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SharedStories,RivalTellings:EarlyEncountersofJews,Christians,andMuslimsRobertC.Gregg

Printpublicationdate:2015PrintISBN-13:9780190231491PublishedtoOxfordScholarshipOnline:August2015DOI:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190231491.001.0001

SarahandHagar

JewishPortrayals

RobertC.Gregg

DOI:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190231491.003.0007

AbstractandKeywords

ThestoryofAbraham’stwowomenandtheirsonsisthebasisforIsrael’sself-understandingasGod’scovenantpeopleinthelineagefromIsaac.StrifeandcompetitionbetweenSarahandHagar,leadingtotheexpulsionofHagarandIshmaeltothewilderness,drewtheattentionofrabbinicexegetes,storytellers,andofmosaicartistsintheGalileancityofSepphoris.Howweretheattitudesandbehaviorsofthetwowomenandtheirsonstobeassessed?VoicesinGenesisRabbahdebatecausesoftheinfertilityofSarahandtheeasypregnancyofHagar,thecharacterandattributesofbothwomen,andalsowhatkindof“play”byIshmaelcausedSarahtoforceAbrahamtosendtheboyandhismotheraway.ThechapterconcludeswithconsiderationofthedamagedmosaicflooroftheSepphorissynagogueandtherelationofitsimagestobothJewishand

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Christianiconographyoftheera.

Keywords:heir,harshtreatment,wilderness,GenesisRabbah,Sepphorissynagogue

Figure4.1 AbrahamcastingoutHagarandIshmael.RembrandtvanRijn,1637.Etching:15.7cm×13.3cm.©TheMetropolitanMuseumofArt,NewYork.ArtResource,NY.

(p.121)

Inadrawingmadeafterthemid-1630sRembrandtfocusedonthefigureofHagarwhenshewassentbyAbrahamintothedesert.Thethemeofthetworivalwomenwasawidelydepictedsubject....YetonlyRembrandt’setchingTheExpulsionofHagarreallyshowsthecontrastbetweenthetriumphantSarah,gleefullypeepingthroughthedoorwaywithasatisfiedsmileonherface,andthedesolatefigureoftheweepingHagar.

AnatGilboa,ImagesoftheFeminineinRembrandt’sWork1

CommandedbyGodtoleavehisnativelandandtraveltothelandofCanaan,Abram(toberenamedAbraham),obeyed,andonceathisdestinationtheLordappearedtohimanddeclared“Iwillassignthislandtoyouroffspring”(Genesis12:7).Sometimelater,whenAbramwastoldbyGodthat“[his]rewardwouldbeverygreat,”heresponded,“OLordGod,whatcanyougivetome,seeingthatIamchildless,andtheoneincharge

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ofmyhouseholdisDammesekEliezer?”GodreassuredAbramthatEliezer,hissteward,wouldnotbehisheir.Nonewouldbebut“yourveryownissue”(15:1–4).

15:5Hetookhimoutsideandsaid,“Looktowardheavenandcountthestars,ifyouareabletocountthem.”Andheadded,“Soshallyouroffspringbe.”

6AndbecauseheputhistrustintheLord,Hereckonedittohismerit.

ThedeclarationinPsalm11:5that“theLordteststherighteous”oftenevokesthememoryofGod’scommandthatAbrahamofferhissonasaburntsacrifice,buttheversecouldstandovertheentirebiblicalhistoryofthepatriarch.ItcertainlyappliestothenarrativetellingofthebirthoftwosonstoAbraham,firstbySarah’smaidservant,Hagar,andthenbySarahherself.Thedramainvolvinghistwowomenandtheirsonsisoneofconflict,uponwhichhingesthecharacterofGod’sdifferentrelationshipswithAbraham’soffspring.

Inthischapter,afterreviewingtheHebrewBible’spresentationoftheevents,weturntoJewishinterpretationsofthestorybyrabbisandbyartists.Thecommunity’sscriptureinterpreterswillbeobservedworkingtoensurethatthissacredstorypresentstheoriginsofIsrael’scovenantrelationshipwithGodinthemostpowerfulwordsandimagespossible.WeshallalsobecomeawareoftheirawarenessofacounterinterpretationbyChristians.

(p.122) SarahandHagarinGenesis

16:1Sarai,Abram’swife,hadbornehimnochildren.ShehadanEgyptianmaidservantwhosenamewasHagar.2AndSaraisaidtoAbram,“Look,theLordhaskeptmefrombearing.Consortwithmymaid,perhapsIshallhaveasonthroughher.”AndAbramheededSarai’srequest.3SoSarai,Abram’swife,tookhermaid,HagartheEgyptian—afterAbramhaddweltinthelandofCanaantenyears—andgavehertoherhusbandAbramasconcubine.4HecohabitedwithHagarandsheconceived;andwhenshesawthatshehadconceived,hermistresswasloweredinheresteem.5AndSaraisaidtoAbram,“Thewrongdonemeisyourfault!Imyselfputmymaidinyourbosom;nowthatsheseesthatsheispregnant,Iamloweredinheresteem.TheLorddecidebetweenyouandme!”

6AbramsaidtoSarai,“Yourmaidisinyourhands.Dealwithherasyouthinkright.”ThenSaraitreatedherharshly,andsheranawayfromher.

7AnangeloftheLordfoundherbyaspringofwaterinthewilderness,thespringontheroadtoShur,8andsaid,“Hagar,slaveofSarai,wherehaveyoucomefromandwhereareyougoing?”Andshesaid,“IamrunningawayfrommymistressSarai.”

9AndtheangeloftheLordsaidtoher,“Gobacktoyourmistress,andsubmittoherharshtreatment.”10AndtheangeloftheLordsaidtoher,

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“Iwillgreatlyincreaseyouroffspring,Andtheyshallbetoomanytocount.”

11TheangeloftheLordsaidtoherfurther,

“Behold,youarewithchildAndshallbearason;YoushallcallhimIshmael,FortheLordhaspaidheedtoyoursuffering.12Heshallbeawildassofaman;Hishandagainsteveryone,Andeveryone’shandagainsthim;Heshalldwellalongsideofallhiskinsmen.”

13AndshecalledtheLordwhospoketoher,“YouareEl-Roi,”

bywhichshemeant,“HaveInotgoneonseeingafterHesawme!”

14ThereforethewellwascalledBeer-lahai-roi;itisbetweenKadeshandBered.—15HagarboreasontoAbram,andAbramgavethesonthatHagarborehimthenameIshmael.16Abramwaseighty-sixyearsoldwhenHagarboreIshmaeltoAbram.(p.123)

17:1WhenAbramwasninety-nineyearsold,theLordappearedtoAbramandsaidtohim,“IamElShaddai.WalkinMywaysandbeblameless.2IwillestablishmycovenantbetweenMeandyou,andIwillmakeyouexceedinglynumerous.”3Abrahamthrewhimselfonhisface;andGodspoketohimfurther,4“AsforMe,thisisMycovenantwithyou:Youshallbethefatherofamultitudeofnations.5AndyoushallnolongerbecalledAbram,butyournameshallbeAbraham,forImakeyouthefatherofamultitudeofnations.

6Iwillmakeyouexceedinglyfertile,andmakenationsofyou,andkingswillcomeforthfromyou.7IwillmaintainmycovenantbetweenMeandyou,andyouroffspringtocome,asaneverlastingcovenantthroughouttheages,tobeGodtoyouandyouroffspringtocome.8Iassignthelandyousojournintoyouandyouroffspringtocome,allthelandofCanaan,asaneverlastingholding.IwillbetheirGod.”...15AndGodsaidtoAbraham,“AsforyourwifeSarai,youshallnotcallherSarai,buthernameshallbeSarah.16Iwillblessher;indeedIwillgiveyouasonbyher.Iwillblesshersothatsheshallgiverisetonations;rulersofpeoplesshallissuefromher.”17Abrahamthrewhimselfonhisfaceandlaughed,ashesaidtohimself,“Canachildbeborntoamanahundredyearsold,orcanSarahbearachildatninety?”18AndAbrahamsaidtoGod,“OthatIshmaelmaylivebyYourfavor!”19Godsaid,“Nevertheless,Sarahyourwifewillbearyouason,andyoushallnamehimIsaac;andIwillmaintainmyconvenantwithhimasaneverlastingcovenantforhisoffspringtocome.20AsforIshmael,Ihaveheededyou.Iherebyblesshim.Iwillmakehimfertileandexceedinglynumerous.Heshallbethefather

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oftwelvechieftans,andIwillmakeofhimagreatnation.

21ButmycovenantIwillmaintainwithIsaac,whomSarahshallbeartoyouatthisseasonnextyear.”22AndwhenHewasdonespeakingwithhim,GodwasgonefromAbraham.

18:9They[thethreemenwhovisitedAbrahaminMamre]saidtohim,“WhereisyourwifeSarah?”Andhereplied,“There,inthetent.”10Thenonesaid,“Iwillreturntoyounextyear,andyourwifeSarahshallhaveason!”Sarahwaslisteningattheentranceofthetent,whichwasbehindhim.11NowAbrahamandSarahwereold,advancedinyears;Sarahhadstoppedhavingtheperiodsofwomen.12AndSarahlaughedtoherself,saying,“NowthatIamwithered,amItohaveenjoyment—withmyhusbandsoold?”

13ThentheLordsaidtoAbraham,“WhydidSarahlaugh,saying,‘ShallIintruthbearachild,oldasIam?’14IsanythingtoowondrousfortheLord?Ishallreturntoyouatthetimenextyear,andSarahshallhaveason.”15Sarahlied,saying,“Ididnotlaugh,”forshewasfrightened.ButHereplied,“Youdidlaugh.”

21.1TheLordtooknoteofSarahasHehadpromised,andtheLorddidforSarahasHehadspoken.2SarahconceivedandboreasontoAbrahaminhisold(p.124)age,atthesettimeofwhichGodhadspoken.3Abrahamgavehisnewbornson,whomSarahhadbornehim,thenameofIsaac.4AndwhenhissonIsaacwaseightdaysold,Abrahamcircumcisedhim,asGodhadcommandedhim.

5NowAbrahamwasahundredyearsoldwhenhissonIsaacwasborntohim.

6Sarahsaid,“Godhasbroughtmelaughter;everyonewhohearswilllaughwithme.”7Andsheadded,

“WhowouldhavesaidtoAbrahamThatSarahwouldsucklechildren!YetIhaveborneasoninhisoldage.”

8Thechildgrewupandwasweaned,andAbrahamheldagreatfeastonthedaythatIsaacwasweaned.

9SarahsawthesonwhomHagartheEgyptianhadbornetoAbrahamplaying.10ShesaidtoAbraham,“Castoutthatslave-womanandherson,forthesonofthatslaveshallnotshareintheinheritancewithmysonIsaac.”11ThematterdistressedAbrahamgreatly,foritconcernedasonofhis.12ButGodsaidtoAbraham,“Donotbedistressedovertheboyoryourslave;whateverSarahtellsyou,doasshesays,foritisthroughIsaacthatoffspringshallbecontinuedforyou.13Asforthesonoftheslave-woman,Iwillmakeanationofhim,too,forheisyourseed.”

14EarlynextmorningAbrahamtooksomebreadandaskinofwater,andgave

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themtoHagar.Heplacedthemoverhershoulder,togetherwiththechild,andsentheraway.AndshewanderedaboutinthewildernessofBeer-sheba.15Whenthewaterwasgonefromtheskin,sheleftthechildunderoneofthebushes,16andwentandsatdownatadistance,abowshotaway;forshethought,“Letmenotlookonasthechilddies.”Andsittingthusafar,sheburstintotears.

17Godheardthecryoftheboy,andanangelofGodcalledtoHagarfromheavenandsaidtoher,“Whattroublesyou,Hagar?Fearnot,forGodhasheededthecryoftheboywhereheis.

18Come,liftuptheboyandholdhimbythehand,forIwillmakeagreatnationofhim.”19ThenGodopenedhereyesandshesawawellofwater.Shewentandfilledtheskinwithwater,andlettheboydrink.20Godwaswiththeboyandhegrewup;hedweltinthewildernessandbecameabowman.21HelivedinthewildernessofParan;andhismothergotawifeforhimfromthelandofEgypt.

