THE MUGHAL EMPIRE (1526-1707)THE MUGHAL EMPIRE (1526-1707)

The Mughal emperors (first six rulers).The Mughal emperors (first six rulers). BABUR (1526-30)BABUR (1526-30) HUMAYUN (1530-56)HUMAYUN (1530-56) AKBAR (1556-1605)AKBAR (1556-1605) JAHANGIR (1605-28)JAHANGIR (1605-28) SHAHJAHAN (1628-58)SHAHJAHAN (1628-58) AURANGZEB (1658-1707AURANGZEB (1658-1707))

PRIMARY SOURCESPRIMARY SOURCES

MAJOR HISTORIANSMAJOR HISTORIANS:: ABUL FAZLABUL FAZL ABDUL QADIR BADAONIABDUL QADIR BADAONI GULBADAN BEGUMGULBADAN BEGUM ABDUL HAMID LAHORIABDUL HAMID LAHORI SAQI MUSTAID KHANSAQI MUSTAID KHAN BHIMSENBHIMSEN

INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION

What were the factors behind the success of What were the factors behind the success of the Mughals?the Mughals?

How they were able to establish and How they were able to establish and maintained their sovereignty over the Indian maintained their sovereignty over the Indian sub-continent and legitimize their rule?sub-continent and legitimize their rule?

Was it because they had better military Was it because they had better military technology and skills? Or had charismatictechnology and skills? Or had charismatic

INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION

rulers? Or were the centralizing institutions rulers? Or were the centralizing institutions and broad base and culturally diverse and broad base and culturally diverse bureaucracy responsible for their success?bureaucracy responsible for their success?

How did the descendents of Babur who ruled How did the descendents of Babur who ruled over a small principality in Farghana over a small principality in Farghana (Afghanistan) created one of the most (Afghanistan) created one of the most powerful gunpowder empires (other two: the powerful gunpowder empires (other two: the Ottoman Turks and Safavids of Persia)Ottoman Turks and Safavids of Persia)

THE LARGEST ARMYTHE LARGEST ARMY

The Mughals maintained the largest standing The Mughals maintained the largest standing army of that time. Just one estimate: In 1628 army of that time. Just one estimate: In 1628 there 200,000 salaried cavalrymen, 8000 there 200,000 salaried cavalrymen, 8000 mansabdarsmansabdars, 7000 , 7000 ahadisahadis and mounted and mounted musketeers were stationed at the imperial musketeers were stationed at the imperial capital, besides the armies of the nobles, capital, besides the armies of the nobles, mansabdarsmansabdars and the princes. In many and the princes. In many instances they had the fastest moving army as instances they had the fastest moving army as well. Akbar was able to cover a distance of well. Akbar was able to cover a distance of 500 500

THE LARGEST ARMY…THE LARGEST ARMY…

miles (normally it took twenty-one days), in miles (normally it took twenty-one days), in nine days to crush a rebellion (this feat was nine days to crush a rebellion (this feat was never repeated).never repeated).

Mughal dynamism depended on its military Mughal dynamism depended on its military conquest, so much that some historians call it conquest, so much that some historians call it “a war state (J F Richards). Mughal emperors “a war state (J F Richards). Mughal emperors made little apology for attacking the made little apology for attacking the neighbouring rulers and they regarded theneighbouring rulers and they regarded the

CHARISMATIC RULERSCHARISMATIC RULERS

adjoining territories either as tributaries or adjoining territories either as tributaries or enemies. enemies.

The Mughal emperors, especially Akbar, The Mughal emperors, especially Akbar, created a special image of himself, and some created a special image of himself, and some of his personal qualities and virtues later of his personal qualities and virtues later served as a model for his successors (more served as a model for his successors (more details when legitimization process will be details when legitimization process will be discussed).discussed).

