© 2013 Cengage Learning

OutlineOutline

Humans Engage in Cultural Learning Enculturation and Socialization Culture, Parenting, and Families

Whiting and Whiting’s Six Cultures Study Diversity in Parenting as a Function of Economics Parenting Goals and Beliefs Global Parenting Styles

Outline (cont’d.)Outline (cont’d.)

Culture, Parenting, and Families (cont’d.) Parenting Behaviors and Strategies A Domain-Specific Approach to Parenting Siblings Extended and Multigenerational Families

Culture and Peers Exposure to Peer Groups Peers and Bullying

Outline (cont’d.)Outline (cont’d.)

Culture and Education Cross-National Differences in Math Achievement Social and Cultural Factors That Influence Math

Achievement Summary

Putting it All Together

HUMANS ENGAGE IN HUMANS ENGAGE IN CULTURAL LEARNINGCULTURAL LEARNING

Humans Engage in Cultural LearningHumans Engage in Cultural Learning

Unique human ability to engage in shared intentionality allows for "cultural learning“

Learning not only from others but through others Michael Tomasello studies:

Children understand intentionality, social learning, and communication more complexly than great apes

Social learning and communication provides foundation for cooperation with other humans

Only humans are capable of creating culture

ENCULTURATION AND ENCULTURATION AND SOCIALIZATION SOCIALIZATION

Enculturation and Socialization Enculturation and Socialization

Constant across cultures: people wish to become competent, productive adults

Different across cultures: meaning of "competent" and "productive”

Culture must be learned with practice through prolonged process

Socialization: process by which we learn and internalize rules and patterns of society

Enculturation: process of youngsters learning and adopting ways and manners of their culture

Source: Santrock, J. W. (2007). Child Development. Eleventh edition. NY: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

CULTURE, PARENTING, CULTURE, PARENTING, AND FAMILIESAND FAMILIES

Culture, Parenting, and FamiliesCulture, Parenting, and Families

Family: most important microsystem to child’s development

Margaret Mead: by observing parents we are observing essence of a culture

Study of parenting within cultural context tells us what is important to that culture

Whiting and Whitings’ Whiting and Whitings’ Six Cultures StudySix Cultures Study

Anthropologists collected field data in Mexico, India, Kenya, USA, Okinawa, and Philippines

Major focus: examine child rearing and children's behavior in varied cultural contexts

Child’s behavior and personality is intimately connected to characteristics of broader ecology

Women's work roles contribute to children's social behaviors

Diversity in Parenting as a Diversity in Parenting as a Function of EconomicsFunction of Economics

Diverse economic conditions produce socialization processes that vary across cultures

Caregiving environment reflects set of goals ordered in importance: Physical health and survival Promotion of behaviors leading to self-sufficiency Behaviors that promote other cultural values, i.e.

prestige

Parenting Goals and BeliefsParenting Goals and Beliefs

Parenting goals provide motivation and framework for raising children

Parenting goals lead to variations in parenting behaviors across cultures

Parental ethnotheories: parental cultural belief systems

Parents’ cultural belief systems motivate and shape what parents think is “right” way to parent

Global Parenting StylesGlobal Parenting Styles

Authoritarian parents: expect unquestioned obedience; child needs to be controlled

Permissive parents: warm and nurturing; allow children to regulate own lives with few guidelines

Authoritative parents: sensitive to child's maturity; firm, fair, reasonable and affectionate

Uninvolved parents: do not respond appropriately to children; indifferent

Parenting Behaviors and StrategiesParenting Behaviors and Strategies

One of most representative cultural differences in parenting behaviors is sleeping arrangements

Studies using HOME Inventory describe three general areas in which cultures vary: Warmth and responsiveness Discipline Stimulation/teaching

Parenting beliefs and practices are congruent with developmental goals dictated by culture

A Domain-Specific A Domain-Specific Approach to ParentingApproach to Parenting

Criticism of global parenting: ignores differences due to particular child, situation, and context

Domain-specific approach: Focuses on parenting behaviors rather than general

styles Emphasizes complexity of socialization process Domains include: protection, control, reciprocity,

guided learning, and group participation Parenting practices must be appropriate for domain in

which child is functioning

SiblingsSiblings

Siblings play important role in socialization of children

Siblings can fulfill many roles: tutors, buddies, playmates, caretakers

Skills important to culture are learned from siblings: perspective-taking, social understanding, conflict negotiation

Repeated and prolonged interaction means older siblings can be influential role model to younger siblings

Extended and Extended and Multigenerational FamiliesMultigenerational Families

Extended families: members other than parents and children (aunts, uncles, cousins, and grandparents)

Multigenerational families: grandparents in addition to parents and children or just children

Extended- and multigenerational-family child rearing is integral part of enculturation process

Extended and multigenerational families have in common sharing of resources, emotional support, and caregiving

CULTURE AND PEERSCULTURE AND PEERS

Culture and PeersCulture and Peers

Postfigurative cultures (culture change is slow): Socialization occurs primarily by elders transferring

their knowledge

Cofigurative cultures (culture change is quicker): Adults socialize their children, but peers play a

greater role in socializing each other

Prefigurative cultures (culture change is rapid): Culture is changing so rapidly that young people may

be the ones to teach adults

Exposure to Peer GroupsExposure to Peer Groups

Cultures vary in exposure that children have to peer groups

Industrialized countries: children spend significant amount of time with same-aged peers

Solitary farm settlements: children will have limited options to interact with wide range of playmates

Hunting and gathering society: children may be socialized by multiple-age peers

Peers and BullyingPeers and Bullying

Three criteria of bullying Intentional physical or psychological harm Based on a power imbalance between the bully and

victim Repeated over time

Rate of bullying varies across cultures Cross-national comparisons may be problematic

if cultures define bullying in different ways

CULTURE AND CULTURE AND EDUCATIONEDUCATION

Culture and EducationCulture and Education

Educational system is single most important formalized mechanism of instruction in many societies and cultures

Most think that country's educational system is solely an institution that teaches thinking skills and knowledge

Educational system is most important institution that teaches and reinforces cultural values

Cross-National Differences Cross-National Differences in Math Achievementin Math Achievement

Math and culture have a very special relationship

Stigler and Baranes (1988): math skills “…forged out of a combination of previously acquired (or inherited) knowledge and skills, and new cultural input"

Culture is not only a stimulator of math, but is itself represented in math, and how a society teaches and learns it

Social and Cultural Factors That Social and Cultural Factors That Influence Math AchievementInfluence Math Achievement

Language School systems Parental and familial values Teaching styles Teacher-student relationships Attitudes and appraisals of students

Summary Summary

Cross-national differences in academic achievement not due to biological differences

Many social and cultural factors play a role: Economics Geography Resources Cultural values and beliefs Abilities and experiences Language Family dynamics

PUTTING IT ALL PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHERTOGETHER

Putting it All TogetherPutting it All Together

Each culture's way of raising children represents culture's way of ensuring values and norms are transmitted to children

Practices are ritualized to transmit information from generation to next generation

Contemporary theories: children's active processing of information results in reproduction of culture and production of new elements