrument was proposed and the model fit

was evaluated on multiple criteria, incorporating statistical considerations. The 7-

factor WVI and 3-factor OCQ models obtained an interpretable factor pattern. The

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two-factor solution confirmed by EFA for the JIQ also produced a meaningful factor

pattern. As for the reliability analyses, Cronbach’s α was calculated using all valid

subjects. Except for the organisational commitment subscale of effort commitment

(α = .58), all other Cronbach’s α ranged from α = .76 to α = .98, therefore, all of

these instruments have acceptable reliability.

3.8 Data analysis

Two types of data analysis were performed on the survey data, descriptive

analysis and inferential analysis.

3.8.1 Descriptive analysis

Descriptive analyses, using SPSS version 13.0, were undertaken to transform

the raw data on the three variables, work values, job involvement, and organisational

commitment into a form that would provide information to describe a set of factors

in a given situation. Data was analysed using descriptive statistics, such as means

and standard deviations of the main study variables (work values, job involvement

and organisational commitment).

3.8.2 Inferential analysis

For the inferential analysis, Pearson Product-Moment Correlations (PPMC)

were used to examine Hypothesis 1. Relationships between sociodemographic

variables, work values, job involvement, and organisational commitment were

examined. A correlation table was also created to determine the degree to which any

of the variables were related. Results suggested that there was evidence of

multicollinearity between independent variables that were used in the regression

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models (see Appendix I). Pedhazur (1982) suggests a bivariate correlation exceeding

±.8 indicates high multicollinearity between two variables. PPMC analysis is an

appropriate test when variables being investigated are continuous (Tabachnick &

Fidell, 1989). Next, an intercorrelations matrix was created to describe correlations

between the variables. According to McMillan (2004), correlations between .1 and .3

are small or low positive relationships, .4 to .6 as moderate positive relationships,

and .7 and above as high positive relationships.

Consideration of design effect (DEFF)

The data come from groups of subjects from nine regional teaching hospitals,

which can produce clustered results. Among subjects who work the same hospital,

there may be many similarities, including age-related or socioeconomic similarities,

stemming from the propensity of subjects to choose a hospital with whom they

identify. These factors can have an impact on the average response of the

participants from one hospitals compared with another.

The major analytical problem is that observations from subjects within any

hospital will be positively correlated, reflecting common experiences, selection

factors, or both. This positive intracluster correlation creates a component of

variance referable to the unit of assignment, the hospital. It is called a “design effect”

(Hox, 2002). This design effect, therefore, represents an inflation in variance

compared with that which would exist if simple random sampling had been

employed (Scott & Holt, 1992). Unless it is accounted for, it will result in many

spuriously “significant” results (Hox, 2002). That is, the design effect inflates Type I

error rates in statistical significance testing.

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It was therefore essential to take this design effect into consideration when

hypotheses testing (hypothesis 2 to 4) was conducted. It was not necessary to

account for clustering in testing hypothesis 1 because analyses were intended to

reflect bivariate associations, without consideration of confounding or design effects.

The GLM univariate analyses, with hospital set as a random effect, allow for

observations in the same hospital to be more alike than observations in different

hospitals (Glass & Hopkins, 1996). That is, these models account for extra variance

among subjects’ outcomes within a hospital over and above the expected between

hospital variation.

The intracluster correlation coefficient (ICC) was used to calculate the design

effect, using the following formula:

DEFF = 1+ ICC [k-1] where ICC is intracluster correlation coefficient and k

is number of individuals in each cluster (average)

The ICC is a measure of the relatedness of clustered data, and is defined as

the ratio of cluster variance to total variance (Killip & Pearce, 2004). A value of ICC

between zero and one indicates that as the magnitude of the ICC increases, the more

individuals within clusters are similar to one another and the less they are similar to

those from other clusters, with respect to the variable of interest.

The design effect ratio indicates whether or not the sampling variability of an

estimate was increased or decreased by the design used (Johnson & Elliott, 1998). A

design effect ratio less than one indicates that the standard errors in a cluster design

are the same as those in a simple random sample, or a cluster design is statistically

more efficient for the given sample size than a simple random sample. A design

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effect of greater than one indicates that the standard errors based on simple random

sampling would be underestimated, resulting in an increased probability of rejecting

the null hypothesis unless clustering is accounted for (Johnson & Elliott, 1998).

In this study, the ICCs were .004 for job involvement, and .002 for

organisational commitment. The design effect ratios were 1.5 for job involvement

and 1.2 for organisational commitment. Accordingly, GLM univariate analyses with

a random effect for hospitals were used to adjust the standard error (SE) of each

parameter estimate appropriately.

The effect of clustering on hypothesis 5 was not statistically accounted for in

this study. Based on the non-significant differences between hospitals on key

variables in hypotheses 2-4, and the small design effect ratios, it could be argued that

absence of adjustment for clustering is unlikely to substantially change the

conclusions regarding hypothesis 5.

Structure Equation Model (SEM) for understanding work values, job involvement,

and organisational commitment

Finally, SEM was conducted to test the fifth hypothesis, which asks whether

job involvement mediates the relationship between work values and organisational

commitment. This analysis explores causal relationships between variables to test the

theoretical framework. In SEM, causality refers to the most likely explanation of the

relationships between variables, separating out direct and indirect effects. SEM does

not prove causality per se (Biddle & Marlin, 1987) and relies on the researcher to

ascribe the causal direction of relationships between independent variables and

dependent variables based on the literature (Biddle & Marlin, 1987). SEM has been

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shown to more accurately estimate causal effects among constructs by controlling

random and systematic measurement errors (Hoyle, 1995). SEM is a collection of

statistical techniques which incorporates and integrates factor analysis, path analysis

and regression (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001). SEM would therefore be the appropriate

technique to explain relationships among multiple variables.

Using the statistical package LISREL 8.71, researchers can utilise SEM to

test hypotheses on the relationships among observed and latent variables and a set of

regression equations simultaneously (Hoyle, 1995). Latent variables are the qualities,

characteristics, constructs or factors revealed through responses to items in the

survey instrument. Thus, the three constructs under consideration, work values, with

49 responses; job involvement, with 10 responses; and, organisational commitment,

with 15 responses that may be characterised as latent variable, that may indicate

work commitment. These items are individually referred to as manifest or observed

variables (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001). Kellyoway (1998) recommended sample

sizes of at least 200. In addition, large sample sizes allow more detailed analysis of

non-normal distributions (Muthen, 1993).

Assessment of the SEM model involves two components, the measurement

model and the structural model. The measurement model describes the part of the

model that relates observed variables to the constructs. The structural model

illustrates the hypothesised relationship among the constructs. All variables in the

structural model are either independent or dependent. Independent variables are

explanatory or exogenous variables (i.e., work values). Dependent variables (i.e., job

involvement, organisational commitment) are endogenous variables which are

explained by other variables in the model. Direct, indirect and total effects of the

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independent variables on the dependent variables were tested. The sum of the direct

and indirect effects of an independent variable on a dependent variable is termed the

‘total effect’ of the independent variable (Hoyle, 1995).

The Randall and Cote’s revised model proposed by Cohen (1999) has

previously been confirmed using SEM. Cohen (1999) presents a structural model of

work commitment in which organisational commitment is postulated as the outcome

of job involvement, and the relationship between work values and organisational

commitment is mediated by job involvement. Cohen (1999) points out that future

research should be replicated in other samples and work settings. Randall and Cote

(1991) suggest that future models of work commitment constructs could utilise both

Protestant work ethic and organisational commitment.

The present study hypothesised that work values could directly affect

organisational commitment. It was also hypothesised that having positive work

values would result in increased job involvement, which would subsequently lead to

increased organisational commitment. This study thus explores causal relationships

between work values, job involvement, and organisational commitment.

3.9 Limitations to the research design

3.9.1 Internal validity

The measurement instrument to be used in this research may not gauge all

known work values, job involvement and organisational commitment an individual

may possess. Moreover, the information is gathered through self-reporting, which

may leave it open to participant interpretation.

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The fact that the head nurses within each hospital distributed the

questionnaires to their fellow employees may have biased the responses. That is, the

head nurse may have selected to distribute the instrument to staff that appeared to be

“happy” in their work and have perceived high work values, job involvement and

organisational commitment. However, the researcher attempted to deal with this

possible problem by explicitly requesting that questionnaires should be distributed to

‘all’ eligible nurses that met the study criteria.

3.9.2 External validity

Selecting the hospitals through a convenience sampling strategy limited

external validity, therefore generalisation of the findings may be limited.

3.10 Data cleaning

Survey responses were coded numerically to indicate the variable values

prior to data entry. After the data was entered into SPSS a standardised data

cleansing process was employed using single and multiple field frequency analysis.

Following this cleansing process, coding errors were assessed by comparing the

original and verified data set for a random selection of 5% of cases.

Prior to analyses being conducted, statistical assumptions associated with the

use of various statistical tests were taken into consideration. The data was checked

for normality, missing data and outliers using SPSS. Normality of the data was

assessed graphically with histograms through examination of skewness and kurtosis

of the data, and using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov statistic (at a conservative

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significance value of .001 or less), which is used to reject the hypothesis of

normality (Tabachnick & Fidell, 1989).

The data was found to be acceptably normal for analysis with no obvious

sign of skewness except for the subscales of work values for “social interaction

considerations”, “security and economic considerations” and “stability and freedom

from anxiety considerations”. The log transformation recommended by Tabachnick

and Fidell (2001) was found to achieve normality. Normal probability plots were

visually examined and found to cluster around a straight line, which suggested that

they followed approximately normal distributions. When the sample size is large, the

Central Limit Theorem (CLT) protests against failures of normality (Tabachnick &

Fidell, 2001). In the present study the sample size is 1047, which is considered to be

large, and thus will reduce any effects of the non-normality of the indicated variables.

In addition, the maximum likelihood estimation is viewed as being robust to a

violation of the normality assumption (Bollen, 1989).

The data was also checked for missing values and outliers. There was a low

number of missing values in the completed questionnaires (less than 3.7%), and the

pattern of missing values was random. When calculating total scores or dimension

scores, listwise exclusion was used.

Outliers were those with standardised residual values above 3.3 or less than -

3.3 underlying the use of regression analysis. With large samples, it is not

uncommon to find a small number of outlying residuals that do not require any

further investigation (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001). Table 3-9 shows the presence of

11 outliers across all cases. Hence, outliers do not appear to present a concern.

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Table 3-9. Identification of outliers.

Case number Standardised values Case number Standardised values

58 -4.2 584 -3.5

65 -4.1 585 -3.5

-3.5 800 -4.2 80

472 -4.2 806 -3.7

540 -4.0 997 -3.9

569 -3.6

3.11 Data considerations to improve analysis

Some categories with few responses had to be combined with others to allow

analysis. The new groupings of classes within variables are shown in Table 3-10.

Table 3-10. New groupings of classes within certain categories (N = 1047).

Variable N of cases % of valid cases

Education status

Vocational school of nursing 43

Certificate of graduation 763 72.9

University and graduate school 238 22.7

Missing 3 .3

Occupational position

Registered nurse 333 31.8

Registered professional nurse 602 57.5

Nursing manager 100 9.6

Missing 12 1.1

4.1

For the variable education, individual categories of “bachelor” and “Master”

were combined into one grouping, namely, “university and graduate school”. The

subjects in this study included 72.9% with a graduate certificate, 22.7% having

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university and graduate school education, and 4.1% completing a vocational school

of nursing.

For the variable occupational position, individual categories of “head nurse”

and “supervisor” were combined into one grouping, being “nursing manager”. Over

half of the survey population was made up of registered professional nurses (57.5%),

the rest were registered nurses (31.8%) and nursing managers (9.6%). A registered

professional nurse completes professional education and examination requirements,

and provides general medical and nursing care and treatment to patients in such

settings as hospitals, clinics, health centres and public health agencies.

A registered professional nurse who completes training in a specialist field of

nursing, and is assessed by the central supervisory authority to have reached the

required standard, may apply for certification as a specialist nurse. The central

supervisory authority may commission the relevant specialist nurses’ association to

conduct a preliminary specialist nurse assessment. Any person holding certification

as a registered professional nurse who completes nurse specialist training may

undergo such nurse specialist assessment. Regulations governing specialist fields

and assessment for nurse specialists are made by the central supervisory authority

(Nurses' Act of the Republic of China, 2002).

3.12 Sociodemographic profile

Of the 1300 nurses from nine Taiwanese hospitals eligible to participate,

1096 subjects responded to the survey, a response rate of 84.31%.

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Forty-three questionnaires of the 1096 were invalid because of missing

demographic information or incomplete answers. The final number of participants in

this study was 1053, representing an overall response rate of 81%. The high response

rate suggests that there was little case for a response bias. Response rates of the total

sample, and of the sub-samples from the nine different organisations, are shown in

Table 3-11. The largest proportion of the population was from the Tzu Chi hospital

(18.8%), followed by Pohai hospital (17.47%).

Table 3-11. Questionnaire response rates (N = 1053).

Organisation Sent out Effective returned

Effective response rate

(%) Total sample

(%)

Pohai 200 184 92 17.47

ST Mary 150 106 71 10.07

Yuli 90 73 81 6.93

Mackay 100 82 82 7.79

Yuan 200 147 74 13.96

Tzu Chi 200 198 99 18.80

Taichung 100 65 65 6.17

Fong-Yuan 100 72 72 6.84

Yuli Veteran 160 126 79 11.97

Total 1,300 1,053 81 100.00

The first level of analysis examined the socio-demographic profile of the

sample. Categories examined included gender, age, marital status, employment

status, religious affiliation, education status, personal income, occupational position,

position tenure, organisation tenure, and nursing tenure.

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Gender profile

Respondents were predominantly females (99.0%). Male respondents formed

less than 1% of the total sample, which was expected, as males make up a low

proportion (.2%) of the nursing population in Taiwan (Chen et al. (1998). Due to the

low number of male respondents (n = 6), it was decided to exclude these surveys

from final analysis. This measure reduced the sample size to 1047.

Age profile

Most respondents were relatively young, with the distribution of age showing

a positively skew. Figure 3-1 displays the age profile of the group by dividing them

into age groups. This division indicates that the largest number of people were in the

26-30 year age group. Figure 3-2 presents the age distribution of the sample. Ages of

the respondents ranged from 18 to 62. The mean age was 30.52, with a standard

deviation of 6.49. It worth noting that 63.9% of the nurses were under the age of 30.

not stated232.18%

over 41908.55%

36-40868.17%

31-3518117.19%

26-3047745.3%

less than 2519618.61%

Age Profile (n = 1053)

Figure 3-1. Age breakdown of respondents.

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706050403020100

Age

500

400

300

200

100

0

Freque

ncy

Age Distribution (n =1053)

Figure 3-2. Age distribution of the respondents.

Marital status profile

Over two-thirds (67%) of the sample were single at the time of the study,

32.2% were married, and .7% were divorced (see Figure 3-3). The relative youth of

the sampled nurses probably explains the high number of single participants.

not stated10.09%

divorced70.66%

married34032.29%

single70566.95%

Marital Status (n = 1053)

Figure 3-3. Marital status of respondents.

Employment status profile

As can be seen in Figure 3-4, almost 91.4% of the nurses were employed full

time, with only 2.5% indicating that they were part time employees.

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not stated646.08%

part time262.47%

full time96391.45%

Employment Status (n = 1053)

Figure 3-4. Employment status of respondents.

Religious affiliation profile

Approximately one-third of the sample reported they were Buddhist (32.8%),

and another third Taoist (31.3%). Of those who reported ‘Other’, more than two-

thirds held no religious beliefs.

Education status profile

With respect to education level characteristics, nearly three quarters (72.8%)

of the respondents had a diploma, 22.1% had a Bachelor’s degree, 4.1% had a

vocational school of nursing, and .7% had a Master’s degree. The education status of

respondents is illustrated in Figure 3-5.