CENTRALIZING INSTITUTIONSCENTRALIZING INSTITUTIONS

Most of the administrative institutions were Most of the administrative institutions were initiated and established during the reign of initiated and established during the reign of Akbar. He was able to build a centralized Akbar. He was able to build a centralized administration which was capable of steady administration which was capable of steady expansion as new territories were added to the expansion as new territories were added to the empire. At the apex of this system was the empire. At the apex of this system was the emperor who acted as a chief executive.emperor who acted as a chief executive.

At the central level there were four main At the central level there were four main

THE MINISTERS…THE MINISTERS…

officials and their ministries namely: officials and their ministries namely: Diwan Diwan in charge of finance and revenue, in charge of finance and revenue, Mir BakshiMir Bakshi in charge of army and intelligence, in charge of army and intelligence, QaziQazi in in charge of judiciary and patronage and charge of judiciary and patronage and Mir-i-Mir-i-SamaSaman in charge of the royal household, and n in charge of the royal household, and its central workshops, buildings, roads and its central workshops, buildings, roads and canals throughout the empire.canals throughout the empire.

All other functions such as diplomacy and All other functions such as diplomacy and

THE MINISTERS..THE MINISTERS..

external affairs remained under emperor’s external affairs remained under emperor’s control. control.

The Mughal civil and administrative officials The Mughal civil and administrative officials were regulated and organized under the were regulated and organized under the mansabdarimansabdari system. system.

Each of these officials were supported and Each of these officials were supported and helped by a large staff of clerks, accountants, helped by a large staff of clerks, accountants, auditors, messengers, and other functionaries.auditors, messengers, and other functionaries.

THE PROVINCIAL OFFICIALSTHE PROVINCIAL OFFICIALS

The division of functions established at the centre was duplicated in the provinces. At each provincial capital a subahdar (governor) responsible directly to the emperor, shared power with a diwan (finance official) reported to the imperial diwan, bakshi (military and intelligence official) reported to the mir-bakshi and a sadr reported to the imperial qazi.

THE THE MANSABDARIMANSABDARI SYSTEM SYSTEM

Every official in the Mughal empire, high or Every official in the Mughal empire, high or low, had a rank or a low, had a rank or a mansab. mansab. Their status, Their status, duties, pay and importance were graded duties, pay and importance were graded accordingly. Technically, all mansabdars had accordingly. Technically, all mansabdars had to maintain a military contingent for which to maintain a military contingent for which they were paid. All other officials were paid in they were paid. All other officials were paid in cash. During Akbar’s time the official bearing cash. During Akbar’s time the official bearing a decimal rank of 500 were ranked as a noblea decimal rank of 500 were ranked as a noble

THE THE MANSABDARIMANSABDARI …. ….

oror umara. umara. But by the end of the seventeenth But by the end of the seventeenth century the century the mansabdarsmansabdars with 1000 rank were with 1000 rank were accorded the status of a accorded the status of a umara. umara.

All mansabdars had dual ranks and they were remunerated on that basis. The successful regulation of the mansabs and the salary assignment (jagirdari system) can be truly termed as a Mughal phenomenon.

THE THE MANSABDARI…MANSABDARI…

All Mughal officials received a dual rank All Mughal officials received a dual rank when they joined the Mughal imperial service. when they joined the Mughal imperial service. That was That was zat zat (personal salary) and (personal salary) and sawarsawar (payment for the military contingent). For (payment for the military contingent). For example the example the mansabmansab of Prince Salim of Prince Salim (Jahangir) was 5000 (Jahangir) was 5000 zat/zat/5000 5000 sawar. sawar. What What does it mean: Prince Salim’s personal salary does it mean: Prince Salim’s personal salary was based on his was based on his mansabmansab of 5000 of 5000 zatzat and for and for 5000 5000 sawarsawar, he had to maintain a military , he had to maintain a military contingent. contingent.

THE THE MANSABDARI…MANSABDARI…

During Akbar’s reign the ratio was one During Akbar’s reign the ratio was one horsemen and two horses and a horsemen and two horses and a mansabdarmansabdar of of 5000 sawar had to maintain a contingent of 5000 sawar had to maintain a contingent of 5000 horsemen. The 5000 horsemen. The mansabdars zatmansabdars zat rank rank never exceeded his never exceeded his sawarsawar rank (either it used rank (either it used to be equal 5000/5000 or 3000/ 4000 or less to be equal 5000/5000 or 3000/ 4000 or less than the than the sawarsawar rank). The rank). The zatzat numerals were numerals were always used to be stated first.always used to be stated first.

