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QUICK REFERENCE GUIDE

Part 1: Fundamentals of Change – Individual, Team, and Organisation

A. Individual Change

Learning: Process of acquiring knowledge through experience which leads to a change in behavior

Gestalt psychology: Principle maintains that humans considers objects in their entirety before, or in parallel with, perception of individual parts; suggesting the whole is greater than the sum of its parts

Process of doing and thinking:

- Activist: Does something- Reflector: Reflects upon specific

experience- Theorist: Draws conclusion from

experience- Pragmatist: Plans to do something

Personality and Change

8 different personality preferences (basically just the MBTI nonsense)

See Notes

Approaches to Change

1) Behavioral – Changing individual’s behavior to achieve intended results

Classical Conditioning:

- Unconditioned stimulus leads to unconditioned response- If neutral stimulus and unconditioned stimulus are associated, neutral stimulus leads to unconditioned

response

Positive Negative

Addi

tion

+ve reinforcementDesired behavior is deliberately associated with a reward

e.g. classic carrot

-ve additionA punishment is deliberately associated with undesired behavior

e.g. classic stick

Subt

racti

on

+ve subtractionAn unpleasant stimulus previously associated with the desired behavior is removed

e.g. Want people to take on more credit lower the interest rates

-ve subtractionA pleasant stimulus previously associated with undesired behavior is removed

e.g. always sleeping in bunk, so I force remove all beds

Motivation and Behavior:

1. Hygiene (A desire to avoid pain or deprivation): ↑ !=¿ motivate, but ↓ demotivate2. Motivators (A desire to learn and develop)

Note: See Notes for Examples

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2) Cognitive – Our emotions and our problems are a result of the way we think

∵ Mind Emotions & Behavior, ∴ Look at how individuals are limiting themselves through adhering to old ways of thinking and replace them with new ways of being

Change their way of thinking by making use of clear goals:

a. Reframing: Reduce feelings and thoughts that impact negatively on performanceb. Affirmations: Positive statement describing the way that you want to be

Form of self-fulfilling prophecy

3) Psychodynamic – When facing change, an individual experiences a variety of internal psychological states

Kubler-Ross Model

Stage 1 – Denial

- Due to lack of information, fear of unknown, or fear of doing something wrong- Focus tends to remain in the past- Individuals feel:

o Uncomfortable with changing the status quoo Threatenedo Sense of disbelief

Stage 2 – Anger

- A continuation of our not wanting to accept the change and of wanting to do something, anything, other than fully believe in it. Anger is yet another way of displacing our real feelings about the situation

- Individuals feel:o Suspicion/Skepticismo Frustration

Stage 3 – Bargaining

- A deflection of the true gravity of the situation. Individual is desperately looking around for something, anything, to remedy the situation. ‘If only I could get it fixed or sorted everything would be all right.’

- An attempt to wrest back some control of the situation

Stage 4 – Depression

- Stage where we are ready to give up on everything- For some, depression can take the form of apathy or a sense of pointlessness. For others it can take the

form of sadness, and for some a mixture of intense emotions and disassociated states.

Stage 5 – Acceptance

- Stage where people come to terms with the reality and the inevitability of what is happening. People are in touch with their feeling about the situation, their hopes and fears, their anxieties.

- Focus is on the future

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Virginia Satir Model

Initial state as one of maintaining the status quo. This is a state in which if you carry on doing what you are doing, you will continue to get what you are getting. The situation is one of relative equilibrium where all parts of the system are in relative harmony.

This changes when something new enters the system. Satir calls it a ‘foreign element’ in the sense that a factor previously not present is introduced.

A period of chaos ensues. He or she may be in a state of disbelief – denial or emotional numbness – at first, not knowing what to think or feel or how to act. Individuals may resist the notion that things are going to be different. Indeed they may actually try to redouble their efforts to ensure that the status quo continues as long as possible, even to the extent of sabotaging the new ideas that are forthcoming.

But it is often when things have reached their very worst that from somewhere – usually from within the very depths of the person – the germ of an idea or an insight occurs. He or she has seen the light, or at least a glimmer of hope. An immense amount of work may still need to be done, but the individual has generated this transforming idea.

Once this transforming idea has taken root, the individual can begin the journey of integration. Thus this period of integration requires the new world order to be assimilated into the individual’s own world.

As time moves on the restructure is bedded into the organization, roles and responsibilities clarified, new objectives and ways of working specified and results achieved. A new status quo is born.