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not stated30.28%

master70.66%

bachelor23322.13%

diploma76772.84%

vocational school of nursing434.08%

Education Status (n = 1053)

Figure 3-5. Education status of respondents.

Personal income

Figure 3-6 illustrates that a majority of respondents (43.6%) indicated their

income was between $15,001 and $20,000. This is on par with the average earnings

in Taiwan as a whole, which stands at $17,000 per annum. Over one-fifth (21.3%) of

the respondents earned between $20,001 to $25,000, with 16.7% indicating an

annual income of more than $25,001. Nearly 16.5% of the sample earned less than

$15,000 per annum. For the purpose of this study, currency has been converted into

Australian dollars (AUD or A$).

not stated201.9%

more than 25,00117616.71%

20,001-25,00022421.27%

15,001-20,00045943.59%

less than 15,00017416.52%

Personal Income (n = 1053)

Figure 3-6. Personal income of respondents.

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Occupational position profile

More than half (57.5%) the respondents in the study were registered

professional nurse, close to one-third (31.9%) of respondents were registered nurses,

8.5% were head nurses, and 1.0% were supervisors. The occupational positions of

respondents are illustrated in Figure 3-7.

Supervisor111.04%

Head nurse898.45%

Registered professional nurse60557.45%

Rgistered nurse33631.91%

Not stated121.14%

Occupational position (n = 1,053)

Figure 3-7. Occupational position of respondents.

Occupational position tenure

The average length of time nurses in the sample had worked in their current

position was 3.55 years (SD = 3.71). The maximum position tenure was 34 years,

and the minimum 1 month, with the largest group of respondents holding their

position for about 2 years. The occupational position tenure distribution is shown in

Figure 3-8.

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403020100Years of occupational position

600

500

400

300

200

100

0

Freque

ncy

Occupational position tenure (n=1053)

Figure 3-8. Occupational position tenure.

Hospital tenure

Respondents were asked how long they had worked in their hospitals (see

Figure 3-9 for the hospital tenure distribution). The mean hospital tenure of the

respondents was 5.19 years (SD = 5.18). The maximum hospital tenure was 35 years,

and the minimum 4 months, with most respondents working in the hospital for about

2 years.

403020100

Years of hospital

400

300

200

100

0

Freque

ncy

Hospital Tenure (n = 1053)

Figure 3-9. Hospital tenure.

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Nursing tenure

Respondents said that they had been nurses for an average of 7.34 years (SD

= 6.25, see Figure 3-10). The maximum nursing tenure was 37 years, and the

minimum 3 months, with the largest group of respondents having worked as a nurse

for 5 years.

50403020100

Years of nursing

300

200

100

0

Freque

ncy

Nursing Tenure (n =1053)

Figure 3-10. Nursing tenure.

During this study the author did not have access to the population

demographic data (i.e., of all nurses working in Taiwan), thus it cannot be

statistically demonstrated that this convenience sample is representative of

Taiwanese nurses. However, this study’s sample was similar to the samples of

Taiwanese nurses in other, recent studies (Chen, 2005; Chiang, 2005; Lee, 2004;

Liau, 2001; Lin, 2003; Lin, 2001; Ling, 2001; Liu, 2002; Tsai et al., 2003) in terms

of age, nursing tenure, education status, occupational position and marital status (see

Table 3-12). The samples in these studies also came mostly from regional teaching

hospitals across Taiwan. It is obvious from Table 3-12 that the mean age and nursing

tenure of the current study are similar to previous studies. Nurses in the current study

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also resemble those in previous studies in terms of education, with the exception of

the Tsai et al. study (2004), who came from non-regional hospitals.

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Table 3-12. Comparison between this study and previous studies showing key demographic features.

This study Previous studies Demographics Mean SD % Mean SD % Sample Author(s)

Age 30.52 6.49 30.31 7.38 1,357 nurses in

southern Taiwan Tsai et al., 2003

28.74 6.47 413 nurses in southern Taiwan

Lin, 2001

30.70 5.20 451 nurses in southern Taiwan

Chen, 2005

29.84 5.41 571 nurses in southern Taiwan

Ling, 2001

31.20 7.60 300 nurses in northern Taiwan

Lee, 2004

Nursing tenure 7.34 6.25 7.50 6.96 1,357 nurses in

southern Taiwan Tsai et al., 2003

9.00 5.50 451 nurses in southern Taiwan

Chen, 2005

8.90 300 nurses in northern Taiwan

Lee, 2004

Education status 4.1 14.7 1,357 nurses in

southern Taiwan Tsai et al., 2003

1.9 160 nurses in central Taiwan

Chiang, 2005

3.6 413 nurses in southern Taiwan

Lin, 2001

1.9 571 nurses in southern Taiwan

Ling, 2001

5.0 300 nurses in northern Taiwan

Lee, 2004

Vocational school of nursing

9.1 231 nurses in eastern Taiwan

Liu, 2002

72.9 77.3 1,357 nurses in southern Taiwan

Tsai et al., 2003

63.8 160 nurses in central Taiwan

Chiang, 2005

86.1 413 nurses in southern Taiwan

Lin, 2001

77.1 451 nurses in southern Taiwan

Chen, 2005

82.5 571 nurses in southern Taiwan

Ling, 2001

55.3 300 nurses in northern Taiwan

Lee, 2004

76.3 287 nurses in eastern Taiwan

Lin, 2003

Certificate of graduation

72.7 231 nurses in eastern Taiwan

Liu, 2002

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Table 3-12. Comparison between this study and previous studies showing key demographic features (continued).

This study Previous studies Demographics Mean SD % Mean SD % Sample Author(s)

22.7 8.0 1,357 nurses in southern Taiwan

Tsai et al., 2003

34.4 160 nurses in central Taiwan

Chiang, 2005

14.7 413 nurses in southern Taiwan

Lin, 2001

22.9 451 nurses in southern Taiwan

Chen, 2005

15.6 571 nurses in southern Taiwan

Ling, 2001

39.6 300 nurses in northern Taiwan

Lee, 2004

23.7 287 nurses in eastern Taiwan

Lin, 2003

University and graduate school

18.1 231 nurses in eastern Taiwan

Liu, 2002

Occupational position 31.8 36.9 160 nurses in

central Taiwan Chiang, 2005

47.8 320 nurses in northern Taiwan

Liau, 2001

21.1 413 nurses in southern Taiwan

Lin, 2001

37.7 571 nurses in southern Taiwan

Ling, 2001

27.5 287 nurses in eastern Taiwan

Lin, 2003

Registered nurse

39.8 231 nurses in eastern Taiwan

Liu, 2002

57.5 58.8 160 nurses in central Taiwan

Chiang, 2005

50.6 320 nurses in northern Taiwan

Liau, 2001

70.9 413 nurses in southern Taiwan

Lin, 2001

57.0 571 nurses in southern Taiwan

Ling, 2001

60.6 287 nurses in eastern Taiwan

Lin, 2003

Registered professional nurse

44.2 231 nurses in eastern Taiwan

Liu, 2002

9.6 4.4 160 nurses in central Taiwan

Chiang, 2005

8.0 413 nurses in southern Taiwan

Lin, 2001

5.3 571 nurses in southern Taiwan

Ling, 2001

11.9 287 nurses in eastern Taiwan

Lin, 2003

Nursing manager

16.0 231 nurses in eastern Taiwan

Liu, 2002

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Table 3-12. Comparison between this study and previous studies showing key demographic features (continued).

This study Previous studies Demographics Mean SD % Mean SD % Sample Author(s)

Marital status Married 32.3 35.1 413 nurses in

southern Taiwan Lin, 2001

40.0 300 nurses in northern Taiwan

Lee, 2004

39.7 287 nurses in eastern Taiwan

Lin, 2003

45.0 231 nurses in eastern Taiwan

Liu, 2002

Single 67.0 64.4 413 nurses in southern Taiwan

Lin, 2001

58.3 300 nurses in northern Taiwan

Lee, 2004

60.3 287 nurses in eastern Taiwan

Lin, 2003

53.2 231 nurses in eastern Taiwan

Liu, 2002

Divorce .6 .5 413 nurses in southern Taiwan

Lin, 2001

1.3 231 nurses in eastern Taiwan

Liu, 2002

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3.13 Definition of terms

For the purpose of this study, the key terms are defined as follows.

Regional hospital: A hospital that has over 250 beds, including general beds

and mental health beds.

Teaching hospital: A hospital that has over 100 beds, including general beds

and mental health beds, and offers seven kinds of medical services (medicine,

surgery, gynaecology, paediatrics, anaesthesia, radiology, and pathology, and

training programs for medical workers).

Work values: Work values are defined as endurable beliefs and standards

when an individual evaluates his/her job and work environment. They may be either

internal or external.

Job involvement: Job involvement is defined as the psychological importance

of one’s job (Kanungo, 1982).

Organisational commitment: Organisational commitment is defined as the

relative strength of an employee’s identification with and involvement in a particular

organisation (Mowday et al., 1979).

Certificate of graduation: A certificate awarded after completing two or three

years of undergraduate studies.

3.14 Conclusion

This chapter has described in detail the methods that were used in the current

study. The study design was a quantitative, non-experimental, cross-sectional survey

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and used a convenience sample technique to recruit potential hospitals within

Taiwan. This chapter has discussed the survey population and sample, the basis for

the selection of the organisations, the three instruments that were used during the

study, and the procedures for collecting and analysing data. The target population for

this study was Registered Nurses (RNs) working in regional teaching hospitals in

Taiwan. Nine hospitals consented to be involved in this study. Participants were

provided with the questionnaire, and useable data was obtained from 1,053 subjects.

The vast majority of the survey population was female (99%), thus for the purpose of

analysis male respondents (n = 6) were removed.

The instrument used is composed of four parts, a demographic profile, the

WVI, JIQ and OCQ. Initial analyses using CFA examined the validity of the WVI

and OCQ. The findings suggest that the WVI fits the data moderately well, and the

OCQ fits the data somewhat better. The EFA results for the JIQ demonstrated that

the JIQ is actually a 2-factor solution, as opposed to Kanungo’s (1982) uni-

dimensional JIQ construct. Reliability of the major instruments (WVI, OCQ, and JIQ)

was measured by Cronbach’s α, yielding moderate to high coefficients (ranging

from .58 to .98). The data was further analysed using PPMC, General Linear Model

(GLM) univariate analysis and structural equation modelling (SEM).

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CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS

4.1 Introduction

This chapter presents the results of the research. There are two sections. The

first presents descriptive statistics for the study variables. The second section tests

the five study hypotheses using the study data.

4.2 Descriptive statistics for study variables

This section presents the descriptive statistics for the study variables. Means

and standard deviations for the variables of work values, job involvement and

organisational commitment are shown in Table 4-1.

An individual’s level of work values was considered as the summation of

response values for all 49 questions, and this was the overall score used in the data

analysis. Level of job involvement was the value obtained from the summation of

response values for all eight questions. An individual’s level of organisational

commitment was the sum of response values for their respective items. In each case

the summed score was the value used in data analysis. The scale means were

calculated as the mean of scores on the number of items rated (excluding missing

items). Table 4-1 shows the mean and standard deviation and rank ordering of means

of the sample for the WVI, JIQ, and OCQ.

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Table 4-1. Mean and standard deviation for scales and subscales and ranking for major variables (N = 1047).

Scale name N§ Mean SD Rank

Work values 1010 4.09 .54

Terminal values 1027 3.97 .56

Self-growth 1042 4.05 .62 5

Self-realisation 1042 3.93 .63 6

Self-esteem 1036 3.92 .56 7

Instrumental values 1026 4.18 .61

Social interaction considerations 1046 4.29 .66 1

Security and economic considerations 1036 4.18 .74 2

Stability and freedom from anxiety considerations 1041 4.15 .67 3

Recreation, health and transport considerations 1044 4.09 .66 4

Job involvement 1041 3.37 .60

Complete involvement 1042 3.17 .68 2

Strong involvement 1046 3.71 .62 1

Organisational commitment 1019 3.26 .50

Values commitment 1036 3.30 .59 2

Effort commitment 1041 3.60 .59 1

Retention commitment 1035 2.99 .66 3 §: N’s vary because of listwise deletion of missing data in SPSS procedure

Work values

Work values were measured using the WVI. The higher the score, the more a

person rated the importance of the value of work roles in her life. The mean score of

4.09 (SD = .54) implies that many nurses scored the items highly. The nurses were

not very different in their perceptions of work values. The WVI was divided into

subscales, measuring terminal or instrumental aspects of work. “Terminal values”

included 3 work values. There were high ratings for “self-growth”, with a mean

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score of 4.05, but low ratings for “self-esteem” with a mean score of 3.92.

“Instrumental values” measured four work values, with the highest ratings for

“social interaction considerations” with a mean score of 4.29, “security and

economic considerations” with a mean of 4.18, “stability and freedom from anxiety

considerations” with a mean of 4.15. The “instrumental value” with the lowest

ratings was “recreation, health and transport considerations”, with a mean score of

4.09.

For work values, “instrumental values” were seen as the most important

values for the sample. The order of importance based on the mean for “instrumental

values” were “social interaction considerations”, followed by “security and

economic considerations”, “stability and freedom from anxiety considerations”, and

finally “recreation, health and transport considerations”. Moderate value was placed

on “terminal values”, with the order of importance dropping from “self-growth”, to

“self-realisation”, down to “self-esteem” (3.92). Thus “instrumental values” were

overall very important to the nurses, while “terminal values” were seen as somewhat

less important.

It is interesting to note that “social interaction considerations”, which

involves reciprocal respect and meaningful communication, was recognised as

important to these nurses. This may be due to work experiences, in that women tend

to develop value preferences similar to those of blue-collar workers, who consider

extrinsic outcomes (i.e., convenience, working conditions, and relations with co-

workers) more important than intrinsic outcomes such as achievement and autonomy

(Kaufman & Fetters, 1980). Some studies show that women value extrinsic values

more because, since the industrial era, women have had to work for economic

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reasons (Yankelovich, 1979). Another factor may be that, as a result of their pre-

employment socialisation experiences, women learn to value social relationships and

affiliation (O'Leary, 1974). These findings may be related to the traditional Chinese

philosophy Confucianism, with its emphasis on harmonious social relationships

(guanxi), reciprocity and loyalty. These values still appear prevalent within

organisations in today’s Chinese society.

Job involvement

Job involvement was measured using the JIQ developed by Kanungo (1982).

The mean and standard deviation of job involvement scores are presented in Table 4-

1. The average of 3.37 (SD = .60) implies that the nurses are reasonably involved

with their jobs and are not very different in their levels of involvement. The rank

order of the subscales showed that the strong involvement factor had a mean of 3.71,

but complete involvement was lower with a mean of 3.17.

The current study sample’s level of job involvement was at 3.37, which is in

the moderate range. Such individuals experienced a strong identification with their

job but not total involvement. They sustain their own personal completeness, while

meeting the requirements of the position. Stober and Seidenstucker (1997) conducted

research which revealed that job involvement has a positive relationship with job-

related worry, such that individuals who highly identify with their job worry more

about work related problems. In this respect, job-related worry might constitute an

important indicator variable for disturbance in psychological status. Therefore, the

current finding may be related to the current trend in society towards a balancing of

all facets in life, in the hope of attaining a quality lifestyle. The moderate job

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involvement of nurses may also be a necessary coping mechanism to deal with their

dual role as wives and mothers as well as employed workers (Powell & Posner,

1989). This dual role may function regardless of prior socialization.

Organisational commitment

Organisational commitment was measured using the OCQ. This instrument

has three scales, “values commitment”, “effort commitment” and “retention

commitment”. The mean and standard deviation for the OCQ scales are displayed in

Table 4-1. The mean for nurses in this study was 3.26 (SD = .50), which implies that

the nurses were equally committed to their hospitals. Respondents scored higher on

“values commitment”, with a mean of 3.30, and lower on “retention commitment”,

with a mean of 2.99.