Questionsthatariseforusaswereadthesepassages—especiallythoseconcentratedonthechiefcharacters’motivationsandactions—wereunderdiscussionamongJewsfromthetimeoftheTorah’screationandcirculation.ReadersoftheHebrewunderstoodeasilytheetymological(p.125) senseofthenamesgiven:theconnectionofIsaacwithlaughter;ofIshmaelwithheedingorhearingofthechangefromAbramtoAbraham,withitsconnotationofhispaternityofmany;thesuggestionofseeingandbeingseeninHagar’snamingoftheLordasElRoi(withitsimplication:Iseeyou,andIamstillalive)andElShaddai,takentomean“GodAlmighty.”Morecomplexquestionsconcerningthestory,however,demandeddeeperexploration.

OmittedfromthepassagesabovearetwopartsofthestoryofAbraham,Sarah,andHagarthatareworthpausingover.Twicewhiletravelinginthelandsofpowerfulrulers,AbrahamfearsdeathbecauseofSarah’sbeauty—thathewillbekilledbythosewhoareattractedtoSarah,andwishtoobtainherforthemselves.Abrahamurgeshertolieaboutheridentity,callingherselfhissister.InGenesis12:10–20,theregentdesirousofSarahwasEgypt’sPharaoh,whosetakingofherintothepalacebenefitedAbraham(hegainedmanyanimals),butbroughtplaguesuponthePharaohandhishousehold“onaccountofSarai,thewifeofAbram”(12:17).Oncescolded,Abrahamwassentaway,withSarahand“allthathepossessed.”Thoughitisnotmentioned,arereaderstosupposethatitwasatthistimethatSarahcameintopossessionofHagar,herEgyptianmaidservant?

WhatoccurswhenAbrahamandSarahsojourninGerar(Genesis20)isanearreplayofwhatAbraham’slieearliercausedtohappen.KingAbimelechlearnsofSarah’spresenceinhisrealm,andacquiresher.Inadreamvisitation,GodcorrectsAbimelech’smisunderstandingofwhoSarahis,warningthekingthatsheisnothistopossessandenjoy.Sarah’shusband,Godinformstheking,isaprophetofsuchpowerthathecanmakesuccessfulintercessionforhim.Further,Abimelechwilldie,withallhishousehold,unlessherestoresSarahtoAbraham.WhenAbimelechberatesAbrahamforhisdeceptionconcerningSarah,Abrahamhasatwo-partrejoinder,orrationalization:

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Ithought,surelythereisnofearofGodinthisplace,andtheywillkillmebecauseofmywife.Andbesides,sheisintruthmysister,myfather’sdaughter,thoughnotmymother’s;andshebecamemywife(20:11–12).

Theking’spromptpeace-makingentailsthegiftofcattleandslavestoAbraham,followedbytherestorationofSarahtoherhusband.Anadditionalgiftorpaymentismade:athousandpiecesofsilverpaidtoAbraham—agestureAbimelechconstruesanddescribestoSarahasanexonerationandpublicvindicationofher.

(p.126) Inthefinaltwoverses(17–18)welearnhowdangerousthesituationhadbecomefortheroyalhouseofGerar:

AbrahamthenprayedtoGod,andGodhealedAbimelechandhiswifeandhisslavegirls,sothattheyborechildren;fortheLordhadclosedfasteverywombofthehouseholdofAbimelechbecauseofSarah,thewifeofAbraham.2

SincethislatterepisodefallsinAbraham’sstoryjustpriortothenoticeofSarah’spregnancy,laterinterpreters,therabbisinparticular,werepromptedtodiscusswhatmighthavetranspiredbetweenAbimelechandAbraham’s“sister”whileshewasintheking’scompany.Theeventimpinged,asweshallsee,uponimportantquestionsnotonlyofmorality,butalsoofgenetics—thatis,mattersofpaternityandmotherhood.

DrivingtheAbrahamnarrativeistheinsistentclaimthatGod’scovenantwithAbrahamand“hisoffspring”iswithandthroughIsaac.TheLord’sblessingofIshmaelandthosewhomhewillfatherisofadifferentorder.Nonetheless,chapter17’sconcludingversesreportAbraham’scovenant-prescribedcircumcisionofthirteen-year-oldIshmael,aswellashisowncircumcisionandthatoftheothermales(home-bornandpurchasedslaves)ofhishousehold.Ishmael,onaccountofhiscircumcision,anddespitethedistinctionGodmakesinvv.19–20,wouldseemtobeincludedinthecovenant,aparticipantinitsobligationsandbenefits,butthisdoesnotprovetobeso.

Genesis21:1–21is,fortheBible,theclimaxofthestoryofSarahandHagarandtheirrivalry.Strongemotions—heightsanddepthsofthecharacters’lives—areondisplay.Verses1–8celebratetheLord’sfulfillmentofthepromiseconcerningSarah.AgreatfeastmarksIsaac’sweaning,theendofhisinfancy.

Thedramathatfollowsinvv.9–21growsoutofSarah’sfearfulorhostileattitudetowardHagarandherson.Thetwo-mother,two-sonhouseholdhascometoacrisis.SarahisreportedtohaveseenHagar’ssonplaying(thetextdisclosesneitherthemannerofIshmael’splay,norwhetherhishalf-brotherIsaacmighthavebeeninvolved,asmanylaterinterpreterswillpresume),andapparentlywhatsheseesstirshertoastrongaction.Abraham,onherorders,sendsHagarandhersonawaythenextday,supplyingthemwithbreadandwater.

WanderinginthewildernessnearBeer-sheba,theirprovisionsrunoutandHagarforeseestheirdoom.AnangelapproachesHagaranddirectsheractions;Godthenopens

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Hagar’seyestothesightofwater,andsheandhersonaresaved.

(p.127) Fromthispointon,IshmaelandHagararevirtuallyabsentasactorsintheAbrahamsaga.Interestingly,Ishmaelsurfacesoncemoreinthestory,joininghishalf-brotherinburyingtheirfather(nearSarah)inthecaveofMacpelah(25:9).ThelistofIshmael’stwelvesonsandtheirregionofsettlementisprecededbyareferencetohismother,“HagartheEgyptian,”at25:12.ThatchapterbeginswithmentionofanotherofAbraham’swives,Keturah,whosesixsonsarenamed,asarethedescendantsofthefirsttwoofthese,JokshanandMidian(vv.1–4).ThelesserimportanceforAbrahamichistoryofthesesonsandofotherswhomhe“begat”byconcubinesisclearlyindicated:“AbrahamwilledallthatheownedtoIsaac”(v.5).HisothermaleoffspringweregivengiftsbyAbrahamandsent“awayfromhissonIsaaceastward,tothelandoftheEast”(v.6).Ishmael’sstatusisatoncesimilaranddifferent.HetoowasdistancedfromIsaac,yethereceivedfromGodtheblessingofnumerousoffspring,andofnationhood(16:20,21:13,18).

ItisnecessaryatthispointtovisitthenarrativefollowingtheexpulsionofHagarandIshmaelandtheirtrialinthewilderness.Genesis21:14–21resumesthemainstoryofAbraham’sdealingswithGodandhis“favored”offspringintellingoftheakedah—thebindingofIsaac.ThistestofAbraham—takingIsaac,whomheloves,toMoriahtoofferhimasasacrificetoGod—endsintheboy’s(andthefather’s)deliverancefromthisobligation,andarestatementandelaborationofGod’scovenantpromise:

22:15TheangeloftheLordcalledtoAbrahamasecondtimefromheaven,16andsaid,“BymyselfIswear,theLorddeclares:Becauseyouhavedonethisandhavenotwithheldyourson,yourfavoredone,17IwillbestowMyblessinguponyouandmakeyourdescendantsasnumerousasthestarsofheavenandthesandsontheseashore;andyourdescendantsshallseizethegatesoftheirfoes.18Allthenationsoftheearthshallblessthemselvesbyyourdescendants,becauseyouhaveobeyedmycommand.”

JonLevenson,inhisTheDeathandResurrectionoftheBelovedSon,eloquentlyspelledoutthesignificanceofthisdivinepledge,initsnowrevisedform:

ItconvertsthestandingpromiseofAbrahamofinnumerableprogenyintoaconsequenceofthenear-sacrificeofIsaac....Thisisatransformationofenormousimport.ItrenderstheveryexistenceofAbrahamicpeoplesdependent(p.128)upontheirancestor’sobediencetothefearsomedirectivetomakeofhisbelovedsonaburntofferingtohisGod.Theaqedah,inshort,hasbecomeafoundationalact,anditsconsequencesextendtoeverygenerationofthosewhosefatherisAbraham.Ourpeopleexistsandperdures,theIsraelitenarratorseemstobesaying,onlybecauseoftheincomparableactofobedienceandfaiththatthepatriarch-to-becarriedoutonanunnamedmountaininthelandofMoriah.Inlightoftheinterpretivemovethatthesecondangelicaddressevidences,itishardlyasourceofwondermentthat,atleastsincebiblicaltimes,JewishthinkershavecontinuallyponderedthetroublingstoryofthebindingofIsaac.Norisitsurprising

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thattheponderingisusuallymostintensewhentheexistenceofJewsisthreatened,andtheirsurvival,toallappearances,miraculous.3

Sarah’snamedoesnotappearinthestoryofthenear-sacrificeofIsaac,thoughlaterinterpreterswillfindaplaceforherintheevent’sretelling.Herdeathatage127inKiriath-arba(Hebron)isrecountedinchapter23,alongwithAbraham’spurchaseofaburialsite,thecaveofMachpelah.ThefortunesofIsaacandhissuccessorsarethesubjectofthecontinuingchaptersofGenesis,andsowereadinchapter24thecolorfulstoryofthemissionofAbraham’sservanttofindafittingwifeforIsaac—someonefromthepatriarch’shomeland,not“fromthedaughtersoftheCanaanites”(v.3).Thehappy(anddestined)resultoftheservant’ssearchisthebeautifulvirgin,Rebekah,whohailsfromthefamilyofAbraham’sbrother,Nahor.ThenextstageofthehistoryofAbraham’sseedhasahappybeginning:

IsaacthenbroughtherintothetentofhismotherSarah,andhetookRebekahashiswife.Isaaclovedher,andthusfoundcomfortafterhismother’sdeath(24:67).

Sarah,throughwhosesonthepeopleofthecovenantwillcomeintobeingandultimatelypossessthelandpromisedtothem,becomes,fromtheTanakh’s(andlater,Judaism’s)viewpoint,themateandpartnerofAbraham.Therealityofherprominenceinthetraditionsurfacesinreferencestothegraveofthe“fathers”andtheirwomenatMachpelah(inGenesis49:29–33,Jacob,dyinginEgypt,requeststhathiscorpsebetakentothelandofCanaanforburialinthecompanyofAbrahamandSarah,andofIsaacandRebekah,hisparents.)

Weshouldtakenote,here,oftheappearanceofIsaac’snameintherecurringformulawhichidentifiesthetriadofAbraham,Isaac,andJacob.4TheunfoldinghistoryofIsraelcannotberecordedwithoutallusionsbacktotheAbrahamicconvenant,and,simultaneouslytoIsaac,theguarantorofitspromiseandpower.

(p.129) GenesisRabbahonSarahandHagarGenesisRabbah(GR),ananthologyofteachingscompiledinthelatefourthtoearlyfifthcenturiesCE,containsatreasuretroveofrabbis’ruminationsonthescripturalaccountofAbraham’stwowomen.SarahandHagarenjoytheirprominencebyvirtueofbeingmeanstoadivineend:theyarechildproducersintheserviceofGod’spromisesthatfromAbraham’sloinsnationswillcome,withfutureoffspringasnumerousasparticlesofdust,grainsofsand,starsintheheavens.5GenesisRabbahrevealsclearlytherabbis’familiarmethodsforuntanglingproblemsandforfillingingapsperceivedinthebiblicaltext:apassageunderconsiderationsuggestsanother,inwhoselightthefirstmaybeconsideredanew.Individualwordslikewisegainfreshconnotationsfromtheirappearanceselsewhereinscripture.Wehavealreadymetrabbis’regularemploymentofexamplesandparablesfromoutsidethescripturetoaddstrengthtotheirarguments.