Note: See Notes for Weinberg Critical Points in the Change Process

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4) Humanistic – Emphasis is on healthy development, healthy relationships and healthy organisations

People are inherently capable of reacting to change, but require enabling structures and strategies to do so

Maslow and the hierarchy of needs

Human beings have an inbuilt desire to grow and develop and move towards self-actualization

“the desire to become more and more what one is, to become everything that

one is capable of becoming”

Rogers and the path to personal growth

For change agents to bring about growth and development, one must possess 3 crucial conditions:

Genuineness and congruence: to be aware of your own feelings, to be real, to be authentic. Rogers’ research showed that the more genuine and congruent the change agent is in the relationship, the greater the probability of change in the personality of the client.

Unconditional positive regard: a genuine willingness to allow the client’s process to continue, and an acceptance of whatever feelings are going on inside the client. Whatever feeling the client is experiencing, be it anger, fear, hatred, then that is all right. It is saying that underneath all this the person is all right.

Empathic understanding: in Rogers’ words, ‘it is only as I understand the feelings and thoughts which seem so horrible to you, – it is only as I see them as you see them, and accept them and you, that you feel really free to explore all the hidden roots and frightening crannies of your inner and often buried experience.’

Key Concepts of Rogers:

- The creation of a facilitating environment, through authenticity, positive regard and empathic understanding, enabling growth and development to occur.

- Given this facilitating environment and the correct stance of the change agent, clients will be able to surface and work through any negative feelings they may have about the change.

- Given this facilitating environment and the correct stance of the change agent, there will be a movement from rigidity to more fluidity in the client’s approach to thinking and feeling.

- Given this facilitating environment and the correct stance of the change agent, clients will move towards accepting a greater degree of self-responsibility for their situation, enabling them to have more options from which to choose.

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B. Team Change

See Notes for Workgroup VS Team (IS2104 stuff)

Types of Team:

Work Team Project Team Management Team Change TeamPurpose Business as usual Change or development

(short range)Less “business as usual”, more change or development

Change or development

Formation Hierarchical Time-limited for specific purpose

Translate goals into specific objectives

Formed when significant change is needed

Propensity to initiate change

Limited Potentially High Initiator of change Reason for existence to change

Advantages during change

Good at implementation once goals are clear

Good focus for specific implementation goals

Powerful, impactful Increased energy and sense of purpose

Disadvantages during change

Does not like change too often

Not good for tackling complex topics

Poor focus on events after launch

Less impactful if lacks influence

Team Effectiveness:

Note: See Notes for full description on Team Effectiveness (all the team roles, IS2104 Stuff)

Team Change:

Team Dynamics (See Notes for Benbin’s Team Types)

More Similar Reach common understanding sooner

Decisions made quicker

Greater the possibility of errors through exclusion of possibilities

More Disparate

Reach common understanding later

Take longer to make decisions

More views and opinions taken into account

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Forming

Individual's behavior driven by a desire to be accepted and avoid controversy or conflictFundamental team constructs are asked here, e.g. What are the ground rules of the team?Comfortable stage to be in, but avoidance of conflict means nothing gets done

Storming

People start to question the dynamics and assumptions laid in the Forming StagePhase can be destructive to team

Norming

Previous phase becomes template for ways of acting, problem solving and decision makingTeam settles down into working towards achievement of tasks May move back and forth between stages to establish norms

Performing

Team functions as a unit:Job done smoothly and effectively as members are competent, autonomous and able to make decisionsTeam is motivated and knowledgeable

Adjourning

All good things must end4/12/11


C. Organizational Change

Description Idea in Brief Key Beliefs Assumptions about organizational change LimitationMachines Routine operations, well-

defined structure and job roles, and efficient working inside and between functional areas

- Hierarchical- Role specific- Objective oriented- Tightly controlled

- Change can only be done by those in position of authority

- There will be resistance, and this needs to be managedo Change viewed as highly disruptive

- Change must be well planned and well controlled

Unstable situations

Organism Different environments favor different species of organizations - Stable Rigid

bureaucratic- Fluid Looser

- Flow of information is key to organization’s success

- Important to maximize the fit between individual, team, and organizational needs

- Humans have tendency to revert- Organisms evolve to adapt

- Changes are made in response to changes in external environment and it can be designed and worked towards

- Individuals need to be psychologically aware of need for change to adapt

- Participation and psychological support are necessary strategies for success

Organization is not really an adaptive unit at the mercy of its environment

Political Systems

Recognizes the important role that power-play, competing interest and conflict have in organizational life

