TREES AND THEIR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE 321
Issued 07 April 2004© 2004 The New York Botanical Garden
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321
The Botanical Review 69(4): 321–376
Trees and Their Economic Importance
M. K. SETH
Department of Bio-Sciences
Himachal Pradesh University
Shimla 171 005, H.P., India
I. Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
II. Introduction and Classification of Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
III. The Economic Importance of Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
A. Trees as a Source of Timber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
B. Trees in the Restoration, Reclamation and Rejuvenation of Denuded and
Disturbed Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
C. Ecological, Ecodevelopmental and Environment Uses of Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
1. Natural Purifiers of the Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
2. Environment Screens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
3. The Physical Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
4. Wildlife . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
5. Urban and Rural Afforestation Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
6. Road Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
7. Protection of Road Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
D. The Educational and Recreational Value of Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
1. Shade and Shelter (or Avenue Trees) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
2. Ornamental Flowering Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
3. Ornamental Foliage Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
4. Ornamental Fragrance Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
5. Ornamental Fruiting Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
6. Ornamental Hedges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
7. Live Screens and Fences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
8. Sculpture and Topiary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
9. Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
10. Landscaping and Bioaesthetic Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
11. Veneration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
12. Art and Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
E. Trees as a Source of Sustenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
1. Food . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
2. Sugars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
3. Starches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
4. Spices and Condiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
5. Nonalcoholic Beverages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
6. Fumitories, Masticatories and Narcotics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
7. Medicines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
8. Essential Oils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
322 THE BOTANICAL REVIEW
9. Fatty Oils and Vegetable Fats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
10. Waxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
11. Soap Substitutes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
12. Vegetable Ivory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
13. Fodder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
14. Fuel, Bioenergy or Biofuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
15. Fertilizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
16. Fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
17. Pulp and Paper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
18. Tannins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
19. Dyes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
20. Rubber and Other Latex Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
21. Gums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
22. Resins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
23. Cork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
24. Food for Silkworms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
IV. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
V. Literature Cited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
I. Abstract
The biological and logical meaning of trees, which are one of the important woody plants of
our ecosystem, are reviewed in this article. Trees are mostly used for timber purposes, but in the
present article the utility of trees with respect to their importance in restoring, reclaiming and
rejuvenating denuded and disturbed soils, their ecological, ecodevelopmental and environmental
use, and their educational and recreational value in gardening, landscaping and bioesthetic plan-
ning is described. In addition, the importance of trees is discussed with reference to their value as
a source of sustenance: food, sugars, starches, spices and condiments, beverages, fumitories, mas-
ticatories and narcotics, medicines, essential oils, fatty oils and vegetable fats, waxes, soap substi-
tutes, vegetable ivory, fodder, fuel, bioenergy or biofuel, fertilizers, fiber, pulp and paper, tannins,
dyes, rubber and other latex products, gums, resins and cork. Lastly, the food plants of mulberry
and non-mulberry silkworms, which feed on the leaves of many forest trees, are mentioned.
II. Introduction and Classification of Trees
Trees are important to humankind not only economically, environmentally and industrially
but also spiritually, historically and aesthetically, for they sustain human life through direct and
indirect gains by providing a wide range of products for survival and prosperity. However, it is
not always easy to define “tree.” A tree is a large, long-lived (i.e., perennial) woody plant that
attains a height of at least 6 m (20 ft) at maturity in a given locality and usually—but not
always—has a single main self-supporting stem called a “trunk” or a “bole,” which gives off
spreading branches, twigs and foliage to make a crown (Venkatesh, 1976; Panshin & de Zeeuw,
1980; Hawkins, 1986). Since the diameter at breast height (dbh) of trees is determined interna-
tionally at 1.35 m (4.5 ft) above the ground, a tree must be unbranched—i.e., with a single
trunk—at least up to 1.5 m (5 ft) from the ground. But this definition does not cover the
following (Venkatesh, 1976), which are also considered trees:
• Palms are typically unbranched trees with only one trunk (columnar stem), called the
“caudex,” which ends in a crown of large leaves.