The highest rank (The highest rank (mansabmansab) was 7000/7000 ) was 7000/7000 which was awarded to the officials/royalty.which was awarded to the officials/royalty.

CHANGES IN THE CHANGES IN THE MANSABDARIMANSABDARI

After the reign of Akbar when the highest After the reign of Akbar when the highest ranking mansabdars who had reached the ranking mansabdars who had reached the maximum limit in their mansab had nothing to maximum limit in their mansab had nothing to aspire for. For this reason there were some aspire for. For this reason there were some changes in the changes in the mansabdarimansabdari system. system.

The quota of the contingent which each The quota of the contingent which each mansabdarmansabdar had to maintain was lowered and had to maintain was lowered and there were further reductions in the contingent there were further reductions in the contingent if the if the mansabdarsmansabdars were posted on the frontiers were posted on the frontiers or far away places. or far away places.

THE CHANGES…THE CHANGES…

Changes in the Changes in the mansabdarimansabdari system: system: Du-aspaDu-aspa and and sih-aspasih-aspa categories: For example categories: For example

the the mansabmansab of Ali Mardan Khan (1628) was of Ali Mardan Khan (1628) was 7000/7000 7000/7000 du-aspa (du-aspa (His personal rank was His personal rank was 7000 but for his 7000 contingent he had to 7000 but for his 7000 contingent he had to maintain only 66% of troops) maintain only 66% of troops)

If the If the sih-aspasih-aspa category was added then the category was added then the mansabdarmansabdar had to maintain 33% of his had to maintain 33% of his contingent.contingent.

THE CHANGES…THE CHANGES…

The crisis in the The crisis in the mansabdarimansabdari system was system was becoming obvious by the time of Shahjahan. becoming obvious by the time of Shahjahan. The The zatzat rank of the mansabdars starting rank of the mansabdars starting exceeding their exceeding their sawarsawar rank and had crossed rank and had crossed the maximum limit of 7000. A the maximum limit of 7000. A mansabdar mansabdar could have a could have a mansabmansab of 20,000/ 5000. (will be of 20,000/ 5000. (will be elaborated).elaborated).

THE THE JAGIRDARIJAGIRDARI SYSTEM SYSTEM

All the Mughal mansabdars were paid through an assignment of jagirs.

These jagirs can be linked to the Delhi Sultan’s Iqta system where the Sultans parcelled out their territories to be administered by their nobles and the state officials. These officials were responsible for maintaining law and order and collection of land revenue. After meeting

THE THE JAGIRDARIJAGIRDARI……

the necessary expenses the the necessary expenses the iqtadarsiqtadars used to used to send the surplus revenue to the central send the surplus revenue to the central treasury. treasury.

The jagir assignments initiated by Akbar, The jagir assignments initiated by Akbar, however, only gave the right to collect however, only gave the right to collect revenues to the revenues to the mansabdarsmansabdars. They were not . They were not responsible to maintain law and order or any responsible to maintain law and order or any other responsibilities. It was a purely fiscalother responsibilities. It was a purely fiscal

THE THE JAGIRDARIJAGIRDARI……

arrangement and only Rajput arrangement and only Rajput mansabdars mansabdars were given more extensive rights of residence were given more extensive rights of residence within their own homeland (Rajputana). They within their own homeland (Rajputana). They received patrimonial (Mughal term: received patrimonial (Mughal term: watanwatan) ) lands as a part of the lands as a part of the jagirsjagirs assigned to them. assigned to them.