- You can’t stay out of politics, you’re already in it- Building support for your approach is essential if

you want anything to happen- Coalitions between individuals are more

important than work teams- Allocation of resources causes politics

- Change must be supported by a powerful person- Important to understand political map, and understand

winners and losers of this change- Positive strategies include creating new coalition and

renegotiating issues

Office becomes a political war zone

Flux and Transformation

Organization is part of the ebb and flow of the whole environment

- Order emerges naturally out of chaos- Organizations have a natural capacity to self-

renew- Key tensions are important in the emergence of

new ways of doing things

- Change cannot be managed. It emerges- Tensions and conflicts are an important feature of

emerging change- Managers are enablers, enable people to exchange

views and focus on significant differences

No action plan or process flow diagram or agenda to follow

See Notes for Models to Organizational Change

Bridges – Managing the Transition

Ending Neutral Zone New BeginningEnding what used to be- Identify who is losing what, expect a reaction and

acknowledge the losses openly- Repeat information about what is changing

People feel disoriented, motivation ↓, anxiety ↑- Magnify the plagues- Mark the ending- Deal with the murmuring

People feel they can embark on something new- Communicate the purpose behind the change- Paint a picture of the new look and feel- Lay out a step by step plan to get there

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- Give people access to the decision makers - Allow them to play a part in the outcome

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Part 2: IT-enabled Business Change

2A – Overview

IT can be a driver because there are opportunities for businesses that can trigger change in which IT can serve as an enabler

Triggers of Business ChangeExternal Internal SurvivalChanges in government policiesCompetition heats upNew technology emerged

Management ChangeInternal problemsNew products or services

Failure to keep pace or stay ahead will result in loss of competitive edge

Change to Stay Ahead Resource VS Capability

Resource-based View- Considers the firm as a bundle of resources (asset, competence, process, skill or knowledge)- Capabilities required to exploit resources for competitive advantage- Firm needs to evaluate its internal strengths and weaknesses by asking VRIO:

o Do the resources/capabilities/ add value?o Are they rare?o Are they difficult to imitate?o Is the firm organized to exploit the potential of the resource/capability?

Dynamic Capabilities – An extension of traditional RBV- VRIO resources do not persist over time and, hence, cannot be a source of sustainable competitive

advantage- Hence, firms change constantly to integrate, reconfigure, renew, and recreate its resources/capabilitiesChange to Keep Pace

Institutional TheoryFocuses on legitimacy than efficiency as it is believed that gaining legitimacy allows organizations to be rewarded in terms of public acceptance, external support and easier access to resourcesIsomorphism (Constraining process that forces one unit to resemble others in the same circumstances):- Coercive force: Legal environment, e.g. government regulations- Mimetic force: Industry best practices- Normative force: Professionalism, e.g. IEEE

Role of IS in Organizations:

Operational excellence - Technology can achieve greater efficiency and productivity - Improved efficiency higher profitability

New Products, Services, and Business Models

- IT/IS are enabling tools for new products, services, and business models

Customer and Supplier intimacy

- Serving customer well leads to returning customers ↑ revenue and profits

- Supplier intimacy lowers costsImproved decision making

- Better allocation of resources- Better response times- Better estimations for productions and procurement

Note: See Notes for Benefits of Change

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Organizational Adoption != Individual Adoption

Organization Technology Adoption Stages Individual Technology Adoption Stages

*Rejection of innovation can occur at any point of time

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Initiation

Scanning organizational problems/opportunities matching corresponding IT solutionsOrganizational need pull or technological innovation push

Adoption

Negorations to get organizational backing to implement IT solutionDecision is reached to invest resources need for implementation

Adaptation

New technology is developed, installed and maintainedOrganizational procedures/Staff trainings to be revised

Acceptance

Members are induced to commit to actual usageIT application finally in use

Routinization

IT application encouraged as a normal activity and part of life of the organization

Infusion

Increased usage of technilogy leads to greater effectiveness Comprehensive use in new or more ways adds value to organizationIT application now at fullest potential

Awareness

Individual is exposed but lacks complete information and the motivation to see further information

Interest

Individual interested in innovation and seeks more information about itIncreases knowledge but undecided on its utility

Evaluation

Mentally applies innovation to one's situation to decide whether to pursue Will seek information from peers and/or seek reinforcement through trials

Trial

Engage in small scale usageSeeks further information such as way to use

Adoption

Considers the trial results and decides whether to pursue innovation completely


Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology

Definitions

Behavioural intention: The degree to which a person has formulated conscious plans to perform or not perform some specified future behaviour.

Effort expectancy: The degree of ease associated with the use of the system.

Facilitating conditions: The degree to which an individual believes that an organizational and technical infrastructure exists to support use of the system.

Performance expectancy: The degree to which an individual believes that using the system will help him or her to attain gains in job performance.

Social influence: The degree to which an individual perceives that important others believe he or she should use the new system.

Voluntariness: The extent to which potential adopters perceive the adoption decision to be non-mandatory.

Note: See Notes for Assumptions of Change, Some Reasons Why Change Fails, etc.