Genesis16InGenesisRabbahXLVwefindasetofspeculationsaboutSarah’sbarrenness,andalsothepossibilityofAbraham’sinfertility.Reading“NowSaraiAbram’swifeborehimno

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children”inthelightofProverbs31:10(“Awomanofvalorwhocanfind,forherprice(mikrah)isfaraboverubies”),6andrecallinginEzekiel16:3theterm“origin”(mekuroth)connotatingpregnancy,alineofargumentreconstructsthereproductivehistoriesofAbraham’sbrothers.CalculatingthatHaran(Abraham’sbrother)fatheredhisfirstchildwhenhewassixyearsold,therabbisponderedhow,withthisprodigiousprocreativityatworkamonghismalekin,itwaspossiblethatAbrahamcouldnotbegetachild.TheinfertilitymusthavebeenSarah’s.ButthisinferenceischallengedbyRabbiJudah,whoremindshisfellowsagesthatthetextstatesthatSarahborenochildrentohim(Abraham),notrulingoutthepossibilitythatshemighthaveproducedchildrenwithadifferentmate.R.Nehemiahinsiststhatthetextcannotbeconstruedinthatway:Sarahwasherselfinfertile.TheversedrawscommentherebecauseGenesisRabbah’sformatisaverse-by-versemidrashonscripture,andGenesis16:1initsvocabularyallowsvariousinterpretiveoptions.Buttherearealsootherconcerns,lessgrammaticallyinspired,attachingtothistopic.Theymightbeputundertherubricofdivinepurpose,orprovidence.How,asktherabbis,doesGod’scommitmenttothecovenantmadewithAbrahamcometohingeonthepregnancyofalong-barrenwoman?Isit(p.130) thecasethatGod’smostimportantactions—likethepromiseoflandandnationhood—aremanifestthroughwondersandmiracles?Sarah’sconceivingofIsaacrequirescarefulattention,standingasitdoesincloserelationshiptothepregnancyofHagar,andthebiblicalrecordofAbraham’sotherwomenandtheirchildren.

Scripturalcross-referencingdoneinconnectionwiththeverse,“Andshehadahandmaid,anEgyptian”alsoledtodiverseopinions—namely,(1)thatHagarwasSarah’sproperty,andthuswasapersonwhomAbrahamwasobligedtosupport,butwasnotfreetosell;that(2)HagarwasthePharaoh’sdaughter,giventoSarahintheaftermathofthatruler’sattempttowedorbedtheonehebelievedtobeAbraham’ssister—anexplanationattributedtoR.Simeonb.Yohai;andthat(3)thenameHagarderivesfromtheHebrewwordagar,meaning“reward”(Genesis12:7).7

SimilarexegeticalstrategiesproduceavarietyofmeaningsattachingtoSarah’sdeclaration,“Look,theLordhaskeptmefrombearing,”andalsotoherremarkthatshetoomightbe“builtup”inAbraham’shavingason“through”Hagar.Sarahspeaksasshedoesbecausesheunderstandsthecauseofthings,anddoesnot(likemany,apparently,inthesocialworldoftherabbis)seekapregnancy-inducingamuletorcharm.Sarah’sbeingbuiltup,arabbiasserted,referredtosurvivalortorestorationtolife.Hisideawasconfirmed(orgenerated)byRachel’spleatoherhusbandJacobinGenesis30:1,“Givemechildren,orIshalldie.”Sarah,childless,isasgoodasdead,andherbuildingupdependsonherbecomingamother—ofhersurrogate’schild.

TherabbisruminateaboutHagar’squickconceptionofasontoAbraham—arguablyasaresultoftheir“firstintimacy.”8ToRabbiEleazar’sclaimthatthisneverhappens,arejoindermarshalsasevidencethepregnanciesofLot’sdaughters(Genesis19:36),whopresumablyhadsexwiththeirfatheronlyonce.RabbiTanhumaexplainsthatunusualcasewithunusualimagery:“Byaneffortofwillpowertheybroughtforththeirvirginity,andthusconceivedatthefirstactofintercourse.”9AcomparisonofHagar’sandSarah’s

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procreativecapabilities(andofthequalitiesoftheirrespectivesons)istheyieldofabotanicalmetaphorvolunteeredbyR.Haninab.Pazzi:“Thornsareneitherweedednorsown,yetoftheirownaccordtheygrowandspringup,whereashowmuchpainandtoilisrequiredbeforewheatcanbemadetogrow!”Thatis,Ishmaeliseasy,spontaneous,andworthless;Isaacistheproductof“labor,”is“worthyfruit,”andthusofgreatvalue.10

Therabbiscangiveexplanationsforthefactthatnotablewomenweresometimesbarren:Godlovedtoheartheirprayerfulrequests(SongofSongs2:14iscitedinsupport),ortheirinfertilitycausedthemtodependontheir(p.131) husbands’support,whentheirgreatbeautymighthavemadethemself-reliant,orthatbeingbarrentheymightpasstheirliveswithouttheburdensofhavingandraisingchildren.Theselinesofmalethinkingarecappedwithoneofferedbyatrioofrabbis:Thematriarchswereforalongtimebarren“sothattheirhusbandsmightderivepleasurefromthem,forwhenawomaniswithchildsheisdisfiguredandlacksgrace.ThusthewholeninetyyearsthatSarahdidnotbear[achild]shewaslikeabrideinhercanopy.”11

AverydifferentopinionandvaluationofSarah’sbarrennessisputonthelipsofHagarinapieceofnarrativemeanttoillustratehow,afterHagarbecamepregnant,“hermistresswasloweredinheresteem”(16:4b).ApassageinGenesisRabbahreports:

Ladiesusedtocometoinquirehow[Sarah]was,and[Sarah]wouldsaytothem,“Goandaskaboutthewelfareofthepoorwoman[Hagar].”Hagarwouldtellthem:“MymistressSaraiisnotinwardlywhatsheisoutwardly:sheappearstobearighteouswoman,butsheisnot.Forhadshebeenarighteouswoman,seehowmanyyearshavepassedwithoutherconceiving,whereasIconceivedinonenight!”SaidSarah:“ShallIpayheedtothiswomanandarguewithher!No;Iwillarguethematterwithhermaster!”12

Sarah’scomplainttoAbrahamaboutHagar’sdisrespectisintheformofcurse-likechallenge.Shewantsthewrongdonetohertofallonhim(16:5).Thetext,revealingasitdoesrancorbetweenhusbandandwife,producescontrastingcommentsbythesages.Ontheonehand,Sarahisunderstoodtohavemadeavalidcomplaint.HerclaimthatAbrahamshouldhimselfbearthewrongsufferedbyhergainscredencewhenitisrecalledthatAbrahamsaidtoGodin15:2(“seeingthatIshalldiechildless”).Ifhehadsaid“Wegochildless,”Sarahwouldnotbesufferinghumiliation,forachildwouldhavebeenborntothemboth.

Ontheotherhand,“thewrongdonetome”(hamasi)thatSarahspeaksofsuggeststheideathatshescratched(himmes,toscratch)Abraham,andthisobservationtriggersabriefcataloguingofbadcharacteristicsofwomeningeneral.Sarahistheexemplarofhalfofthese:

Therabbissaid:Womenaresaidtopossessfourtraits:theyaregreedy,eavesdroppers,slothful,andenvious.Greedy,asitsays,“Andshetookthefruitthereofanddideatit”(Genesis3:6);eavesdroppers:“AndSarahheardinthetent

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door”(Genesis18:10)[whenthevisitingangelpredictedthebirthofIsaacinthenextyear];slothful:“Makeready[quickly]threemeasuresoffinemeal”(Genesis18:6)[understoodtoimplythatSarahdidnoteagerlybestirherselftoprepare(p.132) themealfortheLord/theangelicvisitors];envious:“Rachelenviedhersister”(Genesis30:1).13

ThesharpexchangebetweenSarahandAbrahamthatgrowsoutofSarah’sresentmentofHagarrequires,therabbisthink,criticalassessment.Sarah’stoospeedymovetolitigation(“LettheLorddecidebetweenyouandme”)wasitselfblameworthy,andwonherthepunishmentofashortenedlife.Shewouldotherwisehavelivedaslongasherspouse.

Abraham’srefusaltotakeactionagainstHagar(“Yourmaidisinyourhands”)andthesubsequentharshtreatmentofherbySarahalsorequiredexplanation.SupportedbyaprohibitioninExodus21:8againstsellingaservantwithwhomonehasbecomedispleased,thepatriarch’slineofreasoningisthis:“afterwemadeheramistress[i.e.,gaveherthestatusofawife],shallwemakeherabondmaidagain?”14Finally,therearespeculationsaboutthekindofharshnessSarahvisiteduponHagar:shekeptHagarfromAbraham’sbed;“sheslappedherfacewithaslipper,”shemadeherdoslavetasksinconnectionwiththebaths.15

Hagar’sflightisclearlytheresultofSarah’smaltreatment,butwhethersheleavesAbraham’shouseholdinfear,indefiance,orinsorrowisnotindicatedinGenesis16:6,nortakenupbytheteachersofGR.Whatdoesdrawtheinterpreters’attentionisthefactthatHagaristhreetimesidentifiedinthetextnotasSarah’sequal(i.e.,aswifeormistressinherownright),butasmaidservant—byAbrahamwhenhespeakstoSarah(“yourmaid”),bytheangeloftheLordwhofindsHagaratthespringinthewilderness(“Hagar,slaveofSarai,wherehaveyoucomefrom?”),andinherownresponse(“IamrunningawayfrommymistressSarai”).ThepointbeingregisteredaboutHagar’splaceintheschemeofthingsisbluntlyandcomicallyput:“Sorunstheproverb:‘Ifonemantellsyouthatyouhaveanass’sears,donotbelievehim;iftwotellittoyou,orderahalter.’”16

WhenGod’sangeldiscoversHagarinflight,heurgeshertoreturntoSarah“andsubmittoherharshtreatment”(16:9),andwelearnlaterinthepassagethatHagarhasobeyedtheangeliccounsel.SheisbackinthehouseholdofAbrahamwhenshegivesbirthtoIshmael.

Ishmaelisnextinlineforscrutiny.Therabbis’discourseisevokedbyscripture’sreportthattheangeloftheLordsaidtoHagarthathe“willgreatlyincrease[her]offspring,”andthatshewillbearasontobenamedIshmael(Genesis10–11).RabbiIsaacnotesthatonlythreefiguresinthetraditionwerecalledbytheirnamesbeforebirth—Isaac,Solomon,andJosiah(inGenesis17:16,1Chronicles22:9,and1Kings13:2,resp.).Anunattributedopinionfollows:“SomeaddIshmaelamongthenations.”The(p.133) distinctionbeingmadepresumesthatalthoughIshmaelshareswithIsaac,Solomon,andJosiahtheapparenthonorofbeinggivenhisnamepriortohisbirthbytheLordortheLord’s

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angel,hedoesnotbelongintheircategory.Ishmael,sonofAbraham,iscountedanon-Jew—oneamongthenations.