The most important element of the The most important element of the jagirjagir assignments was that they were transferable. assignments was that they were transferable. Abul Fazl compared the transfer of Abul Fazl compared the transfer of jagirsjagirs to to

THE THE JAGIRDARIJAGIRDARI……

re-sowing of the seeds in the garden. In re-sowing of the seeds in the garden. In practice, however, the higher practice, however, the higher mansabdars mansabdars preferred to retain their preferred to retain their jagirsjagirs (if they were (if they were good) and bribed the imperial officials lavishly good) and bribed the imperial officials lavishly for that.for that.

Deaths, transfers, promotions, and demotions Deaths, transfers, promotions, and demotions of the imperial cadres necessitated continuing of the imperial cadres necessitated continuing transfer of transfer of jagirsjagirs. .

THE THE ZAMINDARIZAMINDARI SYSTEM SYSTEM

The local level administration was carried on The local level administration was carried on the local elites or hereditary landowners and in the local elites or hereditary landowners and in Mughal parlance known as Mughal parlance known as zamindarszamindars. They . They claimed a hereditary right to collect a share in claimed a hereditary right to collect a share in the revenue collection. the revenue collection.

For administrative purposes they could be For administrative purposes they could be categorized into three broad groups.categorized into three broad groups.

THE THE ZAMINDARI…ZAMINDARI…

AUTONOMOUS AUTONOMOUS ZAMINDARSZAMINDARS: : the hereditary landowners who enjoyed sovereign powers. Rajput rulers, Jats (large peasant landowners) belonged to this category.

INTERMEDIARY INTERMEDIARY ZAMINDARSZAMINDARS: : the the zamindarszamindars who collected the land revenue and who collected the land revenue and paid to the imperial treasury or the paid to the imperial treasury or the jagirdars.jagirdars.

THE THE ZAMINDARIZAMINDARI……

PRIMARY PRIMARY ZAMINDARSZAMINDARS: the proprietary : the proprietary rights over agricultural as well as habitational rights over agricultural as well as habitational lands. Mughal emperors conferred such lands. Mughal emperors conferred such zamindarizamindari rights on people who cleared the rights on people who cleared the forests or brought waste lands under forests or brought waste lands under cultivation. cultivation.

THE LAND REVENUE SYSTEM…THE LAND REVENUE SYSTEM…

The land revenue (The land revenue (malmal) was levied on the ) was levied on the actual crop and not on the land. In its actual crop and not on the land. In its primitive form this was known as share primitive form this was known as share cropping. This simple form of revenue cropping. This simple form of revenue collection led to the system of collection led to the system of kankut, kankut, here here instead of dividing the crops physically, the instead of dividing the crops physically, the share were deduced based on previous harvests share were deduced based on previous harvests (in place by the fourteenth century).(in place by the fourteenth century).

THE LAND REVENUE…THE LAND REVENUE…

The The zabtzabt system introduced by Akbar system introduced by Akbar simplified the process, when on the basis of simplified the process, when on the basis of ten years of harvest, a standard cash rate was ten years of harvest, a standard cash rate was fixed for each locality. The land revenue was fixed for each locality. The land revenue was collected in cash from all parts of the Mughal collected in cash from all parts of the Mughal empire. empire.

In addition to the land revenue there were a In addition to the land revenue there were a number of other rural taxes such as grazing number of other rural taxes such as grazing tax, levies of the officials, taxes on animals, tax, levies of the officials, taxes on animals, waste lands, forests, etc.waste lands, forests, etc.

THE MUGHAL NOBILITYTHE MUGHAL NOBILITY

Mughal nobility was unique in two ways: a) Mughal nobility was unique in two ways: a) Mughal empire was the only Muslim state Mughal empire was the only Muslim state where the where the shiashia and the and the sunnisunni nobles co-existed nobles co-existed peacefully. B) Empire provided opportunities peacefully. B) Empire provided opportunities for service irrespective of ethnic, religious or for service irrespective of ethnic, religious or familial ties and thus created a “new individual familial ties and thus created a “new individual and group identity”. For instance, the and group identity”. For instance, the successful expansion of the empire brought successful expansion of the empire brought

THE NOBILITY…THE NOBILITY…

chances of promotion according to the chances of promotion according to the performance of the individual noble. The performance of the individual noble. The consolidation of the empire depended on its consolidation of the empire depended on its capacity, firstly, to politically integrate the capacity, firstly, to politically integrate the most important social groups and secondly, to most important social groups and secondly, to secure the financial resources that were secure the financial resources that were necessary for its survival.necessary for its survival.