Ordering the organisational commitment from Organisational Commitment

Questionnaire (OCQ) by magnitude of agreement (from the highest to lowest mean),

were “effort commitment”, “values commitment” and “retention commitment”. The

fact that the study sample did not score as high on the level of retention may

potentially be a problem. One explanation is that this is due to the sampled nurses

being relatively young, in that younger nurses might tend to have greater

opportunities for alternative employment, and therefore be less committed to an

organisation.

4.3 Testing of hypotheses

This section presents the results of the data analyses that tested the

hypotheses. Pearson Product-Moment Correlations (PPMC) were used to examine

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relationships between the variables and are shown in Appendix I. Values for SES,

such as education status, personal income and occupational position were scored

either 1 to 3 or 1 to 4 as appropriate to generate the statistical values. Prior to the

analyses, the data were examined for possible violations of assumptions underlying

the use of General Linear Model (GLM) univariate analysis. Because there has to be

significant correlation between variables, a correlation table can determine

relationships between independent and dependent variables and the existence of

multicollinearity.

GLM univariate analysis, using hospital as a random effect, was used to

determine whether relationships among the latent variables (work values, job

involvement and organisational commitment) were consistent with the proposed

model in Chapter One (see Figure 1-1). Previous research has found that age,

education status, personal income and occupational position relate to job

involvement and organisational commitment. Hence, the current analyses control for

these variables by statistically subtracting their effects.

The proposed model is specified by the following equations. Definitions for

key terms are provided for equation 1. The same key terms apply for all three

equations.

Equation 1: job involvement = a + b1 work values + b2 organisational

commitment + b3 age + b4 education status + b5 personal income + b6

occupational position + b7 hospital

a: constant; b1: the regression coefficients represent work values correlation

with job involvement, after controlling all other independent variables; b2: the

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regression coefficients represent organisational commitment correlation with

job involvement, after controlling all other independent variables; b3: the

regression coefficients represent age’s correlation with job involvement, after

controlling all other independent variables; b4: the regression coefficients

represent education status’s correlation with job involvement, after controlling

all other independent variables; b5: the regression coefficients represent

personal income’s correlation with job involvement, after controlling all other

independent variables; b6: the regression coefficients represent occupational

position’s correlation with job involvement, after controlling all other

independent variables; b7: the regression coefficients represent hospital’s

correlation with job involvement, after controlling all other independent

variables

Equation 2: organisational commitment = a + b1 work values + b2 job

involvement + b3 age + b4 education status + b5 personal income + b6

occupational position + b7 hospital

Equation 3: organisational commitment = a + b1 job involvement + b2 work

values + b3 age + b4 education status + b5 personal income + b6 occupational

position + b7 hospital

SEM was used to test the cause-effect relationships among main constructs of

the study. In addition, SEM utilises an equation to represent the various parameters

associated with these linkages. The formal specification of the model can be

represented by the following set of equations.

1. Measurement equations for work values:

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X1 = λ1 ξ1 + δ1, “self-growth” = f (work values, δ1);

X2 = λ2 ξ1 + δ2, “self-realisation” = f (work values, δ2);

X3 = λ3 ξ1 + δ3, “self-esteem” = f (work values, δ3);

X4 = λ4 ξ1 + δ4, “social interaction considerations” = f (work values, δ4);

X5 = λ5 ξ1 + δ5, “security and economic considerations” = f (work values,

δ5);

X6 = λ6 ξ1 + δ6, “stability and freedom from anxiety considerations” = f

(work values, δ6);

X7 = λ7 ξ1 + δ7, “recreation, health and transport considerations” = f (work

values, δ7).

2. Measurement equations for job involvement:

Y1 = λ8 η1 + ε1, “complete involvement” = f (job involvement, ε1);

Y2 = λ9 η1 + ε2, “strong involvement” = f (job involvement, ε2).

3. Measurement equations for organisational commitment:

Y3 = λ10 η2 + ε3, “values commitment” = f (organisational commitment, ε1);

Y4 = λ11 η2 + ε4, “effort commitment” = f (organisational commitment, ε2);

Y5 = λ12 η2 + ε5, “retention commitment” = f (organisational commitment,

ε1).

128

4. Structural equations for proposed model:

η1 = γ1ξ1 + ζ1, job involvement = f (work values, ζ1);

η2 = γ2ξ1 + β1η1 + ζ2, organisational commitment = f (work values, job

involvement, ζ2).

In terms of this theoretical relationship, work values (ξ1) in SEM was seen as

an exogenous latent construct, while job involvement (η1) and organisational

commitment (η2) were viewed as endogenous latent constructs. A path diagram of

the proposed model (see Figure 4-1) illustrates how work values (ξ1) as an

exogenous latent variable with seven indicators (X1 – X7) may influence two

endogenous latent variables (job involvement (η1) and organisational commitment

(η2)) as well as its indicators (Y1-Y5).

129

Figure 4-1. A proposed model with latent constructs for exogenous and

Work value (ξ1)

Security & economic considerations (X5)

Stability & freedom from anxiety considerations (X6)

Recreation, health & transport considerations (X7)

Social interaction considerations (X4)

Self-esteem (X3)

Self-realisation (X2)

Self-growth (X1)

Job involvement (η1)

Complete involvement (Y4)

Strong involvement (Y5)

Organisational commitment (η2)

Values commitment (Y1)

Effort commitment (Y2)

λ1

λ2

λ3

λ4

λ5

λ6

λ7

Retention commitment (Y3)

δ1

δ2

δ3

δ4

δ5

δ6

δ7

ε1

ε3

ε2

ε4 ε5

λ8

λ9

λ10

λ11 λ12

γ1

γ2

β1

ζ1

ζ1

endogenous variables.

The items are represented by rectangles and are connected to the factors by

straight arrows, which indicate causal relationships. Parameters representing

regression relationships between latent constructs are labeled with β1 for the

regression of one endogenous construct on another endogenous construct, or with γ

to represent the regression of an endogenous construct on an exogenous construct.

Each endogenous variable (job involvement and organisational commitment) has an

error term ζ1, ζ2, called a residual error. ζ is a vector of errors in the equations,

indicating that the endogenous variables are not perfectly predicted by the structural

equations.

130

The residual errors may be modeled as being correlated with each other. The

factors can be conceptualised as causing the observed variables. For example, work

values (ξ1) are measured by X1 – X7. Job involvement is measured by Y4 – Y5.

Organisational commitment is measured by Y1 – Y3. Each observed variable has an

error term associated with it. The error terms contain measurement error due to the

lack of reliability of the observed variables, in addition to unexplained or unique

variance (Stevens, 1996). The error terms are represented by the symbols δ and ε and

are referred to as measurement errors. The measurement errors are not to be

correlated. The straight arrows from the δs and εs to the observed variables indicate

that the observed variables are influenced by both measurement error and the factors.

As can be seen in Figure 4-1, observed variables are represented by the symbol X

and Y, whereas factors are represented by ξ1, η1, and η2. The paths from factors to

observed variables (or factor loadings) are represented by λ. The relationships

between the observed variables and their theoretical constructs are λ.

The following statistical hypotheses were analysed using the SPSS and

LISREL. A two-tailed test of significance was used, with the level of significance set

at .01.

4.3.1 Results for Research Hypothesis 1

Hypothesis 1 is that age and socioeconomic status (SES) are positively

associated with work values, job involvement and organisational commitment.

Pearson product-moment correlations were undertaken between four demographic

variables (age, education status, personal income, and occupational position) in

relation to work values, job involvement, the organisational commitment scale and

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the subscales. Table 4-2 (extracted from Appendix I) lists these correlations.

Correlations between the four personal demographics and the dependent variables

were generally low.

Table 4-2. Correlations between sociodemographics and the 17 variables.

Variables Age Education status

Personal income

Occupational position

Work values .03 .06 .10** .04

Terminal values .09** .12** .15** .09**

Self-growth .08 .10** .15** .06

Self-realisation .08 .12** .13** .06

Self-esteem .09 .12** .13** .11**

Instrumental values -.03 .01 .05 .00

Social interaction considerations .01 .02 .09** .03

Security and economic considerations -.03 .00 .04 .00

Stability and freedom from anxiety considerations -.06 .03 .04 .01

Recreation, health and transport considerations -.03 .00 .01 -.04

Job involvement .14** .00 .03 .01

Complete involvement .10** .00 .01 .01

Strong involvement .18** .02 .08 .02

Organisational commitment .31** -.01 .22** .07

Values commitment .21** .01 .13** .05

Effort commitment .33** .01 .27** .10**

Retention commitment .26** -.04 .19** .05

**p < .01

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Age

Age was positively associated with eight of the seventeen dependent

variables, as shown in Table 4-2. “Effort commitment” had the strongest positive

correlation with age (.33), followed by organisational commitment (.31), “retention

commitment” (.26), “values commitment” (.21), “strong involvement” (.18), job

involvement (.14), “complete involvement” (.10), and “terminal values" (.09).

Among the significant values, age had the strongest correlation with commitment.

Age had near zero or negative non-significant correlations with work values (.03),

“instrumental values” (-.03) and other values subscales.

Education status

Table 4-2 reveals that education status had a significant positive relationship

with “terminal values” (.12), “self-growth” (.09), “self-realisation” (.12) and “self-

esteem” (.12). Education status was not significantly correlated with either job

involvement or organisational commitment, nor was it significantly correlated with

work values, “instrumental values” and other values scales.

Personal income

Table 4-2 indicates that personal income was positively associated with ten

of the seventeen dependent variables. “Effort commitment” had the strongest

positive correlation with personal income (.27), followed by organisational

commitment (.22), “retention commitment” (.19), “terminal values” (.15), “self-

growth” (.15), “self-realisation” (.13), “self-esteem” (.13), “values commitment”

(.13), work values (.10), and “social interaction considerations” (.09). Among the

significant variables, personal income had the strongest correlation with commitment.

133

Personal income had near zero and negative non-significant correlations with job

involvement and “instrumental values” (including three subscales, except for “social

interaction considerations”).

Occupational position

Occupational position had small, but significant positive relationships with

“self-esteem” (.11), “terminal values” (.09), and “effort commitment” (.10) (see

Table 4-2).

Overall, hypothesised positive relationships between personal variables (age

and SES) and work values, job involvement, organisational commitment were

partially supported.

4.3.2 Results for Research Hypothesis 2

Hypothesis 2 is that work values should be significantly related to job

involvement. Correlations (extracted from Appendix I) between work values and job

involvement ranging are shown in Table 4-3. These values indicate that work values

are related to job involvement, such that respondents reporting greater work values

had higher commitment to the job. Most relationships were highly significant.

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Table 4-3. Correlations between work values and job involvement variables.

Job involvement

Complete involvement

Strong involvement

Work values .28** .17** .42**

Terminal values .32** .22** .41**

Self-growth .29** .19** .39**

Self-realisation .29** .21** .38**

Self-esteem .30** .21** .38**

Instrumental values .21** .10** .36**

Social interaction considerations .20** .10** .35**

Security and economic considerations .20** .11** .33**

Stability and freedom from anxiety considerations .17** .08** .30**

Recreation, health and transport considerations .19** .10** .31**

**p < .01

The work values scale and subscales were highly positively correlated among

themselves (.78 ≤ r ≤ .94, p < .01). Therefore, only the work values variable was

included in the analysis.

Table 4-4 describes the results of GLM univariate analysis. Unstandardised

regression coefficients obtained by regressing work values on job involvement,

indicated that work values contribute significantly to job involvement (B = .2). Of

more importance is the interpretation of partial eta square (η2), an estimate of the

magnitude of the relationship between work values and job involvement, controlling

for demographics, design effect and organisational commitment. The partial η2 result

indicates that work values explain only 5% of the variation in job involvement.

Work values are less influential than organisational commitment, demographics and

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the hospital nurses worked at, when explaining job involvement. All the partial η2

are small, suggesting that factors other than those assessed in this study may be

important in explaining job involvement.

Job involvement did not vary significantly between the hospitals. The

strength of the relationship between job involvement and hospital, as assessed by

partial η2, was not strong, with the hospital variable accounting for less than 1% of

the variance in job involvement. The GLM univariate analysis results did not suggest

that job involvement had a differential effect by hospital.

Thus, the hypothesized positive relationships between work values and job

involvement were supported by the data.

136

Table 4-4. Estimated influence of work values on job involvement after adjusted for demographics, design effect and organisational commitment.

Independent variables N B† SE§ Partial Eta2

Age 930 .00 .00 .00

Education status

Vocational school of nursing 39 -.02 .10 .00

Certificate of graduation 678 -.03 .04 .00

University and graduate school 213 referent¥

Personal income (A$)

Less than 15,000 150 .16 .07 .01

15,001-20,000 413 .15 .06 .01

20,001-25,000 206 .07 .06 .00

More than 25,001 161 referent

Position

Registered nurse 293 .00 .07 .00

Registered professional nurse 542 -.03 .07 .00

Nursing manager 95 referent

Hospital

Pohai 164 .00 .07 .00

ST Mary 96 .08 .08 .00

Yuli 62 .09 .08 .00

Mackay 78 -.20 .08 .01

Yuan 125 .13 .08 .00

Tzu Chi 181 -.06 .07 .00

Taichung 53 .12 .09 .00

Fong Yuan 62 -.09 .09 .00

Yuli Vet 109 referent

Organisational commitment 930 .48** .04 .16

Work values 930 .20** .03 .05 Note 1: **p < .01 Note 2: †: unstandardised regression coefficient; §: standard error; ¥: referent is a

comparison group assigned a value of zero for all dummy variables

137

4.3.3 Results for Research Hypothesis 3

Hypothesis 3 is that positive work values are significantly related to

organisational commitment. Correlations (extracted from Appendix I) between work

values and organisational commitment ranging from .09 to .41 are displayed in Table

4-5. The analysis indicates that work values (except for “stability and freedom from

anxiety considerations”, and “recreation, health and transport considerations”) are

related to organisational commitment (except for the “retention commitment”

subscale). Respondents reporting greater work values had higher commitment to the

organisational, with most relationships significant at the .01 level.

Table 4-5. Correlations between work values and organisational commitment variables.

Organisational commitment

Values commitment

Effort commitment

Retention commitment

Work values .23** .21** .37** .07

Terminal values .29** .30** .41** .08

Self-growth .29** .28** .41** .09**

Self-realisation .27** .29** .37** .07

Self-esteem .25** .26** .36** .06

Instrumental values .16** .12** .28** .05

Social interaction considerations .20** .16** .30** .10**

Security and economic considerations .18** .16** .26** .07

Stability and freedom from anxiety considerations .10** .07 .24** .02

Recreation, health and transport considerations .10** .07 .23** .02

**p < .01

The regression statistics are presented in Table 4-6. Unstandardised

regression coefficients obtained by regressing work values on organisational

138

commitment indicated that work values contribute significantly to organisational

commitment (B =.08). Partial η2 indicated that work values explain only 1% of the

variation in organisational commitment. Work values are less influential than job

involvement, demographics and hospital in explaining organisational commitment.

As in the previous analysis, other factors may be important in explaining

organisational commitment, because all the partial η2 are small.

Organisational commitment did not vary significantly between the hospitals.

The strength of the relationship between organisational commitment and the hospital

variable, as assessed by partial η2, was not strong (hospital accounted for 1-2% of the

variance in organisational commitment). The results of the GLM univariate analysis

thus suggested that organisational commitment did not have a differential effect

across hospitals.

In summary, the hypothesized positive relationships between work values

and organisational commitment were supported by the data.

139

Table 4-6. Estimated influence of work values on organisational commitment after adjusted for demographics, design effect and job involvement.