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Core determinants


2B – Change Management Activities

Change Management is “the approach to plan, design, implement, manage, measure, and sustain changes in business processes and work

Change Management ActivitiesS/n Activity Impact if activity not performed1 Review triggers of change Misjudge what is behind change2 Market change and change management Support for change will wane3 Define goals, objectives, and scope for change Lack of focus; scope creep (keep growing)4 Identify potential areas of change Missed opportunities5 Select activities for change Change activities that have less impact than others6 Define how work will be performed after change Confusion, misunderstanding7 Determine implementation strategy for change Lack of direction of change8 Manage and direct change Problems left unresolved for too long9 Measure work before, during, and after change Lack of confidence in change

10 Ensure change is lasting and persistent Failure to reap benefits, reversion11 Maintain momentum of change Change results may be undone

Resistance

Factors- Fear of change- Cost Savings over

productivity- No proper training for

employees- Previous failures in change

- Fear of demotion/loss of position

- Extra work affects current work- Mgmt don’t appreciate change

effort- Due credit not given

- Doing for the sake of doing- Resistance worked before- High turnover in mgmt- Change not addressing major

needs

Impact- Loss of morale- Lessened efficiency

- Increased absenteeism- Sabotage

- Change effort slows down

Types of ResistancesOpen Underground

Activ

e Super vocal, must address

Change threatens their status

Most dangerous

Disrupts change secretly behind backs

Pass

ive Easy to spot & catch. Stupid but rare Hard to catch, must convince logically

Monitor productivity to spot

Dealing with resistance

- Do not attack resistance openly, at first. Drives people underground- Try to understand the rationale behind resistance, get people to express their concerns in the open- Acknowledge that many people do not like to change old habits

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- Share resistance information with change management team- Do not assume you can turn everyone around- Concentrate on getting support from junior employees who will gain from change

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Change Management Framework

Configuration RationaleExecutive Change Steering committee- Provide direction and approve major change

related activities

Benefits of having two change steering committees- Need for upper level committee so senior

managers will not meddle with change- Operational Change Committee provides link

between upper management and change team- Two levels help prevent micromanagement of

work

Operational Change Steering Committee- Consists of several high level managers

interested in change, members in change team, strike forces

- Review work of strike forcesChange Management Team- Headed by two change leaders with medium or

junior level employees as members- See Notes for Roles

- Two change leaders for continuity and prevent burnouts

Strike Forces- Teams composed of department employees

who evaluate current work and develop ideas for change

- Leader of each strike force come from departments in disagreement

- Strike force members still perform their regular work in addition to strike force

Benefits of performing regular work- Ensure faster results from limited time - Won’t negatively impact department

Benefits of strike force leader from disagreeing department- Leader will press for change- Major issues to surface that are more than

cosmetic changes

Idea of an Issues Database and Lessons Learnt Database

Document issues faced in change effort and use them for future change efforts (DISC?)

Issues Faced Database Lessons Learnt Database- Activities to which change issue applies- Impact if not addressed- Type of work affected- Status- Priority- Action taken- Results

- Processes/situations to which lessons learned applies

- Expected outcome- Guidelines to implement

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ManagementExecutive Change Sterring Committee

Operational Change Steering Committee

Change Management Team

Strike Forces

Employees


2C – The “How”, Part I: Change Planning

Vision: Where the organization wants to be (preferred future, a desirable state, and ideal state)Mission: How, in general terms, it supports the overarching vision

IMPORTANT: Establish measurable elements for the vision and mission (See Notes for examples)

Gap Analysis: Process of assessing gap that has to be bridged between where an organization is and where it wants to be

Identify possible business strategies to work towards objectives

Analysis Table

Breakdown Mission/Vision Identify Stakeholders/Strategy/Objectives Create Analysis Table

6 types of Analysis Table for Business Planning

Organization VS Process To understand which business units will be affected if change is initiated

Process VS Business Issues To highlight potential processes for change that can alleviate business issues

Process VS Business Objectives

To highlight potential processes for change that can meet business objectives

Process VS Business Strategies

To see the importance/suitability of the process to the business strategy

Process VS Vision To see whether process meets vision elementsProcess VS Stakeholders To weigh the value of business process to the specific stakeholders

Analysis Tables can also be used to identify the Change Goals (e.g. Increase Productivity, very vague)

Scope of Change

- Technology Infrastructure- Staffing of the work- Business Rules

- Application Systems- Management of the work- The work itself

- Organization Structure- Policies/Processes- Facilities and location of work

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Change Goals

VS

Business Process

Business Issues

Business Objectives

Business Strategies

Mission / Vision

Stakeholder


Identifying potential areas of change (e.g. where to increase productivity)