In order to achieve a certain unity within theIn order to achieve a certain unity within the

THE NOBILITYTHE NOBILITY…… nobility and to gain the nobles undiminished nobility and to gain the nobles undiminished

dedication to the concerns of the imperial dedication to the concerns of the imperial centre, the Mughal empire had to provide centre, the Mughal empire had to provide opportunities to satisfy the interests of the opportunities to satisfy the interests of the imperial elites and in this way build the nobles imperial elites and in this way build the nobles identification with the imperial idea. identification with the imperial idea.

The Mughal nobility became and remained a The Mughal nobility became and remained a heterogeneous body of free men, not slaves heterogeneous body of free men, not slaves

THE NOBILITY…THE NOBILITY…

(like the Turkish nobility), who rose to (like the Turkish nobility), who rose to eminence as their talents and the emperor’s eminence as their talents and the emperor’s favours permitted. But no single ethnic or favours permitted. But no single ethnic or sectarian group was ever large enough to sectarian group was ever large enough to challenge the authority of the emperor. challenge the authority of the emperor. Rewards and incentives rather than force and Rewards and incentives rather than force and coercion were the Mughal’s preferred coercion were the Mughal’s preferred approach. The system offered generous money approach. The system offered generous money

THE NOBILITY…THE NOBILITY…

rewards as well as lavish honours and rewards as well as lavish honours and preferment to those who performed well at all preferment to those who performed well at all levels.levels.

Possessing great wealth and power, these Possessing great wealth and power, these nobles or nobles or umaraumara were highly visible public were highly visible public figures. Their personalities, habits, and figures. Their personalities, habits, and movements were the topic of endless rumours movements were the topic of endless rumours and speculations. The greatest nobles used toand speculations. The greatest nobles used to

THE NOBILITYTHE NOBILITY…… be the objects of empire wide- attention. News be the objects of empire wide- attention. News

of royal favour or disfavour, of illnesses, of royal favour or disfavour, of illnesses, marriages, postings, and other information marriages, postings, and other information formed the stuff of countless reports that formed the stuff of countless reports that flashed across the empire. Wherever, they flashed across the empire. Wherever, they were posted, whether in court or in the were posted, whether in court or in the provinces, the patrimonial households of the provinces, the patrimonial households of the nobles were a focal point of aristocratic life nobles were a focal point of aristocratic life

THE NOBILITY…THE NOBILITY…

and culture. To the extent his resources and culture. To the extent his resources permitted each noblemen emulated the style, permitted each noblemen emulated the style, etiquette, and opulence of the emperor. etiquette, and opulence of the emperor.

These nobles patronized artists, and craftsmen These nobles patronized artists, and craftsmen who produced the products exclusively from who produced the products exclusively from them. In the Mughal cities of Agra, Delhi, them. In the Mughal cities of Agra, Delhi, Burhanpur and Lahore, the morphology of Burhanpur and Lahore, the morphology of urban life was determined by the settlement urban life was determined by the settlement

THE NOBILITY…THE NOBILITY…

patterns of the Mughal nobility. Architects, patterns of the Mughal nobility. Architects, artisans, builders, poets, found permanent artisans, builders, poets, found permanent employment in the noble entourages. Mughal employment in the noble entourages. Mughal officials and frequently, their women spent officials and frequently, their women spent large sums of money for the construction of large sums of money for the construction of public buildings i.e. mosques, inns, stone public buildings i.e. mosques, inns, stone bridges, gardens and markets. The origin of bridges, gardens and markets. The origin of dozen of new towns and villages dozen of new towns and villages throughoutthe Mughal India can be traced to throughoutthe Mughal India can be traced to the investment by these nobles.the investment by these nobles.