Independent variables N B† SE§ Partial Eta2

Age 930 .02 .00 .06

Education status

Vocational school of nursing 39 .01 .08 .00

Certificate of graduation 678 .07 .03 .00

University and graduate school 213 referent¥

Personal income (A$)

Less than 15,000 150 -.05 .06 .00

15,001-20,000 413 -.08 .05 .00

20,001-25,000 206 -.11 .05 .01

More than 25,001 161 referent

Position

Registered nurse 293 .01 .06 .00

Registered professional nurse 542 -.05 .05 .00

Nursing manager 95 referent

Hospital

Pohai 164 -.11 .06 .01

ST Mary 96 -.12 .06 .00

Yuli 62 -.08 .07 .01

Mackay 78 .07 .06 .02

Yuan 125 -.07 .06 .00

Tzu Chi 181 .11 .05 .00

Taichung 53 -.12 .07 .00

Fong Yuan 62 -.01 .07 .00

Yuli Vet 109 referent

Job involvement 930 .31** .02 .16

Work values 930 .08** .03 .01 Note 1: **p < .01 Note 2: †: unstandardised regression coefficient; §: standard error; ¥: referent is a

comparison group assigned a value of zero for all dummy variables

140

4.3.4 Results for Research Hypothesis 4

Hypothesis 4 states that job involvement is significantly related to

organisational commitment. Correlations (extracted from Appendix I) between job

involvement and organisational commitment are shown in Table 4-7. They indicate

that job involvement was related to organisational commitment (except for

“retention commitment” and “complete involvement”). Respondents reporting

greater job involvement had a higher level of commitment to the organisation, with

all relationships highly significant.

Table 4-7. Correlations between job involvement and organisational commitment variables.

Job involvement Complete involvement

Strong involvement

Organisational commitment .43** .34** .51**

Values commitment .49** .43** .48**

Effort commitment .42** .30** .55**

Retention commitment .15** .07 .26**

**p < .01

The job involvement scale and its subscales were highly positively correlated

amongst themselves (.84 ≤ r ≤ .96, p < .01). Therefore, only the job involvement

variable was included in the analysis. The results of the regression analysis are

presented in Table 4-8. Unstandardised regression coefficients obtained by

regressing job involvement on organisational commitment indicated that job

involvement contributed significantly to organisational commitment (B = .31).

Partial η2 indicates that job involvement explain 16% of the variation in

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organisational commitment. Job involvement is more influential than work values,

demographics and hospital in explaining organisational commitment. Given the

small partial η2 values it is likely that factors other than job involvement, work

values, demographics and the hospital variable may be important in explaining

organisational commitment.

Organisational commitment did not vary significantly between the hospitals.

The strength of the relationship between organisational commitment and the hospital

variable, as assessed by partial η2, was not strong. Hospital accounted for only 1-2%

of the variance in organisational commitment. The GLM univariate analysis did not

suggest that organisational commitment had a differential effect over hospital.

The hypothesized positive relationships between job involvement and

organisational commitment were therefore supported by the data.

142

Table 4-8. Estimated influence of job involvement on organisational commitment after adjusted for demographics, design effect and work values.

Independent variables N B† SE§ Partial Eta2

Age 930 .02 .00 .06

Education status

Vocational school of nursing 39 .01 .08 .00

Certificate of graduation 678 .07 .03 .00

University and graduate school 213 referent¥

Personal income (A$)

Less than 15,000 150 -.05 .06 .00

15,001-20,000 413 -.08 .05 .00

20,001-25,000 206 -.11 .05 .01

More than 25,001 161 referent

Position

Registered nurse 293 .01 .06 .00

Registered professional nurse 542 -.05 .05 .00

Nursing manager 95 referent

Hospital

Pohai 164 -.11 .06 .01

ST Mary 96 -.12 .06 .00

Yuli 62 -.08 .07 .01

Mackay 78 .07 .06 .02

Yuan 125 -.07 .06 .00

Tzu Chi 181 .11 .05 .00

Taichung 53 -.12 .07 .00

Fong Yuan 62 -.01 .07 .00

Yuli Vet 109 referent

Work values 930 .08** .03 .01

Job involvement 930 .31** .02 .16 Note 1: **p < .01 Note 2: †: unstandardised regression coefficient; §: standard error; ¥: referent is a

comparison group assigned a value of zero for all dummy variables

143

4.3.5 Results for Research Hypothesis 5

Hypothesis 5 theorised that job involvement mediates the relationship

between work values and organisational commitment. Previous studies have

hypothesised that work values could directly affect job involvement (Blau & Boal,

1987; Chuang, 2001; Dong, 2001; Huang & Wu, 1996; Tang, 2000; Wu, 1995). An

indirect effect of work values on organisational commitment through job

involvement has also been proposed (Cohen, 1999; Randall & Cote, 1991).

In terms of the test of three measurements in the previous chapter, although

the instruments fit reasonably well, their weaknesses need to be overcome in future

research. The three measurements all showed internal validity. That is, it can be

argued that they can be used to test theoretical relationships proposed in this study.

SEM was employed in the present study. The initial solution using SEM

suggested that the original model was an inadequate fit to the data. Chi-square (Χ2)

for the proposed model was 2,107.25 with 51 degrees of freedom (p < .01) and the

chi-square to degrees of freedom ratio (Χ2/df) was 41.32. All of the fit indicators

were below levels indicative of a good fit (NFI = .85, CFI = .85, GFI = .71 and

RMSEA = .22, above the accepted value of .1). Therefore, the model needed to be

altered.

In the revised model, one direct path between work values and organisational

commitment was dropped. This revised model had a ratio of chi-square to degrees of

freedom of approximately 5:1 and a RMSEA of .06, indicating a moderate fit to the

data. The NFI, CFI, and GFI indicators ranged from .98 to .99, which also indicated

an acceptable fit.

144

At this point, the “reverse” model, hypothesising that job involvement

mediates the impact of organisational commitment on work values, was developed.

This reverse model could be compared to the revised model in order to test which

model best represented the data.

The Chi-square (Χ2) for the reverse model was 591.36 with 12 degrees of

freedom (p < .01) and the chi-square to degrees of freedom ratio (Χ2/df) was 49.28,

along with the adjunct fit indexes which showed this model to be poor fit to the data

(NFI = .93, CFI = .93, GFI = .86 and RMSEA = .22, above the accepted value of .1).

The fit statistics for the original, revised and reverse models and model comparisons

described in the following sections are summarised in Table 4-9 and Table 4-10.

Table 4-9. Model fit statistics.

Model Chi-square df Χ2/df NFI CFI GFI RMSEA

Original 2,107.25 51 41.32 .85 .85 .71 .22

Revised 62.04 12 5.16 .99 .99 .98 .06

Reverse 591.36 12 49.28 .93 .93 .86 .22

Table 4-10. Model comparisons.

Model ∆Chi-square ∆df

Original and revised 2,045.21 39

Reverse and revised 529.32 0

∆: difference

Three models were evaluated in terms of their fit to the data and in

comparison to each other. The difference between the chi-square fit statistics for the

original and revised model was 2,045.21, based on 39 degrees of freedom. For the

145

revised and reverse model this difference was 529.32. The original model has to be

rejected in favour of the revised model, because the fit of original model is

significantly worse than that of the revised. In the same vein, the revised model is a

significantly better fit than the reverse model.

Table 4-11 presents the revised model with regression weight, standard errors

(SE), and t-values. The test statistic here is the t-value, which represents the

parameter estimate divided by its standard error, and as such, it operates as a z-

statistic in assessing whether the estimate is statistically different from zero. Based

on a significance level of .01, the test statistic needs to be larger than ± 2.33 before

the hypothesis can be rejected. Significant parameters can be considered important to

the model. A complete examination of this unstandardised solution reveals all

estimates to be both reasonable and statistically significant.

Table 4-11. Relationship regression weight between work values, job involvement and organisational commitment.

Parameter S.E. t-value

Job involvement ← Work values .98** .03 33.79

Organisational commitment ← Job involvement .71** .03 25.05

**p < .01

The results revealed that work values affected organisational commitment

only through job involvement, as seen in Figure 4-2. The five work values factors

(“self-esteem”, “social interaction considerations”, “security and economic

considerations”, “stability and freedom from anxiety considerations” and “recreation,

health and transport considerations”) were deleted. Two modified work values, “self-

growth” and “self-realisation”, of “terminal values” were determined to be the best

146

fit for the data. The results also revealed a significant correlation between “terminal

values” and organisational commitment.

The relationship between work values and organisational commitment was

not statistically significant, and so was not included in the revised model. This does

not support the theory of Randall and Cote (1991). These authors suggested that in

the future, a direct relationship between Protestant work ethic and organisational

commitment might be included in constructs of work commitment in general. In

Figure 4-2, it can be seen that the effect of work values led to an increase of job

involvement as large as λ1 = .98. Moreover, the effect of job involvement on

organisational commitment was β1 = .71. This revised model demonstrates that work

values do not have a direct effect on organisational commitment, but rather increase

the level of job involvement, which subsequently leads to increased organisational

commitment. All significant paths were positive. Cohen and Cohen (1983) suggested

that if all of the component path coefficients are significant, then the whole indirect

effect can also be taken as significant.

147

Figure 4-2. Estimated standardized direct, indirect and total effects for the

Work value

Self-realisation

Self-growth

Job involvement

Organisational commitment

.71

.98

.64

.53

.58

.58

.47

.66 .58

Retention commitment

Complete involvement

Strong involvement

.04

.15

.10 .11

.09

.06

.05Values commitment

Effort commitment

revised model.

Standardised direct, indirect, and total effects implied by the revised model

are presented in Table 4-12.

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Table 4-12. Summary of standardised direct, indirect and total effects for the hypothesised model.

Direct effect Indirect effect Total effect

Work values

Job involvement

Work values

Job involvement

Work values

Job involvement

Job involvement .98** .98**

Complete involvement .57** .57**

Strong involvement .65** .65**

Organisational commitment .71** .69** .69** .71**

Values commitment

.40** .41** .40** .41**

Effort commitment

.40** .41** .40** .41**

Retention commitment

.33** .34** .33** .34**

**P < .01

Work values were determinants of job involvement, with a total effect

comprised completely of a direct effect of λ1 = .98. One unit change in work values

resulted in corresponding increases in “complete involvement” (.57) and “strong

involvement” (.65). More specifically, when the work values of an individual were

high on “self-growth” and “self-realisation”, that individual’s job involvement

increased on “complete involvement” and “strong involvement”.

Work values had an indirect effect on organisational commitment (.69). The

indirect effect of work values on organisational commitment was comprised of a

significant indirect effect on “values commitment” (.40), “effort commitment” (.40)

and “retention commitment” (.33), with a unit change in work values effecting

a .40, .40 and .33 change in (respectively), in a strong belief in, and acceptance of,

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the organisation’s goals and values, willingness to exert considerable effort on behalf

of the organisation, and a strong desire to maintain membership in the organisation.

Job involvement had a significant effect on organisational commitment, with

a total effect of β1 = .71. Examining the indirect effect of job involvement on

organisational commitment, a unit change in job involvement was associated with

significant increases in “values commitment” (.41), “effort commitment” (.41) and

“retention commitment” (.34).

All direct, indirect, and total effects are, as anticipated, positive and

statistically significant. Research results indicate a reasonable fit for the revised

model, therefore it can be argued that the model is a valid representation of the data.

Examination of structural coefficients supported Hypothesis 5, indicating that job

involvement could play an important role in mediation. The mediating role of job

involvement in predicting organisational commitment was affirmed in this study.

The importance of the inter-relationships between components in the proposed

model was corroborated. This implies that employees with high work values, who

had high job-involved attitudes in their present job, were more likely to commit to

their organisation. Thus the hypothesized mediating effect of job involvement on

work values and organisational commitment was supported by the data.

4.3.6 Summary

In this chapter, results of the statistical analysis of data obtained from surveys

of 1,047 Taiwanese nurses were presented. Significant correlations between socio-

demographic variables and the other variables were often found. There was a

significant association between the scales/subscales and age indicating partial

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support for Hypothesis 1, except for work values, “self-growth”, “self-realisation”,

“self-esteem”, and “instrumental values” (including four subscales).

Significant correlations between education status and “terminal values”,

“self-growth”, “self-realisation” and “self-esteem” were found. Hence, Hypothesis 1

(relating to education status and major variables) was partially supported. Significant

correlations between personal income and other variables were found, indicating

partial support for Hypothesis 1. There were, however, not significant relationships

between personal income and overall job involvement (including two subscales),

“instrumental values”, “security and economic considerations”, “stability and

freedom from anxiety considerations” and “recreation, health and transport

considerations”. Significant correlations between occupational position and

“terminal values”, “self-esteem”, and “effort commitment” were also found. Hence,

Hypothesis 1 relating to occupational position and major variables was partially

supported.

Analysis of data from multiple sources showed that work values have a

significant positive relationship with job involvement, consistent with Hypothesis 2.

Work values are significantly related to organisational commitment, consistent with

Hypothesis 3. Job involvement has a significant positive direct relationship with

organisational commitment, consistent with Hypothesis 4.

An examination of the direct effect of work values and job involvement on

organisational commitment indicated that job involvement, as perceived by staff

nurses, accounts for a substantial amount of variance in organisational commitment,

and is a more important predicator of organisational commitment than work values.

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This finding was enhanced by the relationships proposed in the framework. This was

supported by the data. That is, work values had a positive relationship with

organisational commitment, while job involvement had a mediating effect. This was

consistent with Hypothesis 5.

4.4 Conclusion

This chapter presented the results of the analyses on the participant data, and

interpreted the results in terms of the study hypotheses. Analyses of various

characteristics of the sampled subjects, which were related to the major variables,

resulted in a number of observations. Firstly, it was found that different socio-

demographic groups (age, education status, personal income, and occupational

position) were significantly associated with the major variables (work values, job

involvement, and organisational commitment). Secondly, a significant relationship

between work values, job involvement and organisational commitment was revealed,

after accounting for design effect. Thirdly, job involvement was shown to have a

positive mediating effect on work values and organisational commitment. Chapter

Five will discuss these findings in light of current literature, theory and practice.

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CHAPTER FIVE

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

5.1 Introduction

This chapter provides a summary of the study, discusses the results of the

data analysis, describes the implications of the findings for both theory and practice,

and finally introduces the limitations of the study and recommendations for further

research.

5.2 Summary of the study

The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between work values,

job involvement and organisational commitment among nurses working in hospitals

in Taiwan. The objectives of this study were to, (1) describe the work values of

Taiwanese nurses; (2) describe the job involvement of Taiwanese nurses; (3)

describe the organisational commitment of Taiwanese nurses; (4) identify variables

that affect work values, job involvement, and organisational commitment for

Taiwanese nurses; and (5) identify where there is a mediating effect of job

involvement on work values and organisational commitment for Taiwanese nurses.

Three questionnaires (the Work Values Inventory (WVI), the Job

Involvement Questionnaire (JIQ), and the Organisational Commitment

Questionnaire (OCQ)), were used to measure the work values, job involvement, and

organisational commitment of the study participants. A total of 1053 Taiwanese

nurses from nine regional and teaching hospitals provided usable data for the

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analyses. Descriptive statistics, Pearson Product-Moment Correlation (PPMC)

analyses, General Linear Model (GLM) univariate analyses, and structural equation

modelling (SEM) were used to analyse the data.

5.3 Discussion of the findings

In this section, the major findings are discussed. Firstly, the relationships

between socio-demographic variables and work values, job involvement and

organisational commitment are considered. Associations between the key variables,

work values, job involvement and organisational commitment, are then discussed.

5.3.1 Relationships between socio-demographic variables and work values, job

involvement and organisational commitment

Age

It was hypothesised that there would be a significant relationship between

age and work values. Results of this study partially supported this hypothesis. Prior

research has reported that as worker age increases, they emphasise the internal

values of their workplace (Lee & Chung, 2001; Pu, 1988). The differences between

work values of older and younger employees could be attributed to socialisation

processes and maturation (psychosocial aging). As predicted, this study found that

older nurses, on average, placed more emphasis on “terminal values” than did

younger nurses.