NegativeestimatesofIshmaelfillthesucceedingpassagesinGenesisRabbah,whichaddressphrasesbywhichtheangeldescribedhimtoHagarinGenesis16:11–12.TherabbisponderwhatitmeansthatIshmaelwillbea“wildassofaman.”R.Johanantakestheviewthatitsignifiesonlythathewillberaisedinthewild,ratherthanincivilization,whileReshLakishasserts,“Itmeansasavageamongmeninitsliteralsense,forwhereasallothersplunderwealth,heplunderslives.”17AndwhatsenseistobedrawnfromthepredictionthatIshmael’shandwouldbe“againsteveryone,andeveryone’shandagainsthim”(16:12)?Thekolbo(“againsthim”)ofthetextsuggestshisdoglike(kalboequalsdog)tasteforcarrion.18

ItisworthaskingwhatassociationsthenameIshmaelcarriesfortherabbisastheyconsiderthistextinGenesis.Theirmidrashimfromtheearlycenturiesofthecommonerainevitablylinktheangel’spronouncementthatIshmaelwouldbeaperpetualwarriorinconflictwith“everyone”toIsrael’spasthistory.TheprogenyofIshmaelhadlongsinceheldaplaceinthebiblicalrollofenemies.InPsalm83,aprayerforGodtospeakandactinatimewhen“foesassertthemselvesagainst[His]people”andthreatentoeradicateIsrael’snamefrommentionandmemory,theclanoftheIshmaelites,andalsooftheHagarites,areidentifiedalongwithsuchtraditionaladversariesastheEdomites,Ammonites,Amalekites,Philistines,andtheAssyrians.19

WemayseethisrepresentationofbellicoseIshmaelandhisoffspringalsoinPirkedeRabbiEliezer(PRE),acompilationofrabbinicteachingandloreeditedintheearlycenturiesaftertheriseofIslam.20Herewereadof“six(people)[who]werecalledbytheirnamesbeforetheywerecreated:Isaac,Ishmael,Moses,Solomon,Josiah,andKingMessiah.”21Ishmael’spresenceinthegroupisexplainedsimplybyreferringtoGenesis16:11,andgivingthemeaningofhisnameanewturn:

WhywashisnamecalledIshmael?Becauseinthefuture,theHolyOne,blessedbeHe,willhearkentothecryofthepeoplearisingfrom(theoppression)whichthechildrenofIshmaelwillbringaboutinthelandinthelast(days).22

Thehostileinversionisclever:Ishmael,theboycalledintoexistencebecauseGod“hearkened”tohisandhismother’smisery,isnowanoppressorwhosevictimsGodwillhearandheed.Elsewhereinthetext(p.134) RabbiIshmaelspeaksoffifteentravestiesthatthechildrenofIshmaelwillaccomplishinIsrael—inthefutureand“inthelatterdays.”Amongtheseterribleactionsaremeasuringsoftheland,desecrationofacemetery,falsehood’striumphovertruth,theremovalofstatutes“farfromIsrael,”thedestructionofwritings,thedespoilingofthetombsofthekingsofJudah,andthis:

Theywill…fenceinthebrokenwallsoftheTemple;andtheywillbuildabuildingintheHolyPlace;andtwobrotherswillariseoverthem,princesattheend.23

ThesepropheciesattributedtoRabbiIshmaelareofcourseretrospective,pointingas

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theydototheclaimingoftheTemplemountasharam(asacredplace)andthebuildinginthelateseventhcenturyofwhatcametobeknownal-Masjidaal-Aqsa(theal-Aqsamosque,ormoreliterally,“thefurthestmosque”fromMeccaandMedina),andtothesonsoftheAbbasidCaliphHarunal-Rashid,al-Aminandal-Mamun,whosequentiallyheldpowerfrom809to833CE.

Future-looking,however,isPRE’sexpressedmessianichopepositionedattheendofthelistofwoesbroughtupontheJewsbysonsofIshmael:

AndintheirdaystheBranch,theSonofDavid,willarise,asitissaid,“AndinthedaysofthosekingsshalltheGodofheavensetupakingdom,whichshallneverbedestroyed”(Daniel2:44).

ThischaracterizationofthesonsofIshmaelastheMuslimfoesofIsraelispartofatraceabledevelopment.HavingitsoriginsintheSarah-Hagarstory,theoppositionbetweenIsaacandIshmaelalreadyinlaterportionsofGenesisbecameastoryofdividedandhostilefamiliesandnations.Esau(likeIshmael,afirstbornsondeniedhisinheritance)tookoneofIshmael’sdaughters,Mahalath,asawife(Genesis28:6–9).TheIshmaeliteswhopurchasedJacob’sson,Joseph,andtookhimtoEgypt(Genesis37:25ff.)areportrayedasapeoplequiteotherthantheHebrews.Needlesstosay,athoroughlydifferentperceptionandvaluationofIshmaeltookshapeinMuslimtraditionandcommentary,aschapter6willdemonstrate.

ReturningtotheexegetesofGenesisRabbah,andtotheirconcernsintheirera,wefindthemponderingwhatoccursneartheconclusionofGenesis16,whenHagarcalledoutto“theLordwhospoketoher.”Therabbisconsideredthisunusualencounterandexchangerichinpossibilities.Again,thestandingofHagarwithGodisatissue—amatterseenspecificallyinrelationto,orincomparisonwith,thedivinefavorshonetoAbraham’sotherwife:(p.135)

R.Judahb.R.SimonandR.JohananinthenameofR.Eleazarb.R.Simeonsaid:TheHolyOne,blessedbeHe,nevercondescendedtoholdconversewithawomansavewiththatrighteouswoman[viz.Sarah],andthattoowasthroughaparticularcause(GRXLV.10).

ThecauseseemstohavebeenGod’sneedtoconfrontSarahaboutherlaughter,whereastheLordsimplyaddressedHagarbywayofanannouncementtoheraboutherfutureasamother.Butquestionspressthemselvesuponthecommentators:wasitGod,oranangel,whospoketoHagar?TheprevailingopinionisthatGodcommunicatedwithher“throughanangel,”thoughthegreatprivilegewhichcametoHagarviathedivinevisitoratthespringraisesanotherissue.Whatdidshemeaninsaying(16:13)“YouareaGodofseeing”?AccordingtoRabbiAibu,shemeant“Thouseestthesufferingsofthepersecuted.”

Thereis,however,moretobeconsideredinthelatterpartofverse13,whichcanbetranslated,“HaveIevenhere(halom)seenhimthatseethme?”24Averypositive

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estimateofHagarderivesfromnotingtheoccurrenceofthissameword,halom,in2Samuel7:18.UponhearingfromtheprophetNathanthatGodwillestablishhishouseandkingship,Davidresponds:“WhatamI,OLordGod,andwhatismyfamily,thatYouhavebroughtmethusfar[or:evenhere—halom]?”—thatis,toroyalstatus.25GenesisRabbahadvancedtheviewthatHagar’ssituationwaslikethatofDavid.Fromherwillissuerulers,astheangelpromised—theangelappearingtoher,notinthecompanyofhermistress,but“evennow”whenshe,arunaway,wasaloneatthespring.

Therabbis’interpretationsbothconfirmanddestabilizewhatmightseemtobeGenesis16’sobviouspresentationsofAbrahamandhistwowomen.NuancesattachtoSarahandherambitiousdesireforasonforAbraham,herangeratbeingdeprecated,heraggressivechallengestoAbrahamaboutwhichsonwillbehisheir,andherdesireforrevengeagainstHagar.Atthesametime,theinterpretersteaseoutreasonswhyHagargloatsinherpregnancy,demeansSarah,andattemptstofleeherdifficulties.BoldinherinterrogationoftheLord’sangel,whobringshergoodtidings,HagarneverthelessaccedestohisinjunctiontoreturntoherhouseholdandsubmittoSarah’scrueltreatmentofher.WenoticethatevenwhiledisparagingHagar,thecommentatorscreditherinteractionswithGod,andhonortheprivilegeswithwhichsheisblessed.Abraham,inthemidstoftherivalrybetweenthetwowomen,seemstodeflectSarah’schargeagainsthim,whileatthesametimetoleratinghermaltreatmentofHagar,whohasconceivedanddeliveredhisfirstborn.

(p.136) Genesis21:1–21WeturnnowtoGenesisRabbah’streatmentoftheearlierversesofchapter21,thosewhichprecedethefinalriftbetweenAbraham’stwowomen,andHagar’sbeingcastout.Atconsiderablelength,andwithanarrayofsupportingbiblicaltexts,therabbiscelebrateGod’sfaithfulnessinkeepinghispromiseconcerningSarah.ForGodtorememberortakenoteofthepledgeofthebirthofIsaactoherandtoAbraham,astherabbisreflectonthepassage,signifiesanumberofthings.Godaccomplisheswhathedecreeswhenthisisfortheworld’sgood(thoughhesometimespostponesorrelentsfromactionwhenhehaspromisedtobringevil—i.e.,judgment).Sarah’sconfidenceinthepromiseispraised.Nolongeronewholaughs,sheisimaginedexclaiming:“What!amItolosefaithinmyCreator!Heaven[forbid]!IwillnotlosefaithinmyCreator,‘ForIwillrejoiceintheLord,IwillexaltintheGodofmysalvation’”(Habbakuk3:18).26

Considerable(andamusing)interestcentersonthemeansbywhichthecapacitytoproduceachildcametoAbrahamandSarah.Therabbisspeakofyouthrestored,sexualpotencyreturnedtoAbraham,theLord’screationofanovaryforSarah,theonsetofhermenses,andtheprovisionofmilkforhernursingofIsaac.ConcernforSarah’svirtueisgreat,inorderthatitnotbesuspectedthatshewasimpregnatedbyAbimelech,fromwhosesexualaspirationsshehadonlyrecentlyescaped,withGod’shelp(Genesis20).Amoralclaimisadvanced.Sarah,havingemergedfromthehousesofthePharaohandAbimelechundefiled,deservedtoberememberedbyGodandmadeamothertoAbraham’sson.Thefactthatthetext(21:2)states“boretoAbraham”rulesoutsuspicion;“Thisteachesthatshedidnotstealseedfromelsewhere.”Furthermore,Isaac

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too,likehisfather,bore“asoninhisoldage.”TherabbisargueinseveralwaysthatSarah’spregnancywassufficientlylengthy“thatitmightnotbesaidthathe[Isaac]wasascionofAbimelech’shouse.”27

AstrikinglegendisinspiredbySarah’sversifiedexclamationinv.7:

WhowouldhavesaidtoAbraham

ThatSarahwouldsucklechildren!

YetIhaveborneasoninhisoldage.

Thecommentatorspauseandpuzzleover“children,”intheplural,andthensetabouttheirwork.AbrahamimportunesSarahtoputmodestyaside,andtobareherbreastssothathermiraculousflowofmilkcanbepubliclyobserved.Themilkisthenofferedtotheoffspringofmanynoble(p.137) ladieswhocome(whiledoubtingtheirworthiness)inorder“that[their]childrenmightbesuckledwiththemilkofthatrighteouswoman.”28Sarah’sdeclarationinGenesis21:6thatherGod-givenhappinesswillbeenjoyedbyallwhohearofit,becomesaprophecyfulfilledwhenmoremiraclesoccur.Thematriarch’sbeingrememberedbyGod—thatis,hergivingbirthtoIsaac—releasedtheseadditionalwonders:“manyotherbarrenwomenwererememberedwithher;manydeafgainedtheirhearing;manyblindhadtheireyesopened,manyinsanebecamesane.”29VerbalconnectionswithotherscripturesallowtherabbistoelaborateonthewaysthatGod’sfulfillmentofthepromiseofIsaac’sbirthtoSarahwas“agiftgrantedtotheworld.”30

ThecelebratorytoneofGR’streatmentofthebirthofIsaacandSarah’shappinessechoesGenesis21:1–8.Butimmediatelyafterthe“greatfeast”markingtheboy’sweaning,accordingtovv.10ff.,threateningcloudscomeoverthehouseholdofthepatriarch.31Thischangebeginswiththeprotectivemothersensingdanger(Genesis21:10–11):

SarahsawthesonwhomHagartheEgyptianhadbornetoAbrahamplaying.ShesaidtoAbraham,“Castoutthatslave-womanandherson,forthesonofthatslaveshallnotshareintheinheritancewithmysonIsaac.”

Whatwasthe“playing”ofIshmaelthatsoaggravatedSarah?RabbiAkiba’sinterpretationleadsoffaseriesofopinions.Theverbthatunderlies“playing,”or“makingsport”—tsahak—isthesamethatappearsinthestoryofJosephandPotiphar’swife.FailinginherattempttoseduceJoseph,shetellsPotipharthathis“Hebrewservant…cameintometomakesportofme”(Genesis39:17).Akibadeducesthat“thisteachesthatSarahsawIshmaelravishmaidens,seducemarriedwomen,anddishonorthem.”32RabbiIshmaelrecallstheuseoftheterm“sport”or“play”inExodus32:6,whichtellsoftheHebrews’actionsaroundthegoldencalfontheplainbelowSinai.Sarah,then,spiedIshmaelcommittingidolatry.Heisimaginedbuildingaltarsandtheresacrificinglocusts,theentertainmentofawicked,cruelyouth.No,othersargue;shesawaviolentact.RabbiEleazar(drawingontheappearanceof“sport”in2Samuel.2:14,whereabattleby

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swordanddaggerisdescribed),assertsthatIshmaelcommittedbloodshed.AwareofthenoticethatIshmaelbecameanarcher(Genesis21:20),R.LevirecallsimagesfromProverbs.22:18ff.inwhichthe“play”ofapersonwhodeceiveshisneighboriscomparedtothebehaviorof“amadmanwhocastsfirebrands,arrows,anddeath.”