LEGITIMACY: AKBAR AND HIS LEGITIMACY: AKBAR AND HIS POLICIESPOLICIES

How did the Mughals legitimize their rule How did the Mughals legitimize their rule beyond the religiously sanctioned status, they beyond the religiously sanctioned status, they were not above the Swere not above the Sharia, haria, or, in case of Non-or, in case of Non-Muslims, Muslims, dharmadharma. What sort of alliances did . What sort of alliances did they build? How did they secure support and they build? How did they secure support and delegate authority. And how did they delegate authority. And how did they transformed their power into authority, and transformed their power into authority, and what kind of authority they possessed? what kind of authority they possessed?

THE LEGITIMACYTHE LEGITIMACY……

First of all, the Muslim rulers in India, like First of all, the Muslim rulers in India, like their early Muslim predecessors, neither broke their early Muslim predecessors, neither broke away the established kingship system nor away the established kingship system nor interfered with customs, the social order, or interfered with customs, the social order, or indigenous structure of the village indigenous structure of the village administration. The Muslim kings did not administration. The Muslim kings did not present themselves as lawmakers for non-present themselves as lawmakers for non-Muslim subjects, but as their protectors and Muslim subjects, but as their protectors and guaranteed the continuityguaranteed the continuity

THE LEGITIMACY…THE LEGITIMACY…

of the traditional social and economic of the traditional social and economic institutions. The Mughals adopted a general institutions. The Mughals adopted a general policy of tolerance vis-à-vis the largely non-policy of tolerance vis-à-vis the largely non-Muslim population and elaborated an entirely Muslim population and elaborated an entirely new system of cultural ethnic integration, new system of cultural ethnic integration, which, in fact, introduced a new quality of which, in fact, introduced a new quality of imperial rule in India. They claimed to be imperial rule in India. They claimed to be responsible for the welfare of all their subjectsresponsible for the welfare of all their subjects

INTEGRATION PROCESSES

The historians, scholars and literary writers The historians, scholars and literary writers depicted the Mughal emperors as shadows of depicted the Mughal emperors as shadows of God on earth, whose authority to rule was a God on earth, whose authority to rule was a divine right. While Islamic religious thinking divine right. While Islamic religious thinking had generally restricted the religious function had generally restricted the religious function of the ruler to mere protection of law, Abul of the ruler to mere protection of law, Abul Fazl invested the Mughal emperor, Akbar, Fazl invested the Mughal emperor, Akbar, with a paramount spiritual authority. The with a paramount spiritual authority. The

INTEGRATION PROCESSES

moral authority, which he gained by his moral authority, which he gained by his reputation as a mystic and spiritual guide, did reputation as a mystic and spiritual guide, did not derive from any particular religion, and not derive from any particular religion, and therefore, legitimized his position as a ruler for therefore, legitimized his position as a ruler for Muslims and Hindus alike. This idea of Muslims and Hindus alike. This idea of spiritual leader corresponded with the Hindu spiritual leader corresponded with the Hindu and Muslim ideals of a universal monarch. and Muslim ideals of a universal monarch. There was a juxtaposition of Hindu/MuslimThere was a juxtaposition of Hindu/Muslim

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traditions in formulation of Mughal ideology traditions in formulation of Mughal ideology to legitimize their rule. to legitimize their rule.

Akbar’s contribution to the establishment of Akbar’s contribution to the establishment of Mughal authority on religious tolerance was Mughal authority on religious tolerance was based on the principles of based on the principles of sul-i-kulsul-i-kul or or “absolute peace”. As a divinely inspired “absolute peace”. As a divinely inspired guardian of law and justice, Akbar introduced guardian of law and justice, Akbar introduced certain elements, which fostered confidence certain elements, which fostered confidence

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and acceptance of Mughal authority among his and acceptance of Mughal authority among his subjects. From his childhood he was subjects. From his childhood he was inquisitive by nature and was interested in inquisitive by nature and was interested in learning about other cultures and faiths. In the learning about other cultures and faiths. In the beginning of his reign, he was a devout beginning of his reign, he was a devout Muslim i. e expeditions against the Rajputs Muslim i. e expeditions against the Rajputs were coined as campaigns against the infidels, were coined as campaigns against the infidels, and his intolerance towards other Muslim and his intolerance towards other Muslim sects.sects.