It was also hypothesised that there would be a significant relationship

between age and job involvement for Taiwanese nurses. This hypothesis received a

high degree of support. Older employees have been found to hold higher perceptions

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of job involvement than younger employees (Chuang, 2001; Huang, 1993; Lodahl &

Kejner, 1965; Pan & Yeh, 1998; Rabinowitz & Hall, 1977; Tang, 2000). More

specifically, this suggests that nurses are apt to stay in their organisation because

leaving would involve a high personal or professional cost to themselves (Mathieu &

Zajac, 1990; Parasuraman & Nachman, 1987; Stevens et al., 1978). According to

Social Exchange Theory (SET), these findings could be based on corresponding

increases in a positive job benefits that, in turn, generate job involvement. This study,

consistent with previous studies, found that increasing age was associated with

higher job involvement.

It was hypothesised that there would be a significant relationship between

age and organisational commitment. This hypothesis was strongly supported, in that

older nurses reported a higher level of organisational commitment. This finding is in

line with previous literature (Angle & Perry, 1981; Brown, 1969; Hrebiniak &

Alutto, 1972; Mathieu & Zajac, 1990; Morris & Sherman, 1981; Sheldon, 1971;

Steers, 1977). Older nurses may have accumulated personal capital in the

organisational (e.g., self-identity, friends and social relationships, seniority or

retirement benefits), and hence have a higher sunk cost of leaving an organisation,

thus ensuring that they are more committed to their organisation (Mathieu & Zajac,

1990; Parasuraman & Nachman, 1987; Stevens et al., 1978). General arguments for

using such variables to predict commitment can be derived from SET. For instance,

according to this theory, advancing age would increase an individual’s investment in

the employing organisation (and the costs associated with leaving) thus the

individual would be more likely to remain with their organisation.

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Education status

It was hypothesised that there would be a significant relationship between

education status and work values. The literature supports the notion that highly

educated individuals develop higher internal values, self confirmation and “self-

growth” (Chiu, 1993; Lee & Chung, 2001; Pu, 1988). The results partially supported

this hypothesis. This study found that more highly qualified nurses, on average,

placed more emphasis on “terminal values”, “self-growth”, “self-realisation” and

“self-esteem” than did less qualified nurses.

Similarly, it was hypothesised that there would be a significant relationship

between education status and job involvement. Results of this study did not show

significant differences in job involvement across education status, providing no

support for this hypothesis. Based on SET, education status has been shown to be

negatively related to job involvement (Allen & Meyer, 1993; Angle & Perry, 1981;

Morris & Sherman, 1981; Mowday et al., 1982; Steers, 1977; Taur, 1998; Tsai et al.,

2003), perhaps because highly educated employees have higher expectations, and the

organisation may be unable to meet these expectations. Or, possibly, highly educated

employees see themselves as more valuable than the organisation, thinking that they

do not need the organisation as they are confident that they have the skills needed to

succeed in the new world of work (Angle & Perry, 1981). However, other studies

found positive correlations between education status and job involvement (Abboushi,

1990; Elloy et al., 1991; Pan & Yeh, 1998; Rabinowitz et al., 1977). In contrast

again, Chen (1998) and Hu (1999) have previously found no relationship between

education status and job involvement, consistent with the current study.

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It was also hypothesised that there would be a significant relationship

between education status and organisational commitment. No support existed for the

possible effect of education status on organisational commitment, with no difference

found in this study. Based on SET, education status has been shown to be negatively

related to organisational commitment (Allen & Meyer, 1993; Angle & Perry, 1981;

Mathieu & Zajac, 1990; Morris & Sherman, 1981; Mowday et al., 1982; Steers,

1977; Taur, 1998; Tsai et al., 2003). This may be because it may be more difficult

for organisations to provide sufficient rewards for employees with higher levels of

education. Many analysts (Morris & Sherman, 1981; Mowday et al., 1982; Taur,

1998; Tsai et al., 2003) have argued that highly educated individuals develop higher

expectations than the organisation may be able to meet. However, other studies

refute these findings, finding positive correlations between educational status and

organisational commitment (Pu, 1988; Putti et al., 1989). Stevens et al. (1978) and

Chen (2002) found that education was not related to commitment in their study.

Results of this study did not show significant differences relating to education status,

supporting the findings of Stevens et al. (1978) and Chen (2002).

Personal income

It was hypothesised that there would be a significant relationship between

annual personal income and work values. This hypothesis received a high degree of

support. Findings indicated that the level of work values among higher income

nurses was higher than the work values of lower income nurses. This may be

because they have identified the need for balance between their personal and work

lives, which determines their work satisfaction and willingness to remain with their

employer.

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It was hypothesised that there would be a significant relationship between

annual personal income and job involvement. Although “strong involvement” had a

relationship with personal income, this was not significant, and thus no support

existed for the possible effect of annual personal income on job involvement. As

stated previously, employees today want to achieve balanced lives, in that they

regard work not only as a way to make a living, but also as their personal identity.

The results are consistent with Friss's (1983) findings, but do not support previous

research which has found a positive relationship between personal income and job

involvement (Aleem & Khandelwal, 1988; Chadha & Kaur, 1987; Chen, 1998; Joshi,

1999; Tang, 2000).

It was hypothesised that there would be a significant relationship between

annual personal income and organisational commitment. This hypothesis received a

high degree of support, as higher income employees demonstrated higher levels of

organisational commitment than lower income employees. These results are in line

with previous literature (Friss, 1983).

Occupational position

It was hypothesised that there would be a significant relationship between

occupational position and work values. Results of this study partially supported this

hypothesis. Prior research has reported a relationship between different occupational

positions and overall work values (Tang, 2000). The current analyses found that

employees in more senior positions were more attentive to “terminal values” and

“self-esteem” than employees holding lower positions in the organisation.

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It was hypothesised that there would be a significant relationship between

occupational position and job involvement. However, in this study no support

existed for an effect of occupational position on job involvement. Previous studies

have found inconsistent relationships between occupational position and job

involvement. Lodahl and Kejner (1965) argue that the position within the

organisation is not necessarily related to job involvement. Contradicting this finding

are several studies suggesting that position affects job involvement (Morrow et al.,

1988; Tang, 2000). Morrow et al. (1988) argued that position within an organisation

is a good predictor of job involvement because, “higher level positions provide more

stimulating and challenging tasks and therefore the opportunity for greater

involvement” (p.102). This study supports Lodahl and Kejner’s early study.

It was hypothesised that there would be a significant relationship between

occupational position and organisational commitment. The results of this study

provide partial support for this hypothesis. Occupational position has been shown to

be positively related to “effort commitment” (Lee & Chung, 2001; Morrow et al.,

1988; Xiao & Lu, 1996). Morrow et al. (1988) argued that “supervisors have a

greater number of different tasks to perform, the more rewarding and challenging the

job is” (p.102). Therefore, commitment to one’s job tends to increase with one’s

position level.

The results of the current study did show significant differences according to

occupational position level. Nursing managers reported higher scores on effort

commitment than registered professional nurses and registered nurses. This finding

suggests that nurses in more senior positions showed more “effort commitment”, but

this was not the case for “values commitment” and “retention commitment”. This

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suggests that employees in higher positions in a particular organisation are more

likely to be willing to exert considerable effort on behalf of the organisation. It is

surprising to find no relationship between occupational positions and the other types

of commitment. One possible explanation is that they might not find the current

work environment “good enough” and therefore seek employment elsewhere.

Summary

The sociodemographic analysis has provided much important information in

the current study. These findings can help to further understanding of the role of

other aspects of a nurse’s job when examining work values, job involvement and

organisational commitment. For the work values variables, age, education status, and

personal income were positively significantly related to “terminal values”, “self-

growth”, “self-realisation” and “self-esteem”. Nurses who were older, highly

educated or had higher personal incomes placed greater emphasis on “terminal

values”. Personal income was positively related to work values and “social

interaction considerations” of “instrumental values” for these nurses. Occupational

position level was related to “terminal values” and “self-esteem”.

The variables of job involvement and organisational commitment were

significantly positively related to age. Nurses who were older were more involved in

their jobs and more committed to their organisations. Age was more strongly related

to organisational commitment than job involvement. Personal income also had

significant relationship with organisational commitment. Occupational position level

also had significant relationship with “effort commitment”.

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In the present study the nurse participants were relatively young (mean =

30.52, SD = 6.49), compared with Western countries (i.e., U.S. and Canada), where

nurses are aged on average between 37 and 44 (Buerhaus, Staiger, & Auerbach, 2000;

Cooper, 2003; Schiff, 2002). The hospital tenure (mean = 5.19 years) of nurses in

this study was similar with to previous figures, with an average of 6-7 years in a

hospital setting reported by Nursing Workforce Evaluation Data released by

Department of Health Executive, Taiwan (2002).

Despite these points, the expansion of care delivery settings, such as home

health care and community-based health care delivery systems, has increased the job

opportunities available for nurses and demand for these workers. As opportunities

for women outside of nursing have expanded, the number of women staying in the

RN workforce has declined. Studies indicate that hospital settings are becoming less

attractive to nurses because of changes in work conditions (i.e., workload, staffing,

hours worked, and work outcomes) (Armstrong, 2005). In addition, many of the

current skilled RNs are aging and will reach retirement age in the next few years.

The limited number of nurses available means that recruitment and retention

of nurses are major concerns for health care providers. This means that younger

nurses dominate the health care delivery system. Moreover, some experts point out

that the problem is not a shortage of nurses per se, but a shortage of nurses willing to

work in the current conditions. Therefore, younger nurses are moving away from

hospital settings and toward better work environments and less stressful working

conditions. The consequences of inadequate staffing levels often affect quality of

care and can put the safety of both patients and nurses at risk. Such a “cyclical”

problem has again become a healthcare system crisis.

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Although the nursing shortage has disappeared and the nurse labour force is

experiencing a surplus in Taiwan (which has resulted from an imbalance in supply

and demand) this situation is expected to be short-lived (Chuang, 2002). Now, an

aging nursing population may not be a problem. However, like many industrialised

countries, Taiwan has been experiencing population aging since 1993 (Chen Kung

Pei Foundation, 2000; Yang, 2000), with over 7% of the population group aged 65

years and over. The proportion of elderly people is projected to double in the next 20

years (Chen Kung Pei Foundation, 2000; Yang, 2000). According to the WHO report,

aging is currently the most important demographic trend worldwide.

Furthermore, increases in illness and in chronic disease will increase the

demand for health care. The healthcare system in Taiwan will follow the trends seen

in the Western health system, with aging nurses and shortages of nursing staff. What

can hospital administration executives and hospital managers faced with these

problems do in the health care arena in the future? How can hospitals attract, retain,

and motivate employees to provide high-quality health services in their organisation?

What is clear is that there is no simple, single solution to these problems in the

workplace. Therefore, healthcare organisations need to engage in long-term

strategies to create a supportive infrastructure which empowers nurses in their roles.

5.3.2 The relationship between work values, job involvement and organisational

commitment

Work values and job involvement

A significant positive relationship between work values and job involvement

(Hypothesis 2) indicated that greater work values are associated with higher levels of

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job involvement. Work values are also influential elements for job involvement.

Nurses who scored high on terminal values were more strongly involved with their

jobs. These findings are consistent with Randall and Cote (1991), Blau (1985), Dong

(2001), Tang (2000), Wu (1995), Huang and Wu (1996) and Chuang (2001).

In the literature review it was highlighted that work values and job

involvement are generally regarded as resulting from socialisation processes and the

social learning flowing from these processes. The findings suggest that although the

obtained correlations were not strong, to a certain extent each value these employees

sought to find in their life or at work were positively related to several specific

involvements in their present job. Alternatively, the results could be interpreted such

that employees’ involvement in their present jobs was positively related to many

values that individuals’ hope to find in their various life and work roles. An

individual may see a job as important to his or her identity, due to the values placed

on social relationships, security or sense of meaningful activity.

Work values and organisational commitment

The current study also investigated the relationship between work values and

organisational commitment (Hypothesis 3). Correlations between work values

(except for “stability and freedom from anxiety considerations”, “recreation, health

and transport considerations”) and organisational commitment (except for “retention

commitment”) were significant but generally weak. Several previous studies have

addressed the relationship between work values and organisational commitment.

Putti et al. (1989) argued that intrinsic work values relate more closely to

organisational commitment than either extrinsic work values or overall work values.

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Moreover, the finding that “terminal values” relate more closely to organisational

commitment than “instrumental values” seems consistent with the findings of Putti et

al. (1989). Respondents in this study who scored high on “terminal values” were

more strongly committed to their organisation. This finding may mean that those

nurses who had a higher commitment to their organisation also recognised the

importance of many values in their various life or work roles.

Job involvement and organisational commitment

As predicted, there was a positive relationship between job involvement and

organisational commitment (Hypothesis 4), which is in line with the literature

(Buffardi & Niebisch, 1988; Huang, 1993; Knoop, 1995; Morrow, 1983; Mowday et

al., 1979; Stevens et al., 1978). This finding suggests that individuals who had higher

job involvement had more commitment to their organisation. Researchers have

reasoned that needs for achievement and “self-esteem” are satisfied for job-involved

individuals in their workplace. Clear organisational goals give highly job-involved

workers more opportunities to satisfy their needs and build commitment to the

organisation. Thus these individuals exert more effort to achieve these goals than

individuals less involved in their jobs. Highly job-involved individuals may also feel

that they are highly personally invested in their work, and thus in the organisation as

whole, and might therefore place more importance on their organisation’s success.

These individuals may also feel more personally responsible for its success.

According to SET, an alternate explanation for the positive relationship

between job involvement and organisational commitment exists. According to this

theory, individuals bring certain needs and skills to the organisation, and expect that

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the organisation will provide an environment in which those needs are satisfied and

those skills are used. If individual psychological needs are satisfied, employees will

engage themselves more fully and invest greater time and energy on behalf of the

organisation. Therefore, it seems logical that perceptions of a positive work

environment will lead to satisfaction, and less intent to leave the organisation. This is

consistent with Kanungo’s view that high job involvement occurs when the work

environment meets the individual’s needs.

Findings in relation to mediating processes

A structured equation model was proposed to account for the relationships

proposed in this study (Figure 1-1). Specifically, it was hypothesised that job

involvement would have a positive mediating effect on work values and

organisational commitment (Hypothesis 5). The proposed model was evaluated for

goodness-of-fit to determine if these hypothesised relationships were supported. As

discussed in Chapter Four, the final revised model provided a significant

improvement in fit compared to the original and a reversed model, and therefore was

accepted.

In this study, as Randall and Cote (1991) suggested, work values operated

indirectly on organisational commitment via job involvement. Further, as the model

predicted, employees holding higher work values were highly involved in their jobs.

Job involvement appears to directly and strongly influence organisational

commitment. In turn, work values were related to job involvement and

organisational commitment. Moreover, this finding suggests that the indirect

influence of work values on organisational commitment is more important than its

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direct impact. This indicates that job involvement could play an important mediator

role, such that establishing a higher level of job involvement among employees may

be more important than focusing only on improving organisational commitment.

Several conclusions can be drawn from these results. Firstly, work values

show weak or moderate positive correlations with job involvement. Those

individuals who place high importance on values (either terminal, instrumental or

overall measures) are likely to have higher job involvement. Secondly, work values

(except for “stability and freedom from anxiety considerations”, and “recreation,

health and transport considerations”) also show weak or moderate positive

correlations with organisational commitment (except for “retention commitment”).

This suggests that those individuals who place a higher importance on work values

tend to report higher organisational commitment. Thirdly, job involvement shows

weak positive correlations with organisational commitment, such that those who are

more involved in their jobs are more likely to be committed to their organisations.

Lastly, nurses holding higher work values appear to be highly involved in their jobs,

and job involvement appears to directly and strongly influence organisational

commitment. Job involvement plays an important mediator role in this relationship.