Perhapsbecausehefindsthesevariedopinionstoospeculative,orbecausehehasreservationsaboutimputingsuchshamefulbehaviorstoasonof(p.138) thegreatpatriarchAbraham,RabbiSimeonb.Yohaitakesadifferenttack,readingvv.9–10together.“Playing”suggeststohimmockery—specifically,Ishmael’sattitudetowardthefestivecommotionsurroundingthebirthandchildhoodofhishalf-brother,“forwhenourfatherIsaacwasbornallrejoiced,whereuponIshmaelsaidtothem,‘Youarefools,forIamthefirstbornandIreceiveadoubleportion.’”33HereitisnotIshmael’swarlikecharacterthatarrestedSarah’sattention,butratherhisassertionofhisrightsofprimogeniture,expressedinaspiritofdisdainandgreed.Onthisreading,Sarah’sprotectivenessofhersonhastodowithIsaac’spatrimony—sheisforcefullyremindingherhusbandofthepromisemadeandnowfulfilledbyGod,andofAbraham’scommitmentstothecovenant.

WerecallthatSarah’sdemandthatthe“slavewomanandherson”bedismissedcausedAbrahamgreatpain,“foritconcernedasonofhis”(21:11).AsinglescripturaltextisbroughtforthinGRbywayofcomment:“Thusitiswritten,‘Andshuthiseyesfromlookinguponevil’”(Isaiah33:15).Thegistofthismidrashentailsacriticismofthepatriarch,who“shuthiseyesfromIshmael’sevilways,andwasreluctanttosendhimaway.”34Onewonders,however,ifanothermeaningmaybeintendedbythecitationofthetext—acommentmoresympathetictoAbraham.ThephraseinquestioninIsaiah33fallsinanumberofdescriptionsofarighteousperson“whospurnsprofitfromfraudulentdealings,wavesawayabribeinsteadofgraspingit,stopshisearsagainstlisteningtoinfamy,shutshiseyesagainstlookingatevil”(v.15).IsitpossiblethattherabbisacknowledgeAbraham’sdistress,imaginingthathemighthaveconsideredthebanningofhissonanunrighteousact,andthatforthisreasonheavertedhiseyes,andrecoiledfromit?

ThecontinuingnarrativeinGenesishasGodaddresswordstoAbrahamthatseem,whileupholdingSarah’sadmonitiontosendawaythethreateningmotherandson,consolatoryratherthanaccusatory.CertainlyGodreinforcesSarah’swish,tellingAbraham,“whateverSarahtellsyou,doasshesays,foritisthroughIsaacthatoffspringwillbecontinuedforyou”(v.12).Nonetheless,Goddoesreassurethepatriarchabouthisfirstson,saying“Iwillmakeanationofhim,too,forheisyourseed”(v.13).

ThebiblicalnarrativeoftheexpulsionofHagarandIshmaelpresentedpuzzlestothecommentatorsinGenesisRabbahthatmayormaynothaveheldforthemthekindofpathosseeninRembrandt’srendering.TheywonderedhowAbraham’sactionofplacingthewaterskinonHagar’sshoulderwastobeconstrued—positively,inthatheshowedgenerosityinprovidingherwithanabundanceofwater,ornegatively,showingHagartobeawater-bearingservant?Wasthefatherdiscouraginganyimpressionthattheboywithherwashisfreebornsonwithaclaimonhisinheritance?Why(p.139) didthe

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biblicaltextstatethatAbrahamputprovisionsforthejourney,plusthechild,onHagar’sshoulderashesentheraway?TherabbiswereconsciousoftheproblemofseeingIshmaelasayoungchild(theGRcommentsthathewastwenty-sevenyearsoldatthetime),35buttheirexplanationsaredifferentlyframed.IshmaelhadtobecarriedbecausehehadbeenmadeillbySarah,who“castanevileyeonhim,whereuponhewasseizedwithfeverishpains.”36WanderinginthewildernessnearBeer-Sheba,Ishmaelconsumedthewaterinthewayafeverishpersondrinks,andso,withnoneleft,wasonthevergeofdeath.

Anotherquestionarisesfromthestory.HavingputIshmaelunderabush,Hagarseparatedherselftothedistanceofabowshot,“forshethought,‘Letmenotlookonasthechilddies.’Andsittingthusafar,sheburstintotears”(21:16).Isherthoughtprayerful?Isitsomethingelse—anaccusation?TheHebrewwordforbowshotcallstomindasimilartermthatconnoteshurlingwords,or“onewhocriticizes”(ke-mateheth).So,itisproposed,hurlinghercomplaintsonhigh,Hagarspoke

asawomanwhoimpugnedGod’sjustice,saying,“YesterdayThoudidstpromiseme,‘Iwillgreatlymultiplythyseed,etc.’(Genesis16:10),andnowheisdyingofthirst!”37

Hagarisnotaloneinraisingquestionsofjustice.AccordingtoR.Simon,ministeringangelsaccostedGodandputtohimachallengestarklydifferentfromHagar’s.“Lordofallages,toamanwhoisdestinedtokillyourchildrenwiththirstwillyouprovideawell?”Theministeringangels,therabbissuppose,arepresumingthatapassageinIsaiah(21:13ff)tellsofatimewhenArabs,Ishmael’sdescendants,murderouslyignoredtheIsraelitesintheirdesperatepleaforwater.

WhatfollowsisastatementregardingthebasisuponwhichGodjudges,oractsonbehalfof,humanbeings.Abouttheperson(Ishmael)whomtheangelsforeknowwillsomedaybeinjurioustohischildren(ofthelineofIsaac),Godasks:“Whatishenow?”Theyanswer,“Righteous.”Goddeclaresthathejudgesthehumanasheorsheisinthepresent,“atthemoment,”notonthebasisofthatperson’sfuturecharacteranddeeds.Thehookonwhichthisargumenthangsisanelementinverse17,“whereheis,”whichistakentomean“asheisatpresent.”SoGodhearsthecryoftheboyandoneofhisangelscallstoHagarfromabove:

Whattroublesyou,Hagar?Fearnot,forGodhasheededthecryoftheboywhereheis.Come,liftuptheboyandholdhimbythehand,forIwillmakeagreatnationofhim(Genesis21.17b–18).

(p.140) ThetheologicalargumentaboutGod’swaysofjudgingseemsatfirsttostandatsomeremovefromtheagonizingofIshmaelandhismother,butofcourseasascenedepictingtheplightofthosewhoaresuffering,itnaturallyraisesquestionsaboutGod—hissilenceandhisinaction,orhispurposeandpowerinrelationtotheevent.Thenextverserevealsthemodeofdivinerescue.“Godopenedhereyesandshesawawellofwater.Shewentandfilledtheskinwithwater,andlettheboydrink”(v.19).Tworabbis

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commentthatallpeopleareblinduntilGodopenstheireyes.TheimplicationthattheproblemlaywithHagarisfollowedbytheobservationthatshelackedfaithevenafterhavingbeenenlightened—shefilledthewaterskinbecauseofdoubtaboutthewell,beinganxiousthatitmightvanishasquicklyasitappeared.38(WeshallseethatMusliminterpreterssimilarlycriticizedtheactionoftherescuedHagar,whowassaidtohaveattemptedtodam,andpreserve,thewatersofthespring.)

EventhoughthepreviouscommentaryonthisincidentregardedGod’sdecisiontointerveneandsaveIshmael“wherehe[was]”(i.e.,forwhathewasthen)asevidencethattheyouthwasapersonofrighteousnessandmerit,concludingremarksabouthisfuturelifetakeanegativeturn.ThetwoHebrewwordsfor“becameanarcher”(robehkashoth)pointtotwoothers(rabbah,kashiuth)suggestingthatIshmaelgrewincruelty.Thisnarrativesection’sfinalversetellingofHagar’sfindinganEgyptianwifeforherson(v.21)promptsR.Isaac,notwithoutprejudice,toremark,recallingGenesis16:1(“She[Sarah]hadanEgyptianmaidservant”),thatasticktossedintheairwillfallbacktoitspointoforigin.39

InthebiblicaldramaofAbraham’sfamily,thecast-outmotherandsonleavethestage,Hagarnottoappearagain,andIshmaelreturningonlytojoinIsaacinburyingtheirfather.GenesispursuesthestoryofAbrahamandSarahthroughtotheeventsoftheirdeathsandburialsinchs.23through25,andthenturnstothestoriesconcerningthepatriarch’s“seed”—Isaac,Jacob,Joseph.

RevealedonceagaininthesepagesofGenesisRabbahwasthetypicalmodeofrabbinicalscripturalanalysis—theproductionofmidrashthatexplored,ratherthanattemptedtoachieveconsensuson,theactionsofAbraham,Sarah,Hagar,andIsaacandIshmael—andtheirLord.Rather,holdingscriptureandallofitspartstobeGod-giventreasure,therabbiswereinsearchofitsrichprizes—itsmultiplelessonsandtruths.

Abraham’sFamilyinEarlyJewishArt:MosaicsintheSepphorisSynagogueThe1923discoveryofmultiplebiblicalscenesinathird-century“housesynagogue”inDuraEuropas(ontheEuphrates)fullydispelledthenotion(p.141) thatadherencetothecommandmentagainstidolatrypreventedJewsfromproducingfiguralart.40FurtherexcavationsinPalestinebroughttolightanumberofsplendidlydecoratedsynagogues,oneofwhichhasaroletoplayinoursearchforJewishartisticinterpretationsofAbraham’swomenandtheirsons.

WeshouldbeginbyacknowledgingthatnowhereinearlyJewishartdoesadepictionofHagarsurvive.DoweseeIshmael?Veryprobably,butacaseneedstobemadeforthis.Isaacdoesappear,andnotinfrequently,becauseofthepopularityofdepictionsoftheaqedatYitzhak,the“bindingofIsaac”atthetimehisfatherpreparedtosacrificehimtoGod.

Sarahistheonetobesearchedout,andsheisbelievedtobeshowninaportionofthemosaicflooruncoveredin1993byarchaeologistsZe’evWeissandEhudNetzer.41Asmallbutelegantlydecoratedsynagoguedatingfromthefifthcenturywasbuiltinthe

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lowerGalileancityofSepphoris.Inthaterathecity,whichhadlongbeenregardedasanimportantcenterforJewishlife,preservedmanyfeaturesofitshavingbeenatypicalGreco-Romanmunicipality.ItalsoshowedsignsofthegrowingstrengthofChristianity;severalchurches(constructeduponthefoundationsofwhathadbeenpagantemples)stoodnearthecardo,Sepphoris’smainstreet—closetothecity’sadministrativecenter.42Itishardtoknowtheextenttowhichpagansightsandsoundsmighthavecontinuedinthecityinthefifthtosixthcenturies,buttheproximityofJewish(aTalmudicreporttellsofeighteensynagogues)andChristianbuildingsinSepphorisallowsustopresumesomemeasureofsocialinteractionbetweenJewsandChristians.Abitlater,weshallexplorehowmuchtheyknewabouteachothers’beliefs,andinterpretationsofbiblicalnarratives.

Inasummarydescriptionoftheirdiscovery,WeissandNetzerwrote:

Themostsignificantremnantofthesynagogueisitsmosaicfloorwhichwasdesignedasasinglelongcarpetmeasuring16.0×6.6m[eters]….Thecarpetinthenaveisdividedinto7horizontalbandsofunequalheight,withazodiacinthecenter.Someofthebandshaveinternalsubdivisions.Thefloorismadeupof14panelscontainingavarietyofdecorations,someofwhichmaketheirfirstappearanceinJewisharthere.Dedicatoryinscriptions,mostlyinGreek,adornthepanelsbutbearnorelationshiptothescenesinthem.Allofthedepictionsthatcomprisethemainmosaiccarpetfaceinonedirection,perpendiculartothenave’slongitudinalaxis,thusemphasizingthebema,thefocusofreligiousactivityinthesynagogue.Althougheachpanelfeaturesadifferentscene,theyareallthematicallyconnected.43

Theproposalbytheexcavatorsthattheartprogramofthemosaiccarpetcenteredinthethemesof“promiseandredemption”generatedlively(p.142) scholarlydiscussion,withdiverseopinionsaboutwhatoverallsensecanbedrawnfromthemultiplepanels,whichdepictimagesofthearkandtwomenorahs,scenesoftemplesacrifices(thenameAaronappearingnexttoaneffacedfigurestandingatanaltar),alargeZodiacimagesimilartothosefoundinothersynagoguesoftheperiod),andtwosceneshavingtodowithAbraham.44

Bypassingherethediscussionofthemosaicfloorinitsentirety,wecloseinuponissuesofinterpretationpertainingtothelattermosaics,whichbeardirectlyonthischapter’stopic.Thefirstofthese(Figure4.2),largelydamaged,showedthehead-coveringandforeheadofawomanstandinginadoorway—Sarah,itsexcavatorsdetermined.