3 Step Process: Data Collection Analysis Decision

1) Data Collection

You can interview but observations are definitely preferred

What Collect information through observationsWho Strike forces, Change team at the initial stageWhere At the worksiteHow* 1) Collect information in multiple visits by observing the actual work

2) Use collected information to identify problems with current processes3) Get validation from employees that they are actual problems. Let them relate the impact4) Talk with employees about possible solutions. (Some may serve as quick hits)5) Define short and long-term changes and determine benefits of changes6) Chart out plan for getting from current to future situations

Why - Information can be validated immediately- Requirements are more precise and complete, Benefits are more tangible- Employees become more interested and involved from collaboration- Being at the actual site means time is spent more effectively and efficiently

*See Notes for Guidelines & more info

2) Analysis

Make use of following analysis:

- Basic information flow for processes- Issues in the workflow and where

they occur- Boundaries between departments

- Shadow systems workflow- Exception workflow- Rework workflow

- Business rules needed- Input/output volume- Quick hits?

To produce the following:

- Identify current processes and work- Determine problems and opportunities (a situation in the business unit where change would be beneficial)- Enter opportunities into database- Score the combined processes (See Notes for factors to consider)

3) Decision

Top 3 based on:

- Impact if not implemented- Tangible benefits- Easiest to implement

- Change objectives alignment- Change strategy alignment

- Time required- Scope of change

Implement both, parallel processes

Those not selected, communicate to the department why there weren’t selected

Note: See Notes for Marketing Change Management

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Urgency

Benefit

Alignment-Change objectives/strategy

Risk/Resistance

Ease of implementation

Scope of change


2D – The “How”, Part II: Change Implementation

Change Implementation Strategy:

- Roadmap for how change will be undertaken in stages- Balance out cost and benefits across phases- Forces people to think about how multiple changes in different areas will be carried out

Consider:

- Areas of change- Current Situation- Long-term change- Performance measures

Quick Hits VS Long-term change Quick Hits Long-term ChangeTime to implement <1 – 3

months> 3

monthsPolicy Change Minor MajorIT Infrastructure Little or none Minor to Major Customer/Supplier impact Little or none Minor to SignificantPotential Resistance Low Moderate to highCost of change Low or none SignificantRisks Low Moderate to HighInterdependencies with other opportunities Less and non-critical Multiple and Complex

Areas of change / Performance measures

Current Situation

Phase 1 Phase N Long-term Change

Note: See Notes for example

Opportunities Dependencies

- Time Sequenced: B dependent on completion of A to proceed- Resource sharing: Change may affect or use the same people for implementation- Technology: Opportunities may rely on same technology - Customer/Supplier: Opportunity may affect same stakeholders- Management: Working with same manager or management has continuity

Selecting the Winning Change Implementation Strategy

Consider: 1) Resources, 2) Morale, 3) Duration

Draw a chart of estimated benefits, risks, costs, etc. (See Notes)

Who to be Change Team? New VS Old

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IMPLEMENTATION

Four main activities done in parallel:

- Implement Quick Hits- Install and carry out major change- Measure results- Prevent deterioration and reversion

Quick Hits

Types - Policies and procedures change- Minor system changes

o Changing permission levels- Facilities or Layout change- Shift of work structure

o May require creation or removal of positions- Changes in interfaces

o Can span several departmentso Focus on problems, provide training, involve stakeholders

- Addressing shadow systemo Either eliminate or formalize it

- Implementing additional or new worko Usually in preparation for long-term changeo Stress necessity of additional work

Timing - Upper level manager introduce quick hits- Supervisors and employees have undergone training- Post-implementation

Planning - Revisit the sequencing of quick hits- Involve employees who were successful in the change effort in later waves- How to quantify results

Gap between Quick Hits & Long-term Change

Evaluate what has been accomplished, and what else needs to be donee.g.

Area of change Post-Quick Hits Long Term Change GapNetwork In place Same Needs to be optimizedHardware In place Same NothingSoftware Acquired Installed InstallationProcedures Manual Automated system

synchronizationSubstantial

Staffing None Needs to be done After installation

Review Decision to call: Go, No Go, ModifyFactors influencing decision:

- Time taken to implement Quick Hits- Need for long-term change has

changed- Quick Hits SUPER successful

- Out of funds- Low morale, high inertia- High turnover in Change

TeamWhat to Update

- Review tasks of implementation plan- Revisit change team- Analyse list of issues

- Evaluate dependencies from lessons learnt

- Review overall schedule

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Install and carry out major change