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Gradually a shift started appearing in his Gradually a shift started appearing in his attitude towards his own faith. Many reasons attitude towards his own faith. Many reasons are given behind the change by historians, but, are given behind the change by historians, but, it all started with his tutors, guardians, close it all started with his tutors, guardians, close companions, and most importantly, from the companions, and most importantly, from the outcome of the discussions that took place in outcome of the discussions that took place in his court between the Ulema. Although, he had his court between the Ulema. Although, he had initiated these talks, but as time went on, he initiated these talks, but as time went on, he

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became more dissatisfied with the legal became more dissatisfied with the legal complications and traditional approach of his complications and traditional approach of his clerics. He started inviting experts of other clerics. He started inviting experts of other faiths to come for discussion in his capital city, faiths to come for discussion in his capital city, Fatehpur Sikri (1578 onwards). In the Fatehpur Sikri (1578 onwards). In the meantime he made the leading theologians meantime he made the leading theologians recognize him as the supreme arbitrator in the recognize him as the supreme arbitrator in the religious affairs(1579). The leading religious affairs(1579). The leading theologians signed the document known in theologians signed the document known in history as history as MahzarMahzar. .

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The most sweeping change, which had a direct The most sweeping change, which had a direct impact on nearly all Hindus, occurred in 1579, impact on nearly all Hindus, occurred in 1579, when he abolished the when he abolished the jiziyajiziya. The termination . The termination of this tax implied that the unequal compact of this tax implied that the unequal compact between the Muslims and non-Muslims was between the Muslims and non-Muslims was also abolished. Hence, Akbar’s action was also abolished. Hence, Akbar’s action was bitterly resented by orthodox Muslims. bitterly resented by orthodox Muslims.

Akbar also started celebrating Hindu festivalsAkbar also started celebrating Hindu festivals

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and customs and openly worshipping sun with and customs and openly worshipping sun with sets of rituals of his own inventions. He sets of rituals of his own inventions. He engaged in abstinence from excessive meat engaged in abstinence from excessive meat eating, sexual intercourse and alcohol eating, sexual intercourse and alcohol consumption. Akbar also came to enlist consumption. Akbar also came to enlist selected members of the nobility as his selected members of the nobility as his disciples (misconstrued as a religion by some disciples (misconstrued as a religion by some historians). historians).

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He married Rajput princesses and inducted He married Rajput princesses and inducted large number of non-Muslims in his nobility.large number of non-Muslims in his nobility.

Akbar’s successors, more or less, continued Akbar’s successors, more or less, continued his tradition of pluralism and tolerance to other his tradition of pluralism and tolerance to other faiths. Usually Aurangzeb had been blamed faiths. Usually Aurangzeb had been blamed for undoing the cultural pluralism and always for undoing the cultural pluralism and always compared to his elder brother, Dara Shikoh, compared to his elder brother, Dara Shikoh, and two have come down in history as and two have come down in history as ideologicalideological

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opponents. Dara as liberal, and Aurangzeb as opponents. Dara as liberal, and Aurangzeb as rigid conservative. Dara, was indeed, an rigid conservative. Dara, was indeed, an intellectual in tradition of Akbar who sought intellectual in tradition of Akbar who sought philosophical truths in all religious traditions. philosophical truths in all religious traditions. But there were other contradictions. It is also a But there were other contradictions. It is also a fact, that Dara was a poor leader and a bad fact, that Dara was a poor leader and a bad general, therefore, not an ideal choice of being general, therefore, not an ideal choice of being the heir of Shahjahan. Whereasthe heir of Shahjahan. Whereas

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Aurangzeb, was a great general and military Aurangzeb, was a great general and military commander, a devout Muslim, yet the major commander, a devout Muslim, yet the major focus of Aurangzeb’s reign was warfare focus of Aurangzeb’s reign was warfare against the Muslims (Deccan states of Bijapur, against the Muslims (Deccan states of Bijapur, Golconda, etc.).Golconda, etc.).