5.4 Implications for theory and practice

The implications of these findings are as follows.

5.4.1 Implications for theory

The major finding of the current study was that the relationships between

work values, job involvement and organisational commitment proposed in the study

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framework were supported by the data from Taiwanese nurses. The finding that job

involvement played an important mediating role between work values and

organisational commitment deserves further exploration. This study is not able to

confirm Randall and Cote’s predictions regarding the direct effect of work values on

organisational commitment, which was lacking in tests of Randall and Cote’s two

models (both the original and revised models). In Figure 5-1, however, it can be seen

that the current results affirm the basic content of Randall and Cote’s revised model,

although the direct link between work values and organisational commitment is not

clearly drawn. It was anticipated that having strong work values would result in

increased job involvement, which would subsequently lead to increased

organisational commitment. Or it could be the case that employees who are involved

in their job have positive work values which they attribute to their organisation.

Figure 5-1. The revised model.

Work values Job involvement Organisational commitment

However, another test was run on the reverse model, which stated that job

involvement mediates the impact of organisational commitment on work values (i.e.,

organisational commitment → job involvement → work values). The findings

clearly did not support this model (see Chapter Four). One researcher (Rong, 1998)

has argued that merely observing the attitude of an individual cannot allow

prediction of the values one holds within. Values are remarkably stable over time

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(Rokeach, 1973). Thus this study provided further empirical evidence that

recognising their personal values can help individuals to explain and understand their

possible attitudes and the behaviours in which they engage.

This study utilised Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) to link work

values and job-related attitudes (i.e., job involvement, organisational commitment).

SCT has had a considerable influence on the way researchers understand behaviour

within organisations.

Research into job involvement (Lodahl & Kejner, 1965; Shore et al., 1990) and

organisational commitment (Shore et al., 1990) has suggested that work values, as a

result of social learning, are considered a strong antecedent of these two work

attitudes (i.e., job involvement and organisational commitment).

At the individual level, new members imitate other members performing their roles in order to fit in with the work unit and organisation. They are also actively and implicitly taught the skills, behaviours, and values necessary for career advancement in the organisation by imitating hierarchically superior mentors. This involves a complex interplay of cognitive, behavioural, and environmental elements

(Fogarty & Dirsmith, 2001, p.257)

Moreover, based on Social Exchange Theory (SET), individuals seek a balance

in their exchange relationship with the organisation, by having attitudes that are

equivalent to the degree of organisation commitment to them as an individual. When

an organisational environment satisfies employee needs, and provides opportunities

for skill utilisation, it enhances organisation commitment and job involvement.

The framework for this study was based on an integration of the models of job

involvement and organisational commitment. Some positive correlations were found

between work values, job involvement and organisational commitment among

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Taiwanese nurses. This indicates that some of their values (both “terminal values”

and “instrumental values”), their job involvement and their organisational

commitment vary with each other, at least to a certain degree.

In Randall and Cote’s two models, Protestant work ethic (PWE) affects job

involvement, which has a stronger influence on organisational commitment. The

revised model shows that work values, with two factors (“self-growth” and “self-

realisation”) of “terminal values” are related to job involvement and organisational

commitment. While PWE suggests that people with a strong work ethic tend to have

contempt for idleness and self-indulgence (Schnake, 1991), measurement of work

values in this study confirmed a relevance to the values of individual life experience.

Employees with a high work ethic are likely to feel guilty when they believe they are

not working as hard as they should (Cohen, 1999), whereas people with high

“terminal values” search for and work in careers that fit their personality and will be

more attached to them. These insights open up new approaches to the study of work

commitment. The findings for of this study, as they are related to these concepts,

affirmed the relevant theoretical proposals.

While it is not possible to ascribe causal direction based on a cross-sectional

study, it can be speculated that individuals with higher work values will have a

higher degree of job involvement and organisational commitment, which in turn

results in lower levels of intention to leave the organisation, and higher levels of job

satisfaction and performance. Furthermore, if performance and job satisfaction lead

to high quality patient care, higher levels of job involvement and organisational

commitment are vital to the organisation. This finding may allow nurse

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administrators to monitor the level of work commitment among employees, and to

predict staff turnover.

Due to the relatively little research in this field in Taiwan, the findings of the

current study also serve as a starting point for future research. The current findings

provide a basis for further research into the characteristics of the nursing profession

in Taiwan.

5.4.2 Implications for practice

This section focuses upon some practical implications of this study for

workplace planning and policy, healthcare management and administration.

Although many studies have been conducted attempting to clarify the

dimensions and factorial structure of work commitment (Cohen, 1999; Morrow,

1983; Randall & Cote, 1991), this study has explored the practical influence of the

dimensions of work commitment in the workplace. The results provide potentially

valuable information for nurse administrators in terms of understanding what

relationships exist between work values, job involvement and organisational

commitment, and how these might affect retention of staff nurses. This study

supports previous research linking work values with job involvement and

organisational commitment. It is important for individuals to be aware of their own

work values when they work in an organisation. In particular, the findings of this

study revealed that job involvement had a greater effect on organisational

commitment than work values.

Views about work and organisations have dramatically changed over

previous years. This change has impacted on employees’ work attitudes and

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cognitions about both their job and organisation (Hung & Liu, 2003; Rosina et al.,

1997). It is essential that nurse administrators become more aware of the role of

work values, job involvement, and organisational commitment so as to develop those

elements in their organisation. Specific examples of this are provided later in this

discussion. Nurse administrators therefore need to understand, inspire, and affect the

thinking of their employees, and subsequently generate positive work values in order

to improve job involvement and organisational commitment. Nurse administrators

must examine the nurses they currently employ and work out how to keep their

nurses in the organisation, and also to keep them happy and healthy. Nurse

administrators also need to incorporate programs and systems to increase job

involvement in the daily operations of the organisation. This will, in turn, enhance

employees’ commitment to their organisation. These will be discussed in more detail

later in this chapter.

Potential intervention will have impact all aspects of the organisation, from

the management and policy level right down to the practical work of nurses in wards,

touching on key issues such as turnover, social interaction, training, promotion,

career planning and ownership. The contribution of this research to nurse

administrators’ daily decision-making is summarised below, bringing together the

research hypotheses and the findings by revisiting the key issues of the study.

Staff nurses and work values

The majority of staff nurses who participated in this study had moderate to

high scores on work values, with many nurses favouring “instrumental values” over

“terminal values”. The nurses considered “social interaction considerations”,

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“security and economic considerations”, “stability and freedom from anxiety

considerations”, and “recreation, health and transport considerations” more

important than “self-growth”, “self-realisation” and “self-esteem”. Work is

particularly important to an individual’s life and many essential values can be

reflected or fulfilled at work. This is particularly true in a competitive marketplace.

However, when work values cannot be fulfilled through work accomplishment, staff

nurses either become less committed and more apt to leave the organisation, or look

for fulfilment of the values in other aspects of life, such as their leisure life and

family life.

This insight is a valuable tool that nurse administrators can use to improve

their working environment, supportive services and provide positive rewards. This

means that efforts to restructure patient care delivery must be more ergonomically

sensitive to nurses, and working areas need to be more comfortable and supportive.

Supportive services which may help employees include childcare, transportation, and

personal growth workshops. Rewards, including an incentive system, can be

effective motivators and can bond employees with their organisations and prevent

them from resigning. However, Webb, Tour, and Hurt (1994) note that nurses

responded positively to public recognition, peer reinforcement and senior

management reinforcement, and that hospitals do not have to recognise their

contributions in terms of a monetary reward.

Furthermore, there are differences among nursing groups at each hospital.

Nurse administrators who integrate the presence and power of generational forces

into their leadership strategies are in a better position to successfully lead the

organisations of the future. Nurse administrators should consider a new approach to

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selecting employees and encourage similarities in the work values within groups,

because people with similar value systems work more harmoniously and tend to be

more involved in their jobs. There are many means of building effective

communication, such as focus groups and simulations. It is also important to manage

diversity in the workplace including age, culture and gender (Betty, 1998). Though

can be difficult to achieve, better understanding can establish a harmonious

workplace atmosphere.

The role of nursing educators can affect student nurses’ personalities and

achievements. Teachers’ values may influence students’ interpretations of the

material. Society has long held a stereotypical perception of nurses to be

hardworking, considerate, and friendly, and that nurses demonstrate these qualities in

their workplace by being disciplined, insightful, organised, and dedicated (Chinn &

Kramer, 2004). Although nurses are thus generally trusted by the population, there

are new challenges within nursing as to its role within society, as these new

generations are growing up in a very different world. Betty (1998) argues that

society is very important in shaping employees preferred management styles, with

young people particularly willing to change jobs and careers. Today’s employees,

especially younger workers, expect to be treated like partners, and are no longer

satisfied with involvement, rather they want ownership (Izzo & Withers, 2002).

It is therefore critical for nursing educators to teach by relating values to

human differences, and practice enables student nurses to recognize and understand

their own values as well as the values of others. Reutter, Field, Campbell, and Day

(1997) reported that undergraduate nursing students tend to retain their personal

values when they graduate. Further understanding of the work values of student

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nurses may help deal with potential conflict between various generations in the work

force.

Staff nurses and job involvement and organisational commitment

The majority of nurse participants reported moderate scores on both job

involvement and organisational commitment. This finding may correspond with the

trend in society towards a balancing of all facets f life, in the hope of attaining a

quality lifestyle (Izzo & Withers, 2002; Samad, 2006; Zimmermann, 2002). Job

involvement and organisational commitment have significant effects on turnover and

absenteeism (Blau & Boal, 1987; Brown, 1996; Koberg & Chusmir, 1989; Martin &

Hafer, 1995; Mathieu & Zajac, 1990; Mowday et al., 1982; Steers, 1977). Working

women have identified the need for balance between their personal and work lives as

the most important issue that determines their work satisfaction and willingness to

stay with an employer (Samad, 2006). Therefore, adopting the social exchange

perspective, it is likely that providing various opportunities will result in higher

levels of job involvement and organisational commitment. Creating work

environments that foster professional accountability, by eliminating stringent rules

and allowing nurses the flexibility to act on their expert judgement to solve patient

care issues, encourages an autonomous practice climate. Nurse participation in

decision making has been reported as the most significant variable explaining job

satisfaction (Gleason-Scott, Schalski, & Aiken, 1999).

Furthermore, by advocating nurses to become more involved in jobs and

committed to organisations, nurse administrators must allow staff to have a sense of

autonomy by self-scheduling or job sharing, to promote autonomy and give nurses a

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chance to use their job abilities (Lawler & Hall, 1970). Individuals should be thus

encouraged to use their skills to reach organisational goals. Organisations should

also provide appropriate support for nurses to ensure appropriate working conditions.

Nurse administrators consider nurses’ well-being and value nurses’

contributions, however strategies could be implemented in order to treat nurses with

dignity and respect, help them to identify a clear career path and belief that there is a

future for the nurse within the organisation to advance in her/his career, and promote

a culture in which nurses feel that they are part of a team. Cavanagh and Coffin

(1992) argue that the nature of nursing work relies upon multidisciplinary

collaboration, teamwork and trust. It is therefore understandable that nurses’ peers

provide both support and relief when working in what can sometimes be a stressful

and demanding environment. Flannery and Grace (1999) suggest that recognition

from medical staff makes nurses’ work more meaningful.

Previous research (McEvoy & Cascio, 1985) indicates that newly hired

members with unmet expectations (resulting from the recruitment and selection

process) are more likely to report lower levels of job satisfaction and higher turnover.

The perception of reneged promises will quickly result in employees becoming

unhappy (Koeppel, 2005). To avoid “quick-quits”, Gravelle (2004) has suggested

that using realistic job previews (RJPs) may align the candidate’s expectation with

that of the organisation. The use of RJPs assures that employers are more candid in

the interview process and newly hired individuals are given a realistic preview and a

clear understanding of job expectations. In addition, the work team may not always

be supportive, especially for new and inexperienced members (Castledine, 1998). It

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is recommended that hospitals should assign new employees mentors who can help

educate them about the organisational culture and adequate practical skills.

This study is therefore beneficial to nurse administrators by suggesting new

methods for retaining and attracting clinical nurses, as well as identifying the vital

role of job involvement and organisational commitment, especially in these

organisations.

Age

There were significant differences in “terminal values”, job involvement and

organisational commitment across age. Nurses who were older placed greater

emphasis on “terminal values”, greater involvement in their jobs and higher

commitment to their organisations. Nurse administrators need to support career

development by encouraging and enabling nurses to fulfil their own unique potential

(such as “self-realisation”, “self-growth” and “self-esteem”).

In response to the issues of retention of expert nursing staff and development

of professional nursing practice, hospitals establish a professional career ladder

program for staff nurses as a means of increasing both organisational commitment

and job satisfaction (Price & Mueller, 1986b). A career ladder is a system which

allows licensed nurses more time to perform higher-level clinical tasks, such as

assessments, patient education, and documentation (Remsburg et al., 2001).

Implementation of a career ladder can also be built into the compensation system, in

that pay and seniority should be highly correlated (Price & Mueller, 1986b).

Moreover, employers can use the lure of benefits (including health care, pension and

retirement plans) in order to retain highly skilled nurses.

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Education status

The present study also revealed that differences across education status were

found for “terminal values”. Highly educated nurses had higher intrinsic values,

“self-realisation”, “self-growth” and “self-esteem”. Nurse administrators should

provide opportunities for professional growth through offering continuing applied

education courses or tuition support, and by promoting highly educated nurses’ core

competencies that can meet the needs of the organisation. In the same way they can

identify suitable staff and develop their skills further through education. Moreover,

organisations should support nurses’ attendance at professional conferences, and

ensure appropriate orientation programs and education when new technology or

practices are introduced within the workplace.

Personal incomes

This study revealed that nurses with higher personal incomes are likely to

have higher overall work values, “terminal values”, and organisational commitment

than nurses with lower personal incomes. As a general rule, nurses who were of

advancing age, longer tenure, or higher positions, had higher personal incomes.

When earning money is not the primary consideration, nurses tend to pursue self-

achievement and self-fulfilment outcomes (Maslow, 1943). Based on higher levels

of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, individuals need to be respected, to self-respect, to

respect others and develop self-actualisation. Nurse administrators need to motivate

and inspire nurses, and make them feel that their efforts are rewarding and

meaningful. Organisations can also improve the organisational commitment of staff

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by creating more flexible work schedules, welfare, and developing staff clinical

management and leadership abilities.

Occupational position

Nursing managers are likely to have higher “terminal values”, better “self-

esteem”, and “effort commitment” than nurse specialists and staff nurses. Therefore,

nurse administrators should try to develop programs such as team building, values

clarification, workshops in communication, conflict resolution, and career planning

for all staff regardless of their position in the hospital. Values clarification should be

incorporated into career education programs. Investing time and money in

developing values or personality testing may initially appear time-consuming, but it

is far less costly than employing the wrong person and then having to fire them later.

Mediation amongst work values, job involvement and organisational commitment

Finally, work values were significantly, though weakly, positively correlated

with job involvement. Those who placed higher importance on values (terminal,

instrumental and overall) tended to report higher job involvement. Work values

(except for “stability and freedom from anxiety considerations”, and “recreation,

health and transport considerations”) were weakly or moderately positively

correlated with organisational commitment (except for “retention commitment”).

Individuals who placed high importance on values (terminal, instrumental and

overall) were likely to have higher organisational commitment. Job involvement was

positively, though weakly, related to organisational commitment. Individuals who

were more involved in their jobs were likely to commit more to their organisations.

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It is important for organisations to recognise that employees’ different work values

may differentially impact the relationships between employees and their organisation.