Pilot/Phased Parallel Big Bang

Idea

Implement in one unit first Roll out to others after refinement

In parallel to existing process

Introduce ALL at once

Adva

ntag

es

- Limited impact if got problems Low risk

- Overall implementation can be accomplished in tandem or in parallel

- Greater time and flexibility to deal with issues

- Immediate fall back if got issues

- Opportunity to speed up or slow down the transition

- Only feasible method- Change over process takes least

time- Disruption limited to changeover

and “settling down” period

Disa

dvan

tage

s

- Duration is long- Not suitable for operations

with high integration - Possible substantial

differences between groups

- Require A LOT more effort

- Same people doing two things

- ↑ costs & coordination

- Much greater coordination- Continuous monitoring needed to

detect problems- Super time-critical, very stressful- Necessary to create workarounds,

shadow systems, and temp patches

Note: See Notes for Trade-offs to consider

Measure Results

Capability Maturity Model: Strong need to optimize software development aspects

Six Sigma: (NOT TESTED)

- Implemented with a focus on problems and opportunities that will yield significant benefits- Implementation of a measurement-based strategy that focuses on process improvement and variation

reduction rather than checking for compliance against a definition or model- Two methodologies:

o DMAIC (Design, measure, analyse, improve, control): For existing processes that are falling behindo DMADV(Design, measure, analyse, design, verify): To develop new processes

Goals and Constraints of Measurements

When to Measure

Anywhere also can. Important thing is consistency and frequency (DICE Article)- At the start, onset of change- Each stage of quick hits- Onset of long term change- After long term change

Goals Technical Goals: To collect information to satisfy business and political goals- Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle: Disturbance in measurements

Business Goals- Ensure work has not deteriorated or reverted- Identify potential additional activities for change- Report to management what is going on

Political Goals- Provide evidence that change effort works and is effective- Support management, supervisors, employees to sustain change- Support standardized measurements for key processes

Constraints - Systems: Inability to capture data- Information: Type, detail, validity, and amount of data- Resources- Schedule: No time to collect data- Process: Nature of actual work

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Definition of a Measurement Process

Step 1: Define the goals of measurementStep 2: Determine how measurements will be employedStep 3: Identify what measurements are necessary to achieve goalsStep 4: Conduct a simulation of measurement process to ascertain if approach is practicalStep 5: Implement the measurement process (Data collection & analysis with corrections if required)

Structure of Measurements

- Information required- Source of information- Timing of collection

- Most economical method- Where and how to collect

- How to organize information- Who to collect and analyse

Note: See Notes for full explanation

Information Required:

- Performance: How the work is done (Output side)- Resources: Ingredients that support the work (Input side)- Management: Supervision of work

Sources of Information:

- IT Systems- Individual interviews/Focus groups- Direct observations

Timing of collection:

- Limited when process is being considered as a change candidate- Detailed when change is in planning stage- Detailed at the onset of Quick Hit - Detailed xX after Quick Hit- Detailed after new change is effected- Periodic detailed on annual or semiannual- Reactive measurement for specific issue

Law of Diminishing Returns: Too much effort, too little value

What to do with data- Lesson learned database- Issues faced database- Coordination of measurement efforts- Support management request for analysis and

information- Development of measurements, analysis, and

reporting- Longitudinal analysis of measurement

information

How to use data- Support incentive programs for employees- Detect deterioration and process problems- Use as basis for benchmarking- Select systems projects to pursue- Apply lessons learned in training

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Prevent Deterioration and Reversion

Deterioration: the process of becoming progressively worse (failure to meet standards/expectations)Reversion: a return to a previous state, practice, or belief

3 Step Process: Prevention Detection Response

Deterioration Reversion

Why

it o

ccur

s

- Changing without thinking- Focus on short term fixes- Change not controlled enough- Attention on employees & systems, not on process- Process can’t accommodate new requirements- King and Queen Bees interfere with change- Supervisors not trained to detect deterioration

- King & Queen bees restore power- Difficulty changing habits- Change not emphasized enough

Sign

s

- ↑ input, ↓/= output- Complains about workload- Increased use of shadow systems- Greater dependency on manuals- No updates to training material- IT updates has stagnated- Lack of measurements- Increased absenteeism, turnover of employees

- King & Queen Bees get louder- Employees seek K&Q more than

supervisors- K&Q usurp power from supervisors- ↑ manual activity- Old shadow systems still in use- Old problems in old processes re-

emerging

Prev

entio

n

- Work with K&Q to get them to participate and have ownership- Make management insist on measurement of processes- Organize awareness workshops - Go through to detect exceptions, workarounds, and shadow systems

Dete

ction

- Initiate measurement of deterioration through score card- Conduct measurements- Conduct informal visits - Encourage coming forward - Conduct periodic focus groups- Get feedback from IT for performance statistics

Resp

onse

Continue to monitor Gather more information Take action- Persuade management to see problems of deterioration

o Reduced productivity & morale- Take action

o Form a mini change team to investigateo Visit department and conduct focus groups to check problemso Show example of deteriorationo Show employees the solution