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Figure4.2 SarahdepictedinamosaicpaneloftheSepphorissynagogue.FifthtosixthcenturyCE.CourtesyofProf.ZeevWeiss,TheSepphorisExcavations,TheHebrewUniversityofJerusalem.

Figure4.3isadrawinginwhichWeissreconstructedwhatthismosaicshowedandsuggested.

Figure4.3 Drawing,courtesyofProf.ZeevWeiss,TheSepphorisExcavations,TheHebrewUniversityofJerusalem.

(p.143) Weissdescribedthesceneinthisway:

Onlysmallfragmentsoftheoriginalpanelarepreserved.Onefigure,standinginarectangularstructure,canbeseenontheleftofthepanel.Tracesoftwootherfigurescanbeidentifiedbesideit.Oneisstandingtotherightoftherectangularstructure,andtheotherisdepictedinarecliningpositionfarthertotherightandbelowthepreviousone.Tracesofaclothwithafringedhem,whichprobablycoveredatablethatstoodinthepicture’sforeground,arevisiblebelowtherecliningfigure.Althoughthissceneispoorlypreserved,analysisofitsremainsin

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lightofacloseparallelinthepresbyteryinSt.Vitale,Ravenna(mid-sixthcenturyCE),makesitpossibletoreconstructwhatwasoncedepictedhere.Thethreeangelsreclinedintheforegroundofthepanelnexttoalowtable.Abraham,theirhost,islocatedtotheirleft,andbehindhim,Sarahstandsinthetentlisteningtohisconversationwithhisguests.ThepresentationofthestoryoftheBindingofIsaacasadirectcontinuationofthesceneoftheangels’visittoAbrahamisalsofoundinRavenna(iftheidentificationsuggestedhereisaccepted).InJewishart,thisthememakesitsfirstappearanceintheSepphorissynagogue.45

(p.144) Themosaic(Figure4.4)onthenorthwallofthechurchofSanVitaletowhichWeissreferspostdatestheSepphorissynagoguebyapproximatelyacentury(SanVitalewasconstructedintheperiod528–547),butitdoesprovidethesimilarconfigurationoftheSarahimagethatgaveWeissandNetzerexternalsupportforidentificationofthismosaic’ssubject.Thetwobiblicalstoriesinthemosaicpavementinitiallyvisibletothoseenteringthesynagogue—first,theangels’visitationtoAbrahamandSarahatMamreandsecond,thedepictionofthenear-sacrificeofIsaac—appearintheSanVitalewallmosaicalignedonahorizontalplane,andappear,notsurprisinglyinthisChristiancontext,beneathacrossheldaloftbyangels.

Figure4.4 Abrahamwelcomesstrangers,preparestosacrificeIsaac.Mid-sixthcenturyCE.MosaicinSanVitale,Ravenna.©ArtHistoryImages.

InthechurchdecorationbothpartsofthesinglemosaicscenestandnotonlyaspictorialAbrahamichistorybutalsoassymbolsunderstoodtoprefiguretheannunciationofthebirthofJesusandhissacrificialdeath.AsiftoholdthetwoimagestogetherandmakemanifesttheirconnectedmeaningforChristians,theangelsatthecenterhaveinfrontofthemastheysitatthetablewhat,inthissetting,canonlybeeucharisticbread.46

IntheSepphorissynagogue,thetwosceneswillofcourseonlyconveyJewishmeanings,butinthesocial-religiouscontextofPalestine’s—andSepphoris’—fifthandsixthcenturies,itwouldbesurprisingiftheirpresentationswerenotcognizantof,andresistantto,Christianizedappropriationsofthesetwoimportantscripturalstories.WewanttoweighhowtheakedahsceneintheSepphorismosaic(Figure4.5)reveals—orgivesstrongintimationsof—theideasandperspectiveofitsartists.

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Figure4.5 Abraham’sattendantsandtheaqedah.AfloorpanelintheSepphorissynagogue.CourtesyofProf.ZeevWeiss,TheSepphorisExcavations,TheHebrewUniversityofJerusalem.

Again,adrawingbyWeiss(Figure4.6)clarifieswhatcanbeseeninthedamagedmosaic.

Figure4.6 Drawing,courtesyofZeevWeiss,TheSepphorisExcavations,TheHebrewUniversityofJerusalem.

Weissdescribesthetwopanelsonthisbandofthemosaicfloor:

ThetwoyouthswhomAbrahamhasleft,togetherwithanass,atthefootofthemountain,aredepictedintheleftpanel.Theass,whichhasacoloredpack-saddleonitsback,standsintheforegroundofthescene;behindhimisoneoftheyouthswhoisextendingonehandforwardandholdingaspearintheother.Thesecondyouthisseatedontheleftbeneathatreeandgripsthereinsoftheassinonehand.Thecontinuationofthestoryinthepanelontherighthasbeenlargelydestroyed.Onitsleftsideonecandiscernasparselybranchedtreetowhicharamistetheredbymeansofareddishcord;onlytheheadoftheramremainsintact.Belowit,twopairsofshoesremovedbyAbrahamandIsaacastheyapproachedthesiteofthesacrificearevisible,adetailabsentinotherdepictionsofthisepisode.Inanothersurvivingpartofthemosaicinthecenterofthepanel,onecanpossiblyidentifythebladeofaknife,andtoitsrightthe(p.145) (p.146)remainsofacloak.InthelightofthenumerousparallelsinByzantineart,itappearsthatAbrahamwasdepictedintheforegroundoftheoriginalpanel,hisbodybeingfarlargerthantheotherfiguresbesidehim.Inhisraisedrighthandheheldtheknife,whilehis

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otherhandgrabbedIsaac,perhapsonlybyhisforelock.Isaac,probablyportrayedonasmallerscale,appearednexttoAbraham,(p.147) ontheright,besideanaltarthatwaslocatedonthepanel’srightside.Theramontheleftsideofthepanelcompletestheportrayalofthebiblicalnarrative.47

ThecontentandarrangementconformtoanothermosaicdepictionoftheaqedatYitzhakfoundinthesixth-centuryBethAlphasynagogue(Figure4.7).

Figure4.7 AqedahscenefromtheBethAlphasynagogue.SixthcenturyCE.PhotocourtesyoftheCenterforJewishArtattheHebrewUniversityofJerusalem.

DistinctiveherearethetituliinHebrew,whichread(fromtheright):“Isaac,”“Abraham,”“Donotraise[yourhand]”(theangeloftheLord’swordsfromheaventoAbrahaminGenesis22:12),andthedeclarativestatement,“Hereistheram”(22:13).

IntheSepphorismosaic’saqedahscene(andalsoinBethAlpha’s)theramistiedtothetreeorbush,ratherthancaughtinitbyitshorns(asGenesis22:13relates).Themotifoftheramtetheredwitharopeisregardedasapieceof“artisticmidrash”meanttoclarifyandexpandwhattheram’sappearanceinGenesis22:13signifies:tiedupandawaitingthisevent,theram’spresencewasprovidential,notaccidental.48ThetetheredanimaltobesacrificedinIsaac’ssteadwasinthematickeepingwiththisandotherartists’interpretiveadditionsfocusedondivineoversightoftheevent—namely,thehandofGodshownatopthepaintingoftheaqedahinDuraEuropas’ssynagogue,representingthevoicefromheaven(batqol),orthehandpicturedinconjunctionwiththedivinecommandgiveninletters,observableabovetheramintheBethAlphaimage.49

(p.148) Significanceattachestoanotherdetailconcerningtheropethattetherstheram.Theartistsknewtherabbinicteachingwhich,expandinguponthedescriptionofthescapegoatsacrificedonYomKippur(Leviticus16:10),heldthattheropewascrimson—itssymbolismfoundinIsaiah1:18—“Beyoursinslikecrimson,theycanturnsnowwhite.”Bythismotif,therecouldbeputinplaceathoroughlyJewishcommentaryonwhattheramwasandsignified.TheanimalavailabletoAbrahamwasthebearerandremoverofIsrael’ssins.PassagesinboththeMishnahandtheBabylonianTalmudrefertothecrimsonthreadtiedbetweentheram’shorns—theformertextnotingthattheotherendofthewoolenropewasattachedtoarockasthescapegoatwaspushedover

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theprecipice.50

RabbinicdiscoursespertainingtotheaqedahspendconsiderabletimeonIsaac’sattitude(willingorquestioning)aboutwhatistobefallhim;bycontrasttheartistsdonotportrayIsaacasanadult,withtheresultthatgreaterinterestandcentralitybelongstothefigureoftheram.51Forexample,GenesisRabbah’sextensivecommentaryonthe“bindingofIsaac”oftentakesintoconsiderationthoughtsandemotionsofIsaacandAbrahamastheyspeaktoeachother,orofAbrahamwhenhe“pickeduptheknifetoslayhisson”(Genesis22:10).Theangels,incloseattendance,areimaginedasweepingatthesight.52

Further,apassageinGRdisclosessharpconsciousnessofIsrael’shistoricalsituation,andtheplaceoftheaqedahinJudaism’srituallife.TheramspiedbyAbrahamahar(“behindhim”)isgivenatemporaltwist,sothatR.Judancansay,“Afterallthathappened[i.e.,ourredemptionfromslaveryinEgypt,thegiftoftheTorah,etc.],Israelstillfall[s]intotheclutchesofsinand[inconsequence]become[s]thevictimofpersecution;yet[Israel]willbeultimatelyredeemedbytheram’shorn,asitsays,‘AndtheLordGodwillblowthehorn,etc.’”(Zechariah9:14).53R.Haninab.R.Isaacadds,“ThroughouttheyearIsrael[is]insin’sclutchesandledawayby[her]troubles,butonNewYeartheyshalltaketheshofarandblowonit,andeventuallytheywillberedeemedbytheram’shorn.”54RabbiHanina’sremarkletsusknowthatthestoryofthebindingofIsaacwasreadatRoshHashana,eventhoughithadearlierbeenassociatedwithPassover.55ChristianpreachingatEaster,whichtransformedtheboundIsaacintoChristcrucified,wouldhavebeenoneofthemotivationsformovingthereadingoftheaqedahtoanotherfeastintheJewishcalendar.Asnotedearlier,Melito,asecond-centurybishopinthecityofSardis,had,withstrongpolemicalforce,taughthiscongregationatEasterwhatthe“sacrificeofIsaac”signifiedforhimandhisfellow-believers.

Thesynagoguemosaicemphasizedtheanimal’sroleinthedramanotonlybyputtingthescapegoat’sredleashonhim,butalsobydepictingin(p.149) theupperregistersthemenoroth-surroundingark,Aaron’spriesthood,andthecentralimportanceofsacrificialanimals,includingbirds,intheculticlifeoftheTemple.TheritualconsciousnessofJewswasbeingevokedinthisimagery,andtherelationoftheserealitiestotheramthattookIsaac’splaceastheofferingatMoriahwasobvious.

IntheTanhumaYelammedenu,acollectionofexegesesmanyofwhichstemfromthefifththroughseventhcenturies,wefindavariationontheinterpretationsalreadymet:

Aramcaughtinthethicketbyhishorns.TheHolyOne,blessedbeHe,saidtoAbraham:“letthemblowupontheram’shorntoMe,andIwillsavethemandredeemthemfromtheirsins.”ThisiswhatDavidmeantwhenhesang:Myshieldandmyhornofsalvation,myhightower(Psalm18:3).56

Andofcourseourmosaicpanelisartinaplaceofworship,notinabook.Theliturgicalhearingandseeingoftheaqedahrecalledandconfirmedthecongregation’ssenseofidentityasGod’sbeloved—tested,protected,andredeemed.

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OnlyintheSepphorissynagogue’saqedahiconographyisfoundthefeatureoftwopairsofupturnedshoes,shedbythesmallerIsaacandbyhisfather.WeissnotesthatinGenesisRabbah56.2onemeetsthetraditionthatcloudsand“theShekhinah(DivinePresence)…dweltintheplacechosenforIsaac’ssacrifice.”57OnerecallsGod’scommandinExodus3:5thatMosesremovehissandalsatMt.Horeb,sinceitis“holyground.”AplaceofGod’spowerfulpresenceandspeechrequiresthosewhoascendittoproceedwithfeetunshod.58InthisdetailofthepairsofshoesresidestheclaimthatthismountaininMoriah,likeHoreb,isa“mountainofGod”andthattheaqedahranksinimportancewiththegivingoftheLawatSinai.ButtheimageoftheshoesleftoffattheplaceofthebindingofIsaacmaybeunderstoodtosignifymorethanproperrespectforhallowedspace.OveragainstChristianinterpretationsofthebindingofIsaacinChristologicalterms,theshoessay:thiseventofGod’spardontookplaceinourholyplace,andwasrevealedtoourancestors.