Nurse administrators need to consider the relevance of work values to

performance at all levels of the organisation, including their own. Work values, job

involvement, and organisational commitment cannot be examined in isolation, as

they are systematically intercorrelated. Administrators need in particular to

understand the role of job involvement. Elloy et al. (1995) discuss the relationship

between job involvement and outcome variables, and found that job-involved

individuals are more likely to perceive opportunities for growth in their job, are more

committed to the organisation, have less intentions of leaving, and experience less

burnout. Riipinen (1997) found that job involvement based on need congruence was

related to a high level of well-being. Similarly, job involvement that was not based

on need fulfilment was independent from, or negatively related to well-being. A job-

involved individual tends to take on their responsibilities with a sense of

commitment.

Rabinowitz and Hall (1977, 1981) and Shyu, Lu, and Chen (1999) suggest

that successful goal achievement in the work setting can promote job involvement.

Based on Herzberg's (1966) motivation-hygiene theory, a challenging job

assignment creates effort on the employee’s part, which leads to goal

accomplishment and psychological success. This success increases “self-esteem”,

commitment and job involvement. Committed members are more productive and

more likely to achieve organisational aims and objectives (Larkey & Morrill, 1995).

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In summary, it is time that nurse administrators examined the dynamics of

their organisations to gain some insight into how they can best attract and retain a

new generation of nurses. This study supports previous research which suggests that

organisations must provide a structure that recognises the strengths of staff nurses as

professionals, and allows them to grow and develop as they provide the services that

make them indispensable to patients, the organisation and the community. The

findings of this study can also provide nurse administrators tools for guiding their

management, professional interventions and practices in the recruitment and

successful retention of nurses, through improving job involvement and

organisational commitment.

In past decades, Taiwan government has designed some strategies by

allowing hospitals to increase diversity manpower (i.e. nurse aides and clerks) for

helping non-professional activities, by implementing part-time work, and by

providing scholarship for encouraging an advanced degree. However, these

strategies cost too much and do not implement in the whole country. Nowadays,

Taiwan is facing increased competition, cost containment, and insufficient numbers

of younger nurses, rather than a decreased supply of nurses (as stated Chapter one).

Whichever is the case, the result increases nursing heavy workloads and limited

resources.

The literature reveals that this needs to continue work on the above

mentioned strategies. Thus, the implications of this study provide additional ways to

improve the nursing turnover and retention in Taiwan. This part was considered to

have been accomplished.

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5.5 Strengths of the study

The present study had several strengths. Firstly, the large sample size (N =

1047) addressed the issues of large confidence intervals, and allows detection of

small differences between categories. The high response rate (81%) indicates that the

effect of response bias was likely to be minimal. The present study also investigated

the construct validity of the three instruments used, through confirmatory and

exploratory factor analytic techniques. For the first time this study combined factor

analytic investigations to examine the relationships between work values, job

involvement, and organisational commitment.

In this study, the instruments used to measure work values and organisational

commitment were tested using Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA). The results of

the CFA demonstrated that the factor loadings for individual indicators on two

measures were significant (as proposed), and the overall fit indices for all proposed

factor structures were a moderate fit, suggesting that the measurements were valid.

The job involvement questionnaire was tested using Exploratory Factor Analysis

(EFA). A two-factor solution was obtained for the Job Involvement Questionnaire

(JIQ), as opposed to Kanungo’s (1982) uni-dimensional JIQ. There have been no

published studies using EFA on the JIQ in Taiwan. This study is designed to correct

the methodological weaknesses identified in previous work commitment (work

values, job involvement, and organisational commitment) research. It is critical that

future research on the constructs of work values, job involvement, and organisational

commitment should continue to focus on the validity of the chosen instruments.

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The present study also contributes to the Taiwanese nursing field in terms of

the type of data analysis used, because SEM is not widely implemented. This study

also adds to the limited knowledge base about the role of job involvement in

mediating the relationship between work values and organisational commitment.

This study is therefore a starting point for future researchers from which they can

further develop this model within the nursing field.

5.6 Limitations of the study

Several limitations of this study were identified, and taken into consideration

where possible. The study used a cross-sectional design, and accordingly cannot

establish temporal or causal relationships between independent and dependent

variables. Proving causality requires establishing time sequence, strength, specificity,

dose response, coherence, and consistency (Armenian, 1998). Directions attributed

to relationships examined in this study are therefore based on inferences drawn from

the literature, rather than direct evidence from the data.

While work values appear related to employee organisational commitment,

one cannot assume that placing importance on social interaction considerations will

result in commitment to the organisation. It is equally probable that belief in the

importance of social interaction may stem from one’s commitment to the

organisation, such that working with others within a team is the motivation.

Another limitation of the study is the proportion of variance in the dependent

variables explained by the independent variables. Although significant, these figures

are somewhat low (1% to 16% of the variance in dependent variables), suggesting

that other variables not included in this study can greatly influence organisational

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commitment. Therefore, additional variables should be evaluated in future research,

some of which are recommended in section 5.7. Until more is known about the

determinants of job involvement and organisational commitment, designing

intervention studies to correctly attribute causality and to determine how employers

can increase organisational commitment among employees, remain tentative. The

purpose of this study, however, was to better understand the effect of work values on

organisational commitment through job involvement. This has been accomplished.

The third limitation of this study is the measure of job involvement used.

Although Kanungo’s (1982) JIQ was demonstrated to be a uni-dimensional construct,

the present study rather revealed that job involvement was a two-dimensional

construct. Based on this study, further researchers should be careful in drawing

conclusions about job involvement.

The last limitation is the measure of work values implemented. In this study,

the WVI might not be a measure of the PWE used in Randall and Cote’s (1991)

study. Therefore, one should be careful about drawing parallels between these

concepts.

5.7 Recommendations for further research

Based on the conclusions and implications of this study, the following areas

of investigation are recommended for further research.

Study design

This study used a cross-sectional survey design. Future research should

consider alternative methods, such as a longitudinal study among nurses, by

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measuring the latent variables at various career stages. This approach then will allow

temporality to be determined, providing stronger evidence of causal relationships

between work values, job involvement, and organisational commitment.

Cross-cultural comparison

A cross-cultural research comparison would be worthwhile in order to

determine if the current findings can be replicated in other populations, and to

investigate possible cultural differences. The central findings of the study can

probably be safely extended to other Chinese societies such as China, Hong Kong,

and Singapore, as these nations place great emphasis on Confucian philosophy,

including personal control, adherence to a social hierarchy, and political order.

Organisational and management factors

This study examined socio-demographic and study variable interrelationships,

and asked whether job involvement mediates the relationship between work values

and organisational commitment. However, this integrated causal model is relatively

small, and did not take into consideration other factors that might have affected the

relationships between the variables. Therefore, further comprehensive examinations

of what other potential mediating or moderating variables influence organisational

commitment are needed. Future research could examine the integration of other

factors that are related to staff nurses’ organisational commitment, such as

management style, job stress, person-organisation value fit, organisation climate and

organisational culture.

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Physical and psychological implications

Research has demonstrated a correlation between psychological strain (job

stress) and increased cardiovascular risk in employees, if employees have inadequate

power over their work situation (Karasek et al., 1988). Further research has revealed

that chronic stress has been linked to the development of heart disease and type 2

diabetes, as well as other conditions (Chandola, Brunner, & Marmot, 2006). The

authors examined the link between chronic job stress and metabolic syndrome,

which is a group of factors that together increase the risk of these diseases, including

high blood pressure, insulin resistance, central obesity (excessive abdominal fat,

which has been linked to increased cortisol in the bloodstream, as well as several

other health problems), and a number of other factors. This research found that

greater levels of job stress increased the chance of developing metabolic syndrome.

The higher the stress level the greater the chance of developing this syndrome.

From an employee perspective it is important to have high “self-esteem”. This in

turn probably has a positive effect on the mental health of the individual, which may

in turn result in high job involvement and productivity. Employee well-being is

crucial to achieving an efficient and effective workplace. Studies have shown that

job involvement is related to a high level of well-being (Castro, 1986; Wiener,

Muczyk, & Gable, 1987). This discussion raises further additional areas for

investigation, including the following.

• The relationship between job stress and job involvement, organisational

commitment and work values.

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• Efficiency and effectiveness of employees and the correlation between

these variables and job involvement, organisational commitment and

work values.

• The factors contributing to positive mental health of an employee and its

relation to job involvement, organisational commitment and work values.

Cross-institutional research

Future research should focus more closely on exploring the interrelationships

between work values, job involvement and organisational commitment in different

types of organisations in terms of hospital location (urban, rural, and mixed),

attributes (public-run versus public-owned and religious versus non-religious) and

institution size. Such research should be able to provide insights into the role of these

variables within organisations.

Implication for other fields

Strictly speaking, the findings of this study have limited generalisability.

Future studies could utilise the same approach to replicate these results in other

professions that contain a majority professional female workforce, including

elementary and junior high school teachers (68% and 67%, respectively) (Education

statistical indicators, 2006), and the banking and insurance industry (58% women) in

Taiwan (Chen, 2001). This would increase the validity of the findings.

There is also need to replicate this study using other job categories or varied

samples in different settings, such as doctors or non-female staff working in

hospitals. For example, if employees in various generations or professions are

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defining work values differently, further research needs to determine if this

difference will have an impact on the organisation. The organisation may not need to

create separate programs when targeting various groups, thereby saving time and

resources.

5.8 Conclusions

The current results add to the understanding of work values and their

relationships with job involvement and organisational commitment among

Taiwanese nurses. These analyses included selected sociodemographic variables

incorporated into this study. Moreover, this study indicates that job involvement

mediates the relationship between work values and organisational commitment. The

findings of the present study have implications for organisations which are

attempting to enhance organisational commitment through increased job

involvement. It is anticipated that improving these factors will be associated with

reduced turnover and absenteeism and hence the establishment of more effective

organisations. A more effective organisational environment, that implements

participatory management, recognises the value of professional nursing practice, and

values communication between clinical nurses and leadership, will be conducive to

good nursing practice. This research has added to the existing nursing literature,

providing key information about links between work values, job involvement, and

organisational commitment. This study provides a theoretical and empirical basis for

further study of nursing issues in Taiwan, and in other parts of the world.

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APPENDICES

Appendix A Sociodemographic Profile

188

Please tick the appropriate response or write in the space provided Q1. Gender 1 Female 2 Male

Q2. Age in years years

Q3. Marital status 1 Single 2 Married 3 Separated

4 Divorced 5 Widowed

Q4. F/P time status 1 Full time 2 Part time

Q5. Religious affiliation

1 Buddhist 2 Christian 3 Catholic 4 Taoist 5 Other

1

Q6. What is your current position?

1 Staff nurse

2 Nurse specialist

3 Head nurse

4 Supervisor 5 Other

1

Q7. Education 1 Vocational school of nursing

2 Certificate of graduation

3 Bachelor degree

4 Graduate school

5 Others 1

1 Less than NT$ 360,000 Q8. Personal income

2 NT$360,001~NT$720,000

3 NT$720,001~NT$1,080,000

4 NT$1,080,001~NT$1,420,000

5 More than NT$1,420,001

Q9. How long have you been with your current position? years

Q10. How long have you been with your current employers? years

Q11. How long have you been nursing? Years

189

Appendix B Work Value Inventory (WVI)

190

Please tick the appropriate response. There are no right or wrong answers.

The organisation allows me the opportunity of self-growth by:

Least important

Not important

Neutral Important Most

important

Q13. Enabling staff to obtain new knowledge and techniques continuously while working

1 2 3 4 5

Q14. Offering opportunities to learn while working

1 2 3 4 5

Q15. Encouraging staff to analyse and study things in depth while working

1 2 3 4 5

Q16. Providing the chance of trying new working methods while working

1 2 3 4

Q17. Permitting staff to be creative while working

1 2 3 4 5

Q18. Consenting to staff devoting oneself to a prospective task

1 2 3 4 5

Q19. Permitting staff to fully create one’s own work career

1 2 3 4 5

The organisation provides me with the freedom for self-realisation by:

Least

importantNot

importantNeutral Important

Most important

Q20. Permitting staff to specialize within the job

1 2 3 4 5

Q21. Fulfilling their dreams 1 2 3 4 5

Q22. Satisfying their personal ambition 1 2 3 4 5

Q23. Promoting quality of life through work

1 2 3 4 5

Q24. Making one’s life more colourful through work

1 2 3 4 5

Q25. Endorsing staff to contribute meaningfully to society

1 2 3 4 5

Q26. Allowing staff through work to serve or improve society

1 2 3 4 5

5

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My self-esteem is improved through organisational work by:

Least

importantNot

importantNeutral Important

Most important

Q27. Feelings of achievement while working

1 2 3 4 5

Q28. Feelings of achievement observed through one’s own concrete product of work

1 2 3 4 5

Q29. Being responsible for specific tasks

1 2 3 4 5

Q30. Gaining self-affirmation and self-confidence through work

1 2 3 4 5

Q31. Gaining boss’s full authorization while working

1 2 3 4 5

Q32. Obtaining other person’s affirmation through work

1 2 3 4 5

Q33. Having total power of control while working

1 2 3 4 5

My friendships and social interaction are satisfied through organisational work by:

Least

importantNot

importantNeutral Important

Most important

Q34. The boss being considerate of employees

1 2 3 4 5

Q35. Colleagues taking care of each other

1 2 3 4 5

Q36. A lack of aggression or selfishness among colleagues

1 2 3 4 5

Q37. Staff that can happily work together with colleagues to finish a job

1 2 3 4 5

Q38. Colleagues who can get along harmoniously

1 2 3 4 5

Q39. Staff in a working environment with good personal connections (relationships)

1 2 3 4 5

Q40. Staff that work honestly and sincerely with co-workers

1 2 3 4 5

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I feel security, both financially and in my work when:

Least

importantNot

importantNeutral Important

Most important

Q41. Staff can get appropriate care while sick

1 2 3 4 5

Q42. The safety of employees is the most important aspect of work

1 2 3 4 5

Q43. The organisation provides good insurance

1 2 3 4 5

Q44. Salary allocation is fair and reasonable

1 2 3 4 5

Q45. Appropriate salary promotion is obtained

1 2 3 4 5

Q46. One’s own devotion to work can gain reasonable reward

1 2 3 4 5

Q47. The organisation provides a good staff benefit scheme

1 2 3 4 5

I feel relaxed and Stable in my life when:

Least

importantNot

importantNeutral Important

Most important

Q48. Work hours fully correlate with one’s living schedule

1 2 3 4 5

Q49. One can be engaged in a full range of work, not monotonous and untidy

1 2 3 4 5

Q50. The individual does not have to deal with many complicated or alternatively trivial things at work

1 2 3 4 5

Q51. A variety of worry and anxiety derived from work competition can be avoided

1 2 3 4 5

Q52. One does not often feel stressful while at work

1 2 3 4 5

Q53. One does not often need to worry about job affairs after work

1 2 3 4 5

Q54. One feels job secure 1 2 3 4 5

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Access to work and opportunities for recreation are improved by my organisation when:

Least

importantNot

importantNeutral Important

Most important

Q55. Working under a non-harmful (no damage to physical and mental health) environment

1 2 3 4 5

Q56. The individual is being engaged in outdoor activities or physical activities after work

1 2 3 4 5

Q57. Flexible hours are provided allowing for more personal freedom

1 2 3 4 5

Q58. Longer annual vacation is provided, enabling the individual to pursue leisure activities

1 2 3 4 5

Q59. One can avoid excessive social intercourse in order to keep healthy

1 2 3 4 5

Q60. One’s work place is close to home or easily accessible

1 2 3 4 5

Q61. One can avoid traffic congestion and road rage while travelling to or from work

1 2 3 4 5

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Appendix C Job Involvement Questionnaire (JIQ)

195

Please tick the appropriate response. There are no right or wrong answers.