• Bamboos are trees without a main trunk but with a cluster of culms arising from the
underground rhizome. These culms are unbranched, with distinct nodes and internodes
that give them a jointed appearance.
TREES AND THEIR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE 323
• The banana tree (plant) has only a thick false stem (pseudostem), which is not woody but
made up of a central core of soft tissues concealed by the fibrous and sheathing bases of
large leaves. Strictly speaking, the banana plant is a giant herb.
• Tree ferns like Cyathaea and Alsophila have erect rhizomes with generally unbranched
trunks, topped by a crown of graceful, feathery fronds that form a rosette at the apex.
• Bonsai—i.e., tailored or humanmade miniature or dwarfed living trees that have been
prevented from reaching their normal size—are grown in pots and kept in greenhouses,
drawing rooms, etc. This technique was first perfected by the Japanese.
In addition to the above definitions, the scientific distinction between trees, shrubs, lianas
and undershrubs or semishrubs is not always clear. For example, many species of trees—e.g.
Rhododendron spp., which are large under normal conditions—become shrubs when growing
near their altitudinal and latitudinal limits. Woody plants in which several branches arise from
near the base, giving the plant a bushy appearance, are called “shrubs.” Likewise, certain spe-
cies of figs (Ficus spp.) begin their life as woody climbers called “lianas” but eventually end up
as trees; i.e., they become arborescent. Similarly, Grewia scabrophylla at times is an under-
shrub, when exposed to annual fires; in other places, however, it grows into a tall shrub (Panshin
& de Zeeuw, 1980). The science dealing with the study of woody plants—i.e., trees and shrubs—
is called “dendrology.”
Trees can be classified in several ways: Depending upon their utility or end products, they
may be called “avenue,” “ornamental,” “shade bearing,” “fragrant,” “fruit bearing,” “medici-
nal” or “drug yielding,” “timber yielding,” “fodder yielding,” “nitrogen fixing,” “venerated,”
“fuel yielding,” “fiber yielding,” “multipurpose trees,” etc. Those trees that remain green in
their dormant season due to persistence of leaves are called “evergreen trees.” In such trees all
the leaves do not fall off simultaneously, and the plants are never leafless. Those trees in which
all the leaves of a plant fall at the end of one growing season one by one or simultaneously,
leaving the plant leafless in the dormant season, are called “deciduous trees.” All cone-being
trees are called “conifers” or “coniferous trees,” and all trees that are not cone bearing but are
flower bearing are called “flowering trees” or “broad-leaved trees.” Whereas conifers have
needle-shaped leaves, flowering trees have broad or flattened leaves.
A conifer usually has a conical appearance and has an excurrent stem; i.e., its main stem is
thickest at the base and gradually tapers toward the apex, with lateral branches in an acropetal
succession. A flowering tree usually has a dome-shaped appearance and a deliquescent or de-
current stem in which the main trunk divides at some distance from the ground into several
branches, which branch again and again, making the trunk appear to deliquese or melt away.
Ornamental trees that have showy flowers are called “ornamental flowering trees,” and
those with beautiful foliage and inconspicuous flowers are called “ornamental foliage trees.”
The former are usually deciduous; the latter, evergreen.
Those trees in which seeds are borne naked are called “gymnosperms” (from the Greek
gymnos [naked] and sperma [seed]), and those trees in which seeds are enclosed within an
ovary/fruit wall are called “angiosperms” (from the Greek angeon [vesicle] and sperma [seed]).