StudyingtheSepphorisaqedahsceneinthelightofChristianusesoftheimage,arthistorianHerbertKesslersuggestedthatanotherdetail—abarelynoticedomissionfromtheJewishimagery—canalsobethoughttoservethecauseofadistinctiveJewishclaimadversusChristianorum.Genesis21:6’sreportthat“AbrahamtookthewoodfortheburntofferingandputitonhissonIsaac”failstoappearintheSepphorisaqedahimage,andinotherJewishrepresentationsofthescene.ChristianexegetesandtheologiansasearlyasthesecondcenturyassertedthatthisbiblicaldetailheldthecluethatIsaac’ssacrificeanticipatedandpointedtoJesus’sbearinghis(p.150) owncrosstotheplaceofhisdeath,andChristianartistsdidshowIsaacwiththewoodinhisarms.59Kessler’sstudyofminiaturepaintingsofthesceneintheChristiantopographymanuscripts(datingfromtheelevenththroughthetwelfthcenturies,but“surelycopiedfroma6th-or7thc.Syrianmodelandhence…ratherclosetotheSepphorismosaicinplaceandtimeoforigin”)promptedhimtospeculate:

TheubiquitousnessofthedepictionofIsaacbearingthewoodinEarlyChristianart,andhenceofthetypologicalinterpretation,mayhaveinducedthemosaicist[attheSepphorissynagogue]toomitit.60

InhisBoundbytheBibleEdwardKessler,ahistorianofJewish-Christianrelations,pursuedconcernsakintothoseofHerbertKesslerbysearchingforevidenceof“exegeticalencounters”betweenJewsandChristianswhointerpretedthesacrificeofIsaac.61Earlyinhisstudyheremarkedaboutrabbis’responses“toChristianclaimsaboutownershipofScripture,”andquotedapassagefromtheTanhuma:

WhentheHolyOne,BlessedbeHe,saidtoMoses“write”(Ex.34:27),MoseswantedtowritetheMishnahaswell.HowevertheHolyOne,BlessedbeHe,foresawthatultimatelythenationsoftheworldwouldtranslatetheTorahintoGreekandwouldclaim,“WeareIsrael.”62

Kesslerobservedthatthechurchfathers,whilenotabandoningthenarrative’sstronginterestinAbraham’sfaithfulnesstoGod’scommand,gaveconcentratedattentiontoIsaacastheprototypeofJesus.Kesslerarguesthattherabbisknewandusedconcepts

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fromthisChristiantrajectoryofideas,turningthemtotheirownpurposes.ExaminingapieceofcommentaryinGenesisRabbah56.3whichlikensAbraham’splacingofthewoodonIsaacto“amanwhocarrieshiscrossonhisshoulder”—aphrasewhichwas“undoubtedlydeliberate”—Kesslernotedthatthis“isasneartoanexplicitreferencetoChristianityasweshallfindinrabbinicinterpretations”ofthistimeperiod.63Hecontinued:

RatherthanassociatingIsaacwithdeathandmartyrdom,the[rabbis’]purposewastoemphasizeIsaac’swillingnesstogiveuphislifeandsuffertorture.ThisiswhytherabbisdeliberatelyfailedtoassociateIsaacwithsuchmartyrsasAkiva….ItisIsaac’swillingnesstogiveuphislifethatprovidesthebasisforthoseinterpretations[i.e.,thosethatspokeofhisfearoftheknife]andappearstobearesponsetotheChristianteachingthatChristwaswillingtogiveuphislifeforIsrael.Therabbisarguedthatthereexistednumerousbiblicalfigures,(p.151)suchasIsaacattheAkedah,whowerewillingtogiveuptheirlivesonbehalfofIsrael.TheseexamplesshowedthatnospecialsignificanceshouldbegiventothewillingnessofChristtogiveuphislife.Inthewordsoftherabbis,‘youfindeverywherethatthepatriarchsandtheprophetsofferedtheirlivesonbehalfofIsrael.’Inotherwords,thesacrificeofJesuswasnotauniqueevent.IsaacwasusedtocounterChristologicalclaimsofuniqueness.64

WecannotleaveunexaminedtheSepphorismosaic’srepresentationoftheotherhalfofthebandshowingtheaqedah.Abraham’sservantsmayberegardedasbiblicallyrequired,butthemosaicportrayalofthemisprovocative.Thetwomenareturnedtowardeachother,withthelarger,spear-bearingmanontherightspeakingandgesturingintheother’sdirection.Istheviewerofthispanelthatadjoinsthesacrificialscenemeanttorecognizethesetwoattendants,andtohavesomeideaofwhatistranspiringbetweenthem?Familiar,presumably,wereaqedahtraditionsliketheonefoundinPirkedeRabbiEliezer31,whichgivesthenamesofthosewhoaccompaniedAbrahamandIsaactotheplaceofsacrifice:Eliezer,theservant,andIshmael,thepatriarch’sotherson.Howdidthesetwo,toldtostaybehindwiththeass,occupythemselvesduringthetimeAbrahamandIsaacwenttothemountaintopto“worship”(asAbrahamsays)?

ContentionarosebetweenEliezerandIshmael.IshmaelsaidtoEliezer:NowthatAbrahamwillofferIsaachissonforaburntoffering,kindleduponthealtar,Iamhisfirst-bornson,Iwillinherit(thepossessions)ofAbraham.Eliezerrepliedtohim,saying:Hehasalreadydrivenyououtlikeawomandivorcedfromherhusband,andhehassentyouawaytothewilderness,butIamhisservant,servinghimbydayandbynight,andIshallbetheheirofAbraham.TheHolySpiritansweredthem,sayingtothem:Neitherthisonenorthatoneshallinherit.65

TheexchangeresonateswithoneofthefundamentalthemesandplotlinesofGenesis:inheritancerightsandcompetitionbetweensonsforthese.Ishmaelseeshisopportunitytolayclaimtotherightsofafirstbornson,whileEliezer,afterlikeningIshmael’sstatustothatofarejectedwife,baseshisownclaimuponalifeofdevotedservice.Thetwomen

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personifyvaluesworthyofcomparisonandjudgmentinthisrabbinictale,butinitstellingtheSpiritofGodsummarilyendsthedebate.ThedenialofbothmenandtheirclaimsbytheSpirit“points”thelistenertothewonderthatistranspiringonthemountain.Asimilarredirectionoftheeyemusthavehappenedtoviewersofthemosaic.Butwepauseoverthebestpreservedpartofband6becauseheretheartists,nodoubtawareofsomeformofthemidrashwehaveinPRE,haveIshmaelre-enteringthe(p.152) Abrahamicstory(backfromthewildernessofParanwherehewasleftinGenesis21:20–21),armedwithaspear,ratherthanthebowwhichGodpredictshewillmaster.

Ishmael’spresenceinthesceneunderlines,withanonbiblicalimage,thisscripturenarrative’schieftheme:itistoAbraham’ssonborntoSarah(nottoHagar’sson)thatGod’scovenantapplies.Thepatriarchhasdemonstratedhisfaithfulness,atwhichpointtheangeloftheLordreiterates(andasJonLevensonemphasized,transforms)theblessing:“Becauseyouhavedonethisandnotwithheldyourson,yourfavoredone,Iwill…makeyourdescendantsasthestarsofheavenandthesandsontheseashore;andyourdescendantsshallseizethegatesoftheirfoes.Allthenationsoftheearthshallblessthemselvesbyyourdescendants,becauseyouhaveobeyedMycommand”(Genesis22:16–18).

WeconcludeourconsiderationofAbraham’sfamilyinthefiguralartofSepphorisbyturningoncemoretoSarah.ThoughtheartistsdidnotplaceSarahanywhereinthebandofthesynagoguemosaicdepictingofthebindingofIsaac,shewouldhavebeenimaginedbehindthatscenebythosewhoseeyesfellonthetwopanelstheymetastheyenteredthebuilding.AmainreasonforthiswasthatinGenesistheaccountofAbraham’snear-sacrificeofIsaacinchapter22isfollowedonlyafewverseslaterbythereportofthematriarch’sdeath.Weknowthatinsomesynagoguesthetwostories,theaqedahandthedeathofSarah,constitutedasingleTorahportiontobereadtothecongregation.66

Thejuxtapositionofthe“bindingofIsaac”andSarah’sdemisepromptedspeculationthattherewasacause-effectrelationbetweenthetwohappenings.ApassageinPirkedeRabbiEliezertellsofavisittoSarahbySammael/Satan,whoknowsof,andisfrustratedby,Abraham’sfidelitytoGodatthealtarhehaspreparedforIsaaconthemountain.DuringthetimewhenAbrahamandhissonareatthemountaininMoriah,SammaelfalselyinformsSarahthatIsaachasbeenslainandgiventoGodasaburntofferingbyherhusband.Sarahweeps,thenwailsaloudwiththreelongandthreeshortcrieslikethoseoftheshofar,anddies.67Itisthestuffoftragedy—adangerousdeceiver,workingofftothesideofdrama’smainaction,turnstothewomanwhohadoncelaughedinincredulity,andbringshertotearsofagonyandtoherdeath,evenwhiletheGodofAbrahamisrescuingherson,theirson,atcenter-stage.SympathyforSarah,evenamongthosewhotakethemoralpointabouthervulnerabilities,musthavebroughtanimageofhertomind.

ThelatterpartofthischapterhasbeenanexplorationofhowJewishmosaicartistsatSepphorischosetorepresentAbraham,Sarah,andIsaacandIshmaelbothsimilarlyanddifferentlyfromthosedescriptionswepossessinliterarytexts.Sharplyevidentintheworkoftheartistsofthe(p.153) SepphorissynagogueareindicationsthattheJewsknewthemselvestobedebatingascripturalstoryheldincommonwiththeirrivals.

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HerbertKessler’scommentsabouttheimportanceofthesynagogueanditsartilluminetheinteractionsbetweenreligiouscommunitiesthatarethisstudy’sprincipalinterest.

WhatthisnewdiscoverytellsusabouttherelationshipofJewishtoChristianartduringlateantiquity,then,isappropriatelycomplex.ItsupportsthehypothesisthatChristiansmaywellhavebasedsomeoftheirimageryonJewishmodels;butitremindsus,aswell,thattheydidsoonlywithinthepolemicsofwhoaretheChosenPeople.Moreover,itsuggeststhattheJews,inturn,deployedthesharedpictorialrepertorytostakeouttheirownclaims,particularlytheirfaiththattheircovenantwithGodhadnotbeenabrogatedbutwould,indeed,berenewed.AndwhileJewsmaywellhavetakentheleadindeployingRomanartisticformstotheirownreligiouspurposes,bythe5thc.theyseemtobefollowingtheChristians,oratleast,tobeindialoguewiththem.ThefacelessHelios[intheZodiac],theomissionofIsaaccarryingfaggots,andeventhespectacularrepresentationofAaronconsecratingtheTabernaclemightwellberesponses,notinitiatives,inadebateoverwhowasthetrueheirtoGod’sgrace,adebateconducted,inpartatleast,throughpictures.Seenfromthisperspective,viewedthroughthelensofChristianart,theSepphorismosaicappearsevenmoreclearlyanduniquelyJewish.”68

InhowmanywaysandwithwhatintendedgoalsdidearlyChristianinterpretersexplorethescripturalstoryofAbraham’stwowomenandtheirsons?Wehavealreadyhadglimpsesoftheirviewpointandtactics,butthenextchaptertreatsmorefullythemannerinwhichchurches’teachersandartistspressedtheassertionthatthestory’smeaningbecameclearonlywithandsubsequenttotheappearanceofJesusasGod’sannointedone—andSon.Twoimportantfactorswereoperativeinthechurches’appropriationofAbraham’snarrative.First,itwasAbraham,Sarah,andIsaac,andthecovenantofGodmadeavailablethroughthemandtheirposteritythatChristianslaidclaimto—notAbraham’sotherfamily.Second,originatingasasectwithinJudaism,believersthatJesuswasGod’spromisedmessiahassertedthattheyhadbecomeGod’sfavoredpeople,andobviouslyfoundthemselvesimmediately(andalsopermanently)indebate,conflict,andcontroversywiththeirparentreligion.Inthenextchapterweshallbecomeacquaintedwiththechurches’determinedeffortstoChristianizeAbraham,Sarah,andIsaac.