But to blame Aurangzeb for the decline and But to blame Aurangzeb for the decline and collapse of the imperial structure will be collapse of the imperial structure will be coming to an easy conclusion/solution. coming to an easy conclusion/solution.

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Aurangzeb shifted but did not alter the fundamental Aurangzeb shifted but did not alter the fundamental policies of the Mughal empire. He preferred strict policies of the Mughal empire. He preferred strict Islamic or Islamic or Sharia Sharia application in administrative application in administrative matters. No doubt, he ordered the destruction of the matters. No doubt, he ordered the destruction of the temples in Banaras, Mathura and Rajasthan, but it temples in Banaras, Mathura and Rajasthan, but it was less to do with religiosity than the presumed was less to do with religiosity than the presumed disloyalty of nobles associated withthese sites. His disloyalty of nobles associated withthese sites. His accusation against he tenth Sikh guru was also, accusation against he tenth Sikh guru was also, politically motivated since the guru had openly politically motivated since the guru had openly supported his opponent, Dara.supported his opponent, Dara.

DEFINING MUGHAL CULTUREDEFINING MUGHAL CULTURE

In Indian languages adjectives derived from In Indian languages adjectives derived from the word Mughal connote the ultimate in the word Mughal connote the ultimate in luxury and display, it also came to be luxury and display, it also came to be associated with grandeur and extravagance on associated with grandeur and extravagance on a large scale. Mughals came to be known for a large scale. Mughals came to be known for their lavish life styles. Few examples: Akbar their lavish life styles. Few examples: Akbar only drank water from river Ganges and only drank water from river Ganges and wherever, he went the water was delivered to wherever, he went the water was delivered to him fresh. him fresh.

THE MUGHAL CULTURE…THE MUGHAL CULTURE…

The imperial kitchens prepared 1000 dishes a The imperial kitchens prepared 1000 dishes a day and the imperial tents could accommodate day and the imperial tents could accommodate 1500 people.1500 people.

Shahjahan was able to immortalize Mughal Shahjahan was able to immortalize Mughal grandeur in monumental buildings like the Taj grandeur in monumental buildings like the Taj Mahal, new capital city in Delhi, large scale Mahal, new capital city in Delhi, large scale renovations in Agra and Lahore and luxurious renovations in Agra and Lahore and luxurious court adorned with a peacock throne (made incourt adorned with a peacock throne (made in

THE MUGHAL CULTURE…THE MUGHAL CULTURE…

ten million rupees). Shahjahan spent more than ten million rupees). Shahjahan spent more than 28 million on his buildings. Despite the large 28 million on his buildings. Despite the large investments on war and imperial structures, investments on war and imperial structures, Shahjahan was able to amass wealth worth Shahjahan was able to amass wealth worth ninety one million rupees (half in cash and half ninety one million rupees (half in cash and half in jewels, gold and silver).in jewels, gold and silver).

HUMAYUN’S TOMB, DELHIHUMAYUN’S TOMB, DELHI

THE TAJ MAHALTHE TAJ MAHAL

ANOTHER VIEW OF TAJANOTHER VIEW OF TAJ

DIWAN-I-KHAS, DELHIDIWAN-I-KHAS, DELHI

LAL QILA, DELHILAL QILA, DELHI

FATEHPUR SIKRIFATEHPUR SIKRI

SHALIMAR BAGH, KASHMIRSHALIMAR BAGH, KASHMIR

MUGHAL PAINTINGSMUGHAL PAINTINGS

MUGHAL PAINTINGSMUGHAL PAINTINGS

MUGHAL PAINTINGSMUGHAL PAINTINGS

MUGHAL ARTMUGHAL ART

MUGHAL JEWELLRYMUGHAL JEWELLRY