The angiospermic trees are further classified into dicotyledonous or dicot trees, if they have
two cotyledons in their seeds, and monocotyledonous or monocot trees, if they have only one
cotyledon in their seeds. Both gymnosperms and angiosperms are sometimes placed under one
division, called “spermatophyta,” “siphonagama” or “phanerogams.” “Spermatophytes” (from
the Greek sperma [seed] and phyton [plant]) are those plants that are seed bearing. “Siphona-
gama” (from the Greek siphon [tube] and gamous [marriage]) are those plants in which fertili-
zation occurs by means of a pollen tube. “Phanerogamous” (from the Greek phaneros [open]
and gamous [marriage]) are those plants in which reproduction is not concealed or hidden but
324 THE BOTANICAL REVIEW
open; i.e., they bear flowers and produce seeds. Trees belonging to gymnosperms and an-
giosperms not only constitute the dominant component of any vegetation but also add to the
biodiversity or biological diversity of any particular region.
III. The Economic Importance of Trees
Trees represent one of the important components of each and every terrestrial ecosystem
and are a part of nature’s precious gifts. Some are deciduous; others are evergreen. Some have
beautiful flowers; others have beautiful fruits or foliage. Some are scented; others are ugly but
economically very important. The welfare of humankind is affected not only by their density
and diversity but also by their direct and indirect values, which are beyond estimation. In fact,
each letter of the plural word “TREES” has a logical meaning (Seth, 2002):
T Timber, the first and the foremost use of trees
R Restoration, reclamation and rejuvenation of denuded and disturbed soils
by using trees to control soil erosion and desertification, protect water-
sheds, improve soil nutrient status (by growing nitrogen-fixing trees) and
retain moisture in the soil
E Ecological, ecodevelopmental and environmental use of trees for effective
and efficient purification of the environment because trees act as oxygen
banks and eliminate air pollutants; for abating or moderating temperature,
noise and wind by planting trees as environmental screens, thus affecting
the microclimate; for harboring wildlife; for maintaining biodiversity; and
for conserving energy
E Educational and recreational value in gardening, landscaping, bioesthetic
planning, art, culture and religion
S Source of sustenance; i.e., food, fuel, fodder, fertilizer, fiber, medicine,
tannin, dyes, oils, etc.
A. TREES AS A SOURCE OF TIMBER
Trees are woody perennial plants, i.e. they are capable of producing wood through the
meristematic activity of the vascular cambium. The latter gives rise to secondary xylem
(nontechnically called “wood”) toward its inner side and to secondary phloem (nontechnically
called “bark”) toward its outer side. Wood produced by cycads is called “manoxylic.” It is not
compact—i.e., it is loose, not dense—with wide rays, pith and cortex and thus useless commer-
cially. Wood produced by conifers, taxads, Ginkgo biloba and dicots is called “pycnoxylic.” It
is compact and dense, with narrow rays, pith and cortex and hence commercially very useful.
The commercially useful woods are called “timbers,” and timber that is used for building pur-
poses is called “lumber.” Tectona grandis (teak) and Cedrus deodara (deodar) are, respec-
tively, considered the best angiospermic and gymnospermic timbers in the world.
Woods obtained from timber trees are used for construction and other miscellaneous pur-
poses like agricultural implements, boat and ship building, carts and carriages, carving and
turnery, cooperage (barrel making), electric poles, engraving and printing blocks, furniture and
cabinet work, matches and match boxes, mathematical instruments, musical instruments, pack-
ing cases and boxes, pencil and pen holders, picture framing, railway carriage and wagon
building, railway sleepers, rifle parts, shoe heels and boot lasts, shuttles, sports goods, tea
chests, toys, etc. For examples of these one may consult Anonymous (1970–1972, 1983) and
Trotter (1940, 1944).
TREES AND THEIR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE 325
B. TREES IN THE RESTORATION, RECLAMATION AND REJUVENATION OF
DENUDED AND DISTURBED SOILS
Planting trees on denuded and waste land, along roads, railway tracks, deserted areas, wa-
tersheds, etc. protects soil from erosion by wind or water by firmly binding it with roots and by
diverting runoff during rains. The sides of the roads, railway tracks and watersheds can thus be
protected. Desertification can likewise be controlled by planting trees. The trees also retain
moisture in the soil, and if nitrogen-fixing trees are grown, the nutrient status of the soil can be
enriched tremendously.