Notes:

(1.)AnatGilboa,ImagesoftheFeminineinRembrandt’sWork,30–31.

(2.)Wenoticetheecho,orreplay,ofthethemein12:17:“ButtheLordafflictedPharaohandhishousewithgreatplaguesbecauseofSarai,Abram’swife,”causingthePharaohtosummonAbrahamandaskhimwhyhehasdeceived(andpunished)him.

(3.)JonD.Levenson,TheDeathandResurrectionoftheBelovedSon,173–174.

(4.)See,forexample,1Chronicles29:18andExodus33:1,whereGodspeaksofthelandhe“sworetoAbraham,Isaac,andJacob”;alsoLeviticus26:42,andJeremiah33:26.

(5.)H.FreedmanandM.Simon,eds.,MidrashRabbah:Genesis,volumes1–2.

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(6.)Reflectingonthechild-bearingofthematriarchs—SarahandRebekah,notably—wereadapassagefromtheJerusalemTalmudinH.FreedmanandM.Simon,MidrashRabbah,vol.1,p.378,n.1:“Y.T.:Righteouswomen,asinthecaseofSarah,findpregnancymoredifficultofattainmentthanrubies.”

(7.)Inthisinstance,andintheoneinvolvingAbimelech,therulersgavetheirdaughterstoSarah.Thereasoning:“Betterletmydaughterbeahandmaidinthishouse[i.e.,thehouseofwomanofSarah’scharacterandGod-protectedpower]thanamistressinanotherhouse.”SeeFreedman,Simon,MidrashRabbah:Genesis,GRXLV.1,380.

(8.)GRXLV.4,381.

(9.)Ibid.Freedman,at381,n.6,givestheliteraltranslationof“byaneffortofwillpower”as“theymasteredthemselves.”

(10.)GRXLV.4,381.

(11.)GRXLV.4,382.

(12.)Ibid.

(13.)GRXLV.5,383.Explanatoryadditionsinbracketsaremyown.

(14.)GRXLV.6,384.

(15.)GRXLV.6,384.

(16.)GRXLV.7,385.

(17.)GRXLV.9,386.

(18.)Aninterpretationof16:12(NRSV:“Andheshallliveatoddswithallhiskin”)tendsinthesamedirection,likeningIshmaeltoanenemyofIsraelwho“fell”(suggestedinplaceof“dwell”onthebasisoftheaccountofIshmael’sdeathinGenesis25:17)beforeanattemptto“stretchouthishandagainsttheTemple”(GRXLV.9).ButwhichenemyofIsraelisinview—Nabatea,andtheirking,Aretes?ThearmiesofRome?SeeFreedman,Simon,MidrashRabbah:Genesis,387,n.1.

(19.)See1Chronicles5:19:“theywenttowarwiththeHagarites,”andalso1Chronicles5:10,5:20.

(20.)GeraldFriedlander,PirkedeRabbiEliezer.Kugel,Traditions,933,writesofthework:“ItsallusionstoIslamiccultureandtoArabruleoverthelandofIsraelcertainlysuggestthatthisworkwasputintoitsfinalformaftertheArabconquest—accordingtosome,aslateastheeighthorninthcenturyCE.Atthesametime,thetextpreservesmanyancienttraditions,includingquiteafewknownonlyfromthebiblicalApocryphaandPseudepigrapha.”

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(21.)PRE32,231.

(22.)Ibid.

(23.)PRE30,221–221.

(24.)GRXLV.10,387.

(25.)Ibid.

(26.)GRLII.3,462–463.

(27.)GRLIII.6,466.

(28.)GRLIII.9,468.

(29.)GRLIII.8,467.

(30.)Ibid.

(31.)AtGRLII.10,468–69,weseetherabbiselaboratinguponthegreatfeastincolorfulterms.Theconquestelementisstronglyprojected.Ogisthere,dresseddownby“theGreatOneoftheworld”forhisimpudenceincallingIsaacscrawny.GodproceedstowarnhimthathewillseemyriadsofIsaac’sdescendants,andbedoneinbythem.ReferenceismadetoNumbers21:34:“AndtheLordsaiduntoMoses:Fearhimnot;forIhavedeliveredhimintothyhand.”Thecelebratorymealwasominous.Thirty-one(ormore)ofthekingsslainbyJoshuawereallthere.Thepassage’smessageisclear:thefatesofIsrael’s(later)foesweresealedalreadyinthedaysofthefirstpatriarch.

(32.)GRLIII.11,470.

(33.)Ibid.

(34.)GRLIII.12,471,n.1.

(35.)GRLIII.13,472.IshmaelwasbornfourteenyearsbeforeIsaac.SeeGenesis16:14and21:5.

(36.)GRLIII.13,472.

(37.)GRLIII.13,473.

(38.)GRLIII.14,474.

(39.)GRLIII.15,474.

(40.)Manytomeshavebeendevotedtothetopic,butseethebriefessay,“RepresentationalArt,”366–371.RachelHachlili’s“SynagoguesintheLandofIsrael,”113,quotes“anAramaicparaphraseinTargumPseudo-JonathanofLeviticus26:1,which

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modifiestheBible’ssternprohibitionagainstmakingandbowingdownto‘carvedstone’:

...norshallyouplaceafiguredstoneinyourlandtobowdownuponit.Butapavementfiguredwithimagesandlikenessesyoumaymakeonthefloorofyoursynagogue[s].Anddonotbowdown[idolatrously]toit,forIamtheLordyourGod.

(41.)Ze’evWeissandEhudNetzer,PromiseandRedemption.SeealsoZe’evWeiss,TheSepphorisSynagogue,360pages+211illustrations.

(42.)SeeSethSchwartz,ImperialismandJewishSociety,142–145,[203]–206.ChristianbuildingsinSepphorisaredescribedinZe’evWeissandEhudNetzer,“SepphorisintheByzantinePeriod,”81–89.Theauthorscomment(85):“Theproximityofprivateandpublicbuildings,bothontheacropolisandinlowerSepphorisisrathersurprising,asthisphenomenonhasnotbeenencounteredelsewhereinPalestine.InbothRomanandByzantineSepphorislargeandornatemansionswerebuiltclosetosimplehomes,afeaturenotedthroughoutthecity.Moreover,aclearandrigiddivisionintoneighborhoodsaccordingtosocial,religious,oreconomicstatuscannotbediscerned.”

(43.)ThequotationisfromZe’evWeiss,“TheSepphorisSynagogueMosaicandtheRoleofTalmudicLiteratureinItsIconographicalStudy,”20–21.

(44.)EssaysinLevineandWeiss,eds.,FromDuratoSepphoris,engageinvariouswaystheinterpretationadvancedbyWeissandNetzerinPromiseandRedemption.Achallengingcritiqueandre-evaluationappearsinSchartz,Imperialism,248–259.

(45.)Ze’evWeiss,“TheSepphorisSynagogueMosaic,”3–24.

(46.)RobinM.Jensen,FacetoFace,120:“Theequalityofthethree[visitors]andtheirfunctionassymbolsofthethreedistinctpersons[ofGod]withonesharednaturemaybeintentionallyexpressedbythecomposition.Here,however,theiconographyalsopointstotheimportanceoftheeucharisticofferingmadedirectlybelow,atthealtarinthecenterofthepresbyterium.”

(47.)Weiss,“TheSepphorisSynagogueMosaic,”23.

(48.)SeeEdwardKessler,“ArtLeadingtheStory,”67–68.

(49.)ThehandofGodfirstappearsinJewishartinjustthisscenepaintednexttotheDuraEuropossynagogue’sTorahshrine,thoughinthatinstance,theram’shorns,entangledinatree,holdhiminplace;thereisnoropetether.

(50.)MishnahYoma5.6.2–6,andTalmudYoma39a,b.

(51.)Seetheprovocativetreatmentofthisquestionoftheramtiedto,ratherthancaughtupinthetree’sbranches,inKessler,“ArtLeadingtheStory,”73–81,esp.78–81.Kessler’sconcludingsentencesarethese:“Artistsalsoexpandedtheroleoftheram.The

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ramintheBiblicalstoryisonthemountaininthelandofMoriahbychanceandplaysaminorroleinRabbinicliterature,whereasinartisticmidrashtheramisquitedifferentthroughitssignificantsizeandprominentplacement.”

(52.)GRLVI.5,495.

(53.)GRLVI.9,498.

(54.)GRLVI.9,499.

(55.)SeeLevenson,DeathandResurrection,[173]–199.

(56.)ThetranslationisfromSamuelA.Berman,MidrashTanhuma-Yelammedenu,148–149.Forthehistoryofthetext,seeMarcBregman,TheTanhuma-YelammedenuLiterature.

(57.)LevineandWeiss,FromDuratoSepphoris,27.

(58.)SeeJosephYahalom,“TheSepphorisSynagogueMosaicandItsStory,”84,forhiscommentsabout“barefootworshipandthesanctuary.”

(59.)SeeClementofAlexandria,TheInstructor(Paedagogus)1.5.23,andOrigen,GenesisHomilyVIII.6.Origen,whileinterpretingthemesfromHebrews5–10forhisthird-centurycongregation,proclaimed:“ThatIsaachimselfcarriesonhimself‘thewoodfortheholocaust’isafigurebecauseChristalso‘himselfcarriedhisowncross,’[cf.John19:17]andyettocarry‘thewoodfortheholocaust’isthedutyofapriest.Hehimself,therefore,becomesbothvictimandpriest.”ThetranslationisfromRonaldE.Heine,Origen,140–41.

(60.)HebertKessler,“TheSepphorisMosaicandChristianArt,”66,70.Kessleradds(70):“thetextaccompanyingtheminiaturesdepictingthesacrificeofIsaacinthemanuscriptsoftheChristiantopographyprovidesatypologicalreadingoftheHebrewBible;IsaaccarryingthefirewoodonhisshouldersonthewaytohissacrificialdeathistakenasatypeofJesuscarryingthecrosstoGolgotha,‘AbrahamleadinghissontosacrificeononeofthemountainssymbolizesthemysteryofthepassionandresurrectionofChrist’.Anysuchinterpretationis,ofcourse,precludedinasynagoguefloormosaic.”

(61.)EdwardKessler,BoundbytheBible.

(62.)EdwardKessler,BoundbytheBible,29.

(63.)Ibid.,113.

(64.)Ibid.,115,116.ItisbecauseofattentiontothequestionofIsaac’swillingnessthatrabbinicaltexts(unlikeJewishartisticrepresentations)pointtohismaturity(thirty-sevenyearsofage,twiceinGR).Kessler,110–113,proposesthatthisemphasisservesasacounteragainstsomeChristianarguments(likethatofMelitoofSardis)thatIsaac,as

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antetype,waspreparatoryand“young”inrelationtoChristcrucified,whoactualizedwhatIsaachadonlytypified.Thiscompetitiveinterplaybetweeninterpretationsis,Kesslerinsists,anothercaseof“exegeticalencounter”betweenJewishandChristianinterpretersofGenesis22:1–19.

(65.)PRE31,224,trans.slightlyaltered.JosephYahalom,“TheSepphorisSynagogueMosaicanditsstory,”inLevineandWeiss,eds.,FromDuratoSepphoris,87,callsattentiontothisexchangebetweenEliezerandIshmaelinitsseveralversionsinPirked’RabbiEliezerandinthelaterMidrashHagadolandMidrashVaYosha,andoffershisowncommentaryonthetwoastheyappearintheSepphorismosaic:“Thepictureinthemosaic…whichshowsEliezerholding,orwaving,theropethatistiedtotheass,seemstosupporthisclaimtoAbraham’spossessions.(Hewas,inotherwords,aloyalservant.)Ontheotherhand,Ishmael’sspear,theweaponofwarusedinthedesert,indicatesaclearthreattothefaithfulservant.”

(66.)SeeAvigdorShinan,“SynagoguesintheLandofIsrael,”130–152.

(67.)PRE32,233–234.

(68.)Kessler,“TheSepphorisMosaicandChristianArt,”72.