Answer the following questions as they apply to you in your job:

Strongly disagree

Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly

agree

Q62. The most important things that happen to me involve my present job

1 2 3 4 5

Q63. To me, my job is only a small part of who I am

1 2 3 4 5

Q64. I am very much involved personally in my job

1 2 3 4 5

Q65. I live, eat and breathe my job 1 2 3 4 5

Q66. Most of my interests are centred around my job

1 2 3 4 5

Q67. I have very strong ties with my present job which would be very difficult to break

1 2 3 4 5

Q68. Usually I feel detached from my job

1 2 3 4 5

Q69. Most of my personal life goals are job-oriented

1 2 3 4 5

Q70. I consider my job to be very central to my existence

1 2 3 4 5

Q71. I like to be absorbed in my job most of the time

1 2 3 4 5

196

Appendix D Organisational Commitment Questionnaire (OCQ)

197

Please tick the appropriate response. There are no right or wrong answers.

Answer the following questions about your commitment to your current job: Strongly

disagreeDisagree Neutral Agree

Strongly agree

Q72. I am willing to put in a great deal of effort beyond that normally expected in order to help this organisation be successful

1 2 3 4 5

Q73. I talk up this organisation to my friends as a great organisation to work for

1 2 3 4 5

Q74. I feel very little loyalty to this organisation

1 2 3 4 5

Q75. I would accept almost any type of job assignment in order to keep working for this organisation

1 2 3 4 5

Q76. I find that my values and the organisation’s values are very similar

1 2 3 4 5

Q77. I am proud to tell others that I am part of this organisation

1 2 3 4 5

Q78. I could just as well be working for a different organisation as long as the type of work were similar

1 2 3 4 5

Q78. This organisation really inspires the very best in me in the way of job performance

1 2 3 4 5

Q79. It would take very little change in my present circumstances to cause me to leave this organisation

1 2 3 4 5

Q70. I am extremely glad that I chose this organisation to work for, over others I was considering at the time I joined

1 2 3 4 5

Q71. There’s not too much to be gained by sticking with this organisation indefinitely

1 2 3 4 5

Q72. Often, I find it difficult to agree with this organisation’s policies on important matters relating to its employees

1 2 3 4 5

Q73. I really care about the fate of this organisation

1 2 3 4 5

Q74. For me this is the best of all possible organisations for which to work

1 2 3 4 5

Q75. Deciding to work for this organisation was a definite mistake on my part

1 2 3 4 5

198

Appendix E Sampling Strategy and Sample Size Calculation

199

68 regional teaching hospitals in Taiwan

Convenient sampling 24 regional teaching hospitals

Sent letters of consent

Obtained consent from 9 regional teaching hospitals

Sample size was determined by assuming a difference betweengroups of 1 point on the five Likert scale previously used and astandard deviation .9, and allowing a 5% type I error (2-tail) and10% type II error and the assumptions of a response rate (40%),confounder (15%), and contingency (10%):

Sample size per group => 2 * (3.24)2 * (.9)2 / 12 = 17

Comparing max 9 categories within group => 17 * 10 = 170

Response rate (40%) => 170 * 1.6 = 272

Confounder (15%) => 272 * 1.15 ≈ 313

Contingency (10%) => 313 * 1.1 ≈ 345

200

Appendix F Cover Letter

201

Queensland University of Technology

A study of the relationships between work values, job involvement, and organisational commitment among Taiwanese nurses

Principal investigator: Chin-Chih Ho, School of Public Health, Queensland University of Technology, Australia. Ph. +617 (07) 38645478. Department of Health Administration, Tzu Chi College of Technology, Taiwan. Ph. (03) 8572158 ext. 422.

This research project is being undertaken by Chin-Chih Ho, a Health Service Management doctorate student, School of Public Health at the Queensland University of Technology.

The purpose of this research is to identify nurses work values, whether their work values influence their commitment to the organisation through job involvement and how work values, job involvement and organisational commitment related to one another among Taiwanese teaching hospitals. The study is seen as significant as most of the research come from education or industry. The restricted range of professional fields sampled may limit our understanding, because findings from education or industry may not be generalisable to the healthcare system. Research in diverse professions may be needed to fully describe the relationship of these concepts.

The research findings may be used to improve recruitment and training and assist managers and organisations in developing strategies to ensure better alignment of work values between the organisation and individuals.

Your hospital is one of the organisations selected for this study and all Registered Nurses here are being approached for their views in this regard. Your participation will be a valuable contribution to this significant research project. If you agree to participate, you would be asked to complete a questionnaire and return the same in the attached stamped envelope. The questions are three scales and tick boxes that require you to record your perceptions and thoughts. There are also a few standard questions about your social demographic characteristics, such as age, gender, income and length of service. The questionnaire will take approximately 25 minutes of your time, with the information used to develop a clearer understanding of what associates organisational commitment positively or negatively. Participation in the research is voluntary and there is no obligation or penalty for not participating. The survey will be completely anonymous, with your information de-identified and aggregated with other nurses. The findings of this research will be published in peer reviewed journals, however no individual comments or results will be reported. Aggregated data will be available to organisations to assist in improving the workplace.

Should you become distressed as a result of participating this research, you may wish to contact the Nursing Department within your organisation. The contact details for this services can be accessed by referral through your supervisor. Any question concerning the project can be directed to chief investigator, Chin-Chih Ho, at the School of Public Health, Queensland University of Technology on +617 (07) 38645460, Australia, or the department of Health Administration at Tzu Chi College of Technology, Taiwan, on (03) 8572158.

202

This research project has been approved by the University Human Research Ethics Committee at Queensland University of Technology. You may contact the Research Ethics Officer on +617 (07) 38642340 or email ethicscontact@qut.edu.au, should you have any complaints about the conduct of the research, or wish to raise any concerns. All complaints will be treated in confidence, investigated full and you will be informed of the outcome.

Thank you for your interest in the study

203

Appendix G Ethical Approval Document

204

Date: Fri 3 Dec 11:51:52 EST 2004 From: Wendy Heffernan <w.heffernan@qut.edu.au> Add To Address Book | This is Spam Subject: Expedited Ethical Review - 3794H To: c6.ho@student.qut.edu.au Cc: b.oldenburg@qut.edu.au

Dear Chin Chih I write further to the application for expedited ethical clearance requested for your project, "A study of the relationships between work values, job involvement and organisational commitment among Taiwanese nurses" (QUT Ref No 3794H). This application was recently considered by the University Human Research Ethics Committee (UHREC) Expedited Ethical Review Panel. On behalf of the Panel I wish to advise that your project has been granted conditional ethical approval. This approval is subject to clarification regarding the names of the 10 participating hospitals (these are provided in the appendices, but no English translation of the name of the person providing the approval or the name of the institution has been included). Please provide me with the revisions/additional information outlined in the above by 24 December 2004. Failure to submit this information by the due date may result in withdrawal of this conditional ethical approval. Please do not hesitate to contact me further if you have any queries regarding this matter. Regards Wendy Wendy Heffernan Research Ethics Officer Office of Research O Block Podium Tel: 07 3864 2340 Fax: 07 3864 1304

205

Date: Mon 13 Dec 13:29:50 EST 2004 From: Wendy Heffernan <w.heffernan@qut.edu.au> Add To Address Book | This is Spam Subject: Re: Expedited Ethical Review - 3794H To: c6.ho@student.qut.edu.au Cc: b.oldenburg@qut.edu.au Dear Chin Chih I write further to the response received in relation to your project, "A study of the relationships between work values, job involvement and organisational commitment among Taiwanese nurses" (QUT Ref No 3794H). On behalf of the Chair, University Human Research Ethics Committee (UHREC), I wish to advise that this response has addressed the additional information required for your project. Consequently, you are authorised to immediately commence your project on this basis. The decision is subject to ratification at the 15 February 2005 meeting of UHREC. I will only contact you again in relation to this matter if the Committee raises any additional questions or concerns in regard to the clearance. The University requires its researchers to comply with:

• the University’s research ethics arrangements and the QUT Code of Conduct for Research;

• the standard conditions of ethical clearance;

• any additional conditions prescribed by the UHREC;

• any relevant State / Territory or Commonwealth legislation;

• the policies and guidelines issued by the NHMRC and AVCC (including the National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Research Involving Humans).

Please do not hesitate to contact me further if you have any queries regarding this matter. Regards Wendy

206

University Human Research Ethics Committee Information in relation to ethical clearance

What is the duration of my ethical clearance? The ethical clearance awarded to your project is valid for three years commencing from 1 December 2004. Recruitment, consent and data collection / experimentation cannot be conducted outside the duration of the ethical clearance for your project. Please note that a progress report is required annually on 1 December or on completion of your project (whichever is earlier). You will be issued a reminder around the time this report is due. The progress report proforma can be located on the Research Ethics webpage. Extensions to the duration of your ethical clearance within the 3-5 year limit must be made in writing and will be considered by the Chair under executive powers. Extensions beyond 5 years must be sought under a renewal application. Standard conditions of approval The University’s standard conditions of approval require the research team to: 1. conduct the project in accordance with University policy, NHMRC / AVCC guidelines and regulations, and the provisions of any relevant State / Territory or Commonwealth regulations or legislation; 2. respond to the requests and instructions of the University Human Research Ethics Committee (UHREC) 3. advise the Research Ethics Officer immediately if any complaints are made, or expressions of concern are raised, in relation to the project; 4. suspend or modify the project if the risks to participants are found to be disproportionate to the benefits, and immediately advise the Research Ethics Officer of this action; 5. stop any involvement of any participant if continuation of the research may be harmful to that person, and immediately advise the Research Ethics Officer of this action; 6. advise the Research Ethics Officer of any unforeseen development or events that might affect the continued ethical acceptability of the project; 7. report on the progress of the approved project at least annually, or at intervals determined by the Committee; 8. (where the research is publicly or privately funded) publish the results of the project is such a way to permit scrutiny and contribute to public knowledge; and 9. ensure that the results of the research are made available to the participants. Modifying your ethical clearance The University has an expedited mechanism for the approval of minor modifications

207

to an ethical clearance (this includes changes to the research team, subject pool, testing instruments, etc). In practice this mechanism enables researchers to conduct a number of projects under the same ethical clearance. Any proposed modification to the project or variation to the ethical clearance must be reported immediately to the Committee (via the Research Ethics Officer), and cannot be implemented until the Chief Investigator has been notified of the Committee’s approval for the change / variation. Requests for changes / variations should be made in writing to the Research Ethics Officer. Minor changes (changes to the subject pool, the use of an additional instrument, etc) will be assessed on a case by case basis and interim approval may be granted subject to ratification at the subsequent meeting of the Committee. It generally takes 5 -10 days to process and notify the Chief Investigator of the outcome of a request for a minor change / variation. Major changes to your project must also be made in writing and will be considered by the UHREC. Depending upon the nature of your request, you may be asked to submit a new application form for your project. Audits All active ethical clearances are subject to random audit by the UHREC, which will include the review of the signed consent forms for participants, whether any modifications / variations to the project have been approved, and the data storage arrangements. Wendy Heffernan Research Ethics Officer Office of Research O Block Podium Tel: 07 3864 2340 Fax: 07 3864 1304 At 12:04 PM 11/12/2004 +1000, you wrote: Hi Wendy I am Chin Chih. I have sent 10 copies of revision statement of project agreement in those days. Each e-mail represents one revision statement of project agreement for one hospital. If these are available, please print them out. If not, please let me know. Thank you. Kind regards, Chin Chih

208

Date: Fri 24 Mar 10:44:12 EST 2006 From: "Janette Lamb" <jd.lamb@qut.edu.au> Add To Address Book | This is Spam Subject: PROGRESS REPORT -- 3794H To: <c6.ho@student.qut.edu.au> Dear Mr Chin Ho

Thank you for providing the Progress Report in relation to ethical clearance for your project, QUT Ref 3794H – A study of the relationships between work values, job involvement and organisational commitment among Taiwanese nurses, which has ethical clearance until 1 December 2007.

In accordance with the National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Research Involving Humans and QUT policy, I have noted the following on the ethics database:

The Progress Report will be provided to the University Human Research Ethics Committee at its next meeting. I will only contact you again in relation to this matter if the Committee raises any additional questions or concerns.

Ø The project is in progress; Ø The project is being carried out in accordance with the original application; Ø Any unforeseen risks have been identified and managed; and Ø No other ethical concerns have emerged from the study.

Please do not hesitate to contact me if you have any further queries in relation to this matter.

Yours sincerely

Janette Lamb

Research Ethics Support Officer Office of Research | Level 3 O Block Podium

Gardens Point Campus | Queensland University of Technology GPO Box 2434 | BRISBANE QLD 4001 Phone: 07 3864 5123 | Fax: 07 3864 1304 Email: jd.lamb@qut.edu.au | CRICOS No: 00213J

Web: http://www.research.qut.edu.au/oresearch/ethics/

209

Appendix H Item-Total Statistics for Job Involvement

Questionnaire

210

Item-Total Statistics for Job Involvement Questionnaire

Item Scale Mean if Item Deleted

Scale Variance if Item Deleted

Corrected Item-Total Correlation

Squared Multiple

Correlation

Cronbach's Alpha if Item

Deleted

27.05 18.776 .603 .401 .814

3 26.93 18.963 .616 .450 .813

4 27.74 18.116 .627 .550 .810

5 27.52 17.666 .710 .626 .800

6 27.47 18.251 .641 .519 .809

26.98 23.191 -.084 .206 .891

8 27.56 18.121 .649 .579

9 27.42 17.673 .689 .571 .802

10 27.07 18.381 .652 .464 .808

1

7

.808

211

Appendix I Correlations of Variables

212

213

Age 1

Age Edu income Poistion WV TV SG SR SE IV SI SS SA RH JI CINV SINV OC VC EC

Edua .06 1

.42** 1

Incomeb .18**

Position .24** .24** .28** 1

WVc .06 .10** .04 1

TVd

SI .09**

.94**

.01

.09** .12** .15** .09** .88** 1

SGe .08 .10** .15** .06 .85** .95** 1

SRf .08 .12** .13** .06 .84** .95** .86** 1

SEg .09 .12** .13** .11** .78** .91** .78** .78** 1

IVh -.03 .01 .05 .00 .94** .66** .64** .63** .56** 1i .01 .02 .03 .86** .63** .63** .59** .52** .90** 1

OSj -.03 -.00 .04 .00 .85** .57** .56** .55** .48** .92** .78** 1

SAk -.06 .03 .04 .01 .89** .63** .61** .61** .54** .80** .83** 1

RHl -.03 -.00 -.04 .79** .55** .52** .52** .49** .87** .69** .70** .77** 1

JIm .14** .01 .03 .01 .28** .32** .29** .30** .21** .20** .20** .17** .19** 1

CINVn .10** -.00 .01

.39** .38** .38** .36** 1

.01 .17** .22** .19** .21** .21** .10** .10** .11** .08** .10** .96** 1

SINVo .18** .02 .08 .02 .42** .41** .35** .33** .30** .31** .84** .64**

OCp .31** -.01 .29** .27** .25** .16** .20** .18** .10** .10** .43** .34** .51** 1

VCq .01 .86**

.37** .41** .41**

.19** .07 .07 .02 .02

.21** .13** .05 .21** .30** .28** .29** .26** .12** .16** .16** .07 .07 .49** .43** .48** 1

ECr .33** .01 .27** .10** .37** .36** .28** .30** .26** .24** .23** .42** .30** .55** .77** .57** 1

RCs .26** -.04 .05 .07 .08 .09** .06 .05 .10** .15** .07 .26** .78** .40** .50**1. a: Edu= education status; b: Income= personal income; c: WV= work values; d: TV= “terminal values”; e: SG= “self-growth”; f: SR= “self-realisation”; g: SE= “self-esteem”; h: IV= “instrumental values”; i: SI=

“social interaction considerations”; j: SS= “security and economic considerations”; k: SA= “stability and freedom from anxiety considerations”; l: RH= “recreation, health and transport considerations”; m: JI= job involvement; n: CINV= complete involvement; o: SINV= strong involvement; p: OC= organisational commitment; q: VC= values commitment; r: EC= effort commitment; s: RC= retention commitment.

2. **P<.01.

.22** .07 .23** .29**

.29**

.03

213

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