Sust

ain

Appeal to self-interest:- Employees: Work become more difficult and complex- Supervisors: More deterioration increases their involvement in the detailed work of the process- Managers: If processes deteriorate, productivity, service, costs, and other factors get worse- IT & Vendors: Get blamed for process deterioration because of “system fault”

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Part 3: Three Keys to Influence

1) Focus and Measure (Results we want)2) Find Vital Behaviours (to get us there)3) Engage the 6 Sources of Influence (to get everyone to adopt the vital behaviours)

1) Focus and Measure (Results we want)

- Provide clear, compelling, and challenging goals- Quantify changes using high value, low cost measures and measure frequently- Good measures drive the right behaviour

2) Find Vital Behaviours (to get us there)

Vital behaviours are high-leverage actions that lead to important results

Pareto Principle: 80% result come from 20% effort

Vital Behaviour Search StrategiesNotice the obvious Recognize behaviours that are obvious but underused

e.g. Healthy people eat right, exercise moreLook for crucial moments

Find times when behaviour puts success at riske.g. “98% of our people do 98% of the right stuff 98% of the time” except when …

Learn from positive deviants

Those who live in the same world but somehow produce much better results i.e. a person who ought to have a problem but for some reason doesn’t

1. Find them2. Let others observe them3. Adopt their vital behaviours

Spot Culture Busters

Behaviours that reverse stubborn cultural norms and taboosUnhealthy behaviours persist because confronting them openly simply isn’t done

3) Engage the 6 Sources of Influence (to get everyone to adopt the vital behaviours)

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Individuals are personally motivated to do exactly the opposite

Help them love what they hate

Assumption: Whenever others cause us inconvenience or pain, we suspect they have selfish motives coupled with malicious intent. THIS IS WRONG!!!

Tactic TheoryAllow for Choice Gain access to human motivations only if they’re allowed the psychological freedom

to choose themThe more we push, the less it worksSolution:

1) Replace judgement with empathy2) Replace lectures with questions

Create Direct Experiences

Being able to experience first-hand is a powerful way to help people recognize, feel, and believe in the change

Tell Meaningful Stories

Mixture of verbal persuasion and direct experience

Make it a game - Keeping score- Competition

- Constant Improvements – Trend- Control over individual contribution

Help them do what they can’t

Much of Will is Skill Much of Skill is Practice

Idea in Brief: Willpower/self-discipline can be acquired as a skill & Skill comes through deliberate practice

What is deliberate practice?

1. Demand full attention for brief intervals: Complete attention2. Provide immediate feedback against a clear standard: Coupled with complete concentration

accelerates learning3. Break mastery into mini goals: Set goals to improve behaviours or processes, not outcomes4. Prepare for setbacks; Build in resilience: Interpret setbacks as guides, not brakes

Emotional Management: Take control of the amygdala

- Transform difficult into easy- Perform cognitive reappraisal

o Classifying: distance yourself from your need by labelling it, i.e. be objectiveo Debating: debate with yourself about it by introducing competing thoughtso Deliberating: distract yourself

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No Source of influence is more powerful and accessible than the persuasive power of the people who make up

our social networks

Three Strategies: Lead the Way, Engage Formal and Opinion Leaders, and Create New Norms

Lead the Way Be the first to behave a new wayA sacrifice can be a powerful influence accelerant:

- Time- Money

- Ego- Previous Priorities

Engage Formal and Opinion Leaders

Institutional Theory: To influence the behaviour of users, engage the credible sources

Create New Norms 1) Make the undiscussable discussable: Throw out old norms2) Create an environment where everyone is responsible not only for

themselves but also hold others accountable for them as well

One is more likely to succeed when one gets “a little help from friends

When others are part of the Problem

If bad behaviour is reinforced by a web of players, all the players have to be engaged in influencing change

Turn a me problem into a we problem

Benefits to working together:

- Interdependence: develops people’s ability to work as a team- Lesser blind spots: provide feedback that can be offered by a different pair of eyes- Group solidarity: give ourselves up to the larger cause and act for the good of everyone else, or the plan

fails- Collaborating: provide assistance to help people turn vital behaviours into productive habits

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Incentives should not be to overwhelm people to change, but to remove disincentives

Always engage Personal & Social Motivation before using Structural Motivation

Over-justification Effect: An expected external incentive decreases a person’s intrinsic motivation to perform a task as they pay more attention to the external reward than to the inherent enjoyment of the activity

Recognize being Rewarded Task must not be satisfying Withdraw reward Activity not as fun Do less often

RewardsDo:- Ensure rewards:

o Come soono Are gratifyingo Clearly tied to vital behaviour

- Give incentives a symbolic significance, much more than the face value of the incentive itself

- Reward small improvements along the way

Don’t:- Use incentives to compensate for failure to

engage personal and social motivation- Reward only until phenomenal rewards are

achieved

PunishmentsDo:- Provide a clear warning: -ve things will happen if

they continue down the same path- Administer punishment or risk losing credibility

Don’t:- Expect punishments to have a mirror effect of

positive reinforcement- Just hand out punishments without warning

“You are a product of your environment. So choose the environment that will best develop you toward your

objective”

Make use of things to enable behaviour works best when you can alter the physical world in a way that eliminates human choice entirely.

