Nation/state
Organisation other teachers, policies etc
TEACHER
COGNITION LEARNERS
Teacher cognition
Classroom practice
Professional
coursework Schooling
Elements and processes in language teacher cognition (Adapted from Borg, 2006)
What are your beliefs about language learning? Think about:
the goal of language learning
the key characteristics of the teaching and learning process
which area(s) of language and skills are emphasized
the role of the L1 in this methodology
how errors are dealt with
Borg, S. (2006) Teacher cognition and language education: Research and practice. London: Continuum
MA TESOL
What is grammar? Why do we need grammar? What do we need to know about grammar to
teach/learn it?
Work in a small group.
What is grammar?
Make a note of your thoughts.
.grammar is essentially a limited set of devices for expressing a few kinds of necessary meaning that cannot be conveyed by referential vocabulary alone.
Swan, M (2008), What is grammar? [online] Available at:
http://www.mikeswan.co.uk/elt-applied-linguistics/what-is-grammar.htm Accessed 1st September 2012
"Grammar is the study of all the contrasts of meaning that it is possible to make within sentences. The 'rules' of grammar tell us how. By one count, there are some 3,500 such rules in English.
Crystal, D. (2006) The Fight for English. Oxford: OUP
Grammar is the structural foundation of our ability to express ourselves. The more we are aware of how it works, the more we can monitor the meaning and effectiveness of the way we and others use language. It can help foster precision, detect ambiguity, and exploit the richness of expression available in English. And it can help everyone--not only teachers of English, but teachers of anything, for all teaching is ultimately a matter of getting to grips with meaning.
Crystal, D. (2004) "In Word and Deed," TES Teacher
"What I know about grammar is its infinite power. To shift the structure of a sentence alters the meaning of that sentence.
(Joan Didion)
Mental Grammar The knowledge of language stored in a persons mind (Cook 2008:19) Often referred to as linguistic or grammatical competence, taken from the work of Chomsky Native speakers know instinctively what sounds right but may not have explicit knowledge of the rules of the language
Prescriptive Grammar Grammar that prescribes what people should or should not say (Cook 2008:19) Example: You shouldnt end a sentence with a preposition Based on standards which are usually linked to a privileged group and therefore closely associated with class Has little relevance to the language classroom as most people take the view that we should teach what is done, not what should be done
Descriptive Grammar Describes how people actually use language Example: I am older than her And then she goes, Why should I? Its not my job. Often based on the use of concordance data from corpora Moves away from seeing language as right or wrong, but how it actually is
Pedagogic Grammar A descriptive grammar used for teaching and learning purposes Normally based on the standard form of a language which means that non-standard expressions are usually excluded e.g. I amnt, he aint Typically based on a formal grammar and organised by structural categories e.g. tenses etc.
This is 2860239. We are not at home right now. Please leave a message after the beep. Language can be analysed at 4 levels: Text Sentence Words Sounds
Thornbury 1999:1
This is 2860239. We are at home right now. Please leave a message after the beep.
A Coffee? B Please. A Milk? Sugar? B No milk. One sugar. Thanks. A Toast? B No thanks. A Juice? B Mmm. (Thornbury 2005:3)
In routine, predictable situations in which there is a shared knowledge and context, lexical language can be sufficient: Tickets!
Shared expectations and context reduce the need for grammar: the more context the less grammar
When moving from the immediate context, we need more grammar
(Thornbury 1999)
unreal
Here and now and
us real
(Thornbury 2005:7)
It cant handle complex situations Conveys only requests and affirmatives
(Swan, 2008)
Current methodologies promote communicative competence which focuses on how language is used to communicate. This focuses on:
What is possible E.g. Mary, John kissed her. What is appropriate E.g. Would you mind if I.? What is done E.g. He ran amok not He went amok
Pragmatic competence focuses on all possible uses of language rather than just communication e.g. private language use such as praying, writing a diary, making a shopping list
Grammatical structures have FORM and
are used to express MEANING in
context-appropriate USE
Larsen-Freeman
How is it formed? Form
What does it mean? Meaning
When/why is it used? Use
Spinster
Spinsters (pl) Form
Unmarried woman Meaning
Negative connotation left on the shelf Use
Should
Form
Meaning
Use
Should
I/you/we/they should
Should I/you/we/they?
I/you/we/they should not Form
Recommendation
Advice Meaning
To give advice or a recommendation in a polite way
Use
Form
Meaning
Use
Will + base verb Form
Describes a future action Meaning
promise Use
Sound/
spelling
Morphology
Semantics Syntax
Lexis
ContextFunction (Pragmatics)
Form Meaning
Use
Form
Cook, V. (2008) Second Language Learning and Language Teaching. 4th Ed. London: Hodder
Crystal, D. (2004) "In Word and Deed," TES Teacher Crystal, D. (2006) The Fight for English. Oxford: OUP Larsen-Freeman, D. (1997) Grammar and Its Teaching:
Challenging the Myths. [online] Available at: http://www.cal.org/resources/digest/larsen01.html
Swan, M (2008), What is grammar? [online] Available at http://www.mikeswan.co.uk/elt-applied-linguistics/what-is-grammar.htm Accessed 1st September 2012
Thornbury, S. (1999) How to Teach Grammar. London: Longman
Thornbury, S. (2005) Uncovering Grammar. Oxford: Macmillan
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