3 Key Strategies

Strategy 1: Use the power of space. Leverage the effect of size, location, and surroundings. For example, move things closer or further away.

Strategy 2: Use the power of data and cues. Leverage reminders in the environment to help you remember how to act or that change what you think and care about. For example, change the reports you routinely view to parallel your goals and values, post visual directions, or place reminders in key spots.

Strategy 3: Use the power of tools. Leverage machines, layout, structure, policies, etc. For example, mechanize difficult work, change the reporting structure, reorganize the work flow, or update instruction manuals, policies, and procedures.

e.g. Drawing a line in the container to increase volume filled up

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Application of Six Sources of Influence

Here is a quick example of analysing losing weight using the Six Sources of Influence.

Source AnalysisSource 1 – Personal Motivation

Do you want to lose weight? For example, if you don’t really want to lose weight, you’re not really going to try. It can’t just be for other people. It has to be for you.

Source 2 – Personal Ability

Do you have the skills, knowledge and techniques that work for you? Chances are, you may know the patterns that work for you, or at least the patterns that don’t work.

Source 3 – Social Motivation

Do your friends want to go out drinking every night or encourage you to eat a lot at your favourite haunts?

Source 4 – Social Ability

Is there somebody in your social circle that might have the knowledge or resources you need to get an edge?

Source 5 – Structural Motivation

When you go home, are you greeted by a big bowl of candy or a big bowl of fruit? Your environment can motivate you in a good way or a bad way.

Source 6 – Structural Ability

Do you have a way to workout at home? This can give you a big advantage in the long run.

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Pop Quiz

1. Over the years, although hospital administrators seek to implement Healthcare IS as part of their change efforts, they have generally encountered more resistance from physicians than nurses during implementation. A common reason explaining physician resistance is their desire to uphold the values of the profession. Which of the following best explains this phenomenon?

A. Mimetic forceB. Normative forceC. Coercive forceD. Profession forceE. E & D only

2. Which of the following statements is true?A. It is good to have a two pronged set of change goals – one for employee consumption, and one that is the real

agendaB. Having at least a change goal in each dimension can be useful for the change effortC. It is not wise to set change goals with managers because it will too tediousD. End results are more important than how actions in change management are undertaken

3. Which of the following statements is false?A. It is always desirable to make changes one department at a timeB. Top management is important for organisational changeC. UTAUT explains part of the reason why IT implementation failsD. It is unwise to ignore complaints from employees even if they are the minority

4. In organisational change, employee resistance towards change is a serious issue that needs to be managed tactfully. Which of the following regarding the management of resistance is true?

A. Resistance is never beneficial for organisations planning for changeB. Employees showing strong initial support for change implies that there is less need for resistance managementC. If necessary, it is reasonable to ask selected staff to leave if they impede progress to organisational changeD. If there were past failure at change in a particular department, there will likely be a higher possibility of

resistance from that department to future changeE. C & D only

5. Which of the following statements is false?A. It is not always necessary to eliminate shadow systemsB. A single implementation approach is best suited for complex projectsC. The percentage of total employees involved in the implementation of organisational-wide change should be

highD. If the gap between quick hit results and long-term solution is very small, it might not be worth it to go ahead

with the long-term changeE. When faced with issues concerning a newly installed system, an option is to implement workaroundsF. None of the above

6. Which of the following statements is true?

A. Collecting more data is always beneficial for the change effortB. As a strike force member, if asked during data collection if this is just another attempt at change, it is important

to emphasise that it isC. As a quick hit will appeal to upper management the most, it makes sense to only market those to themD. An activity that has no benefit if changed, and negligible impact if not changed, should still be considered as a

quick hit if it has a high ease of implementationE. None of the above

7. Which of the following statements is true?A. It is good to make detailed measurements of processes while identifying change candidatesB. Measuring the turnover of employees is a good measurement for vendor supportC. If a system can provide the … I require, there is no need to adopt other measures

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D. If implemented IT systems are working flawlessly, it signifies that processes requiring them are so tooE. It is important to have a response to every measurement madeF. None of the above

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