The sap of Cassia fistula (amaltas) leaves contains certain chemicals that have a purgative
action on the digestive organs of grazing animals like goats, cows and buffalo, and thus amaltas
is well suited for planting on wastelands. Wild fruit trees like Zizyphus jujuba (ber) and Morus
alba (toot) can also be propagated on wastelands in and around villages.
C. ECOLOGICAL, ECODEVELOPMENTAL AND ENVIRONMENT USES OF TREES
1. Natural Purifiers of the Environment
Plants, including shrubs and trees, act as biological filters by helping cleanse the environment.
They are the best natural purifiers of environment pollution; i.e., they improve the quality of the air
we breathe. First, they act as the oxygen banks on this planet. They play an important role in
maintaining the oxygen cycle, which is essential for the survival of all forms of life. Second, they
may help reduce pollution. Leaves can absorb gaseous pollutants on their surfaces, especially if
their surfaces are waxy, spiny or hairy. In addition, stems, branches and twigs can intercept particu-
lates. Third, they reduce oxides of carbon in the air, can also fix atmospheric nitrogen, disintegrate
waste and act as sinks of pollution or pollutant scavenges by absorbing and metabolizing toxic
gases and heavy metals (Chakraverty & Jain, 1984).
Different species as well as individuals within a species can vary in their tolerance to pollut-
ants. High concentrations of pollutants can damage and even kill many tree species. Trees that
are particularly sensitive could be used as early warnings of high pollution levels.
2. Environmental Screens
When properly grown in urban and rural areas, trees act as wind barriers by decreasing the
force of the wind and reducing the level of noise from highways and other sources. Even
individual trees, if strategically planted around a house, can provide relief from noise and
annoying lights at night. Trees thus reduce stress on human beings. Ecologically they act as
wind breaks and shelter belts, thus providing protection against soil erosion and a defense
against encroachment by seas, floods and deserts.
3. The Physical Environment
Trees help to reduce temperature by providing shade and by intercepting, absorbing and
reflecting solar radiation, especially in warmer places, where there is year-round warmth and
sunshine (Schubert, 1979). Trees also function as natural air conditioners by evaporating water
from their leaves through the process of transpiration. A single large, well-watered city tree can
transpire about 380 liters (100 gallons) of water in one day, thus producing the cooling effect of
five average room air conditioners running 20 hours a day (Schubert, 1979). Trees thus im-
prove the microclimate; i.e., they help control and stabilize the climate of the region and of the
world as a whole. A single tree standing alone may not affect the overall surrounding much, but
326 THE BOTANICAL REVIEW
a belt or groups of trees or many trees scattered throughout the neighborhood can be quite
effective (Schubert, 1979).
4. Wildlife
Trees, both native and ornamental, harbor wildlife. They directly feed and house the major-
ity of world’s creatures and animals like insects, birds, small mammals and reptiles, which we
need in order to live. Thus they play a major role as one of the important components of natural
and humanmade biodiversity.
5. Urban and Rural Afforestation Programs
Large-scale urbanization and industrialization have led to the development of severely eroded,
barren and denuded areas, rocks, cliffs, etc. on which direct plantation of trees is difficult. In
such cases shrubs act as the primary colonizers of denuded areas. The successful growths of
shrubs create favorable conditions for tree growth by way of retaining moisture, increasing soil
nutrient status and sheltering the trees from frost, wind and other biotic interferences through
the process of secondary succession. The whole forest-management program can thus bring
not only greenery to the Himalayas and other urban and rural regions of India but also stability
to the environment by restoring the ecological balance (Maithani et al., 1991).
6. Road Safety
The presence of shrubs and trees along roadsides makes their edges and curves conspicu-
ous, thus making a natural guide for safe driving, and for this purpose the lower portions of
their stems are usually painted white (Chakraverty & Jain, 1984).
7. Protection of Road Surfaces
The semimelting of tar or bitumen in summers, cracking of road surfaces during hot weather
and mechanical damage to road surfaces by heavy downpours and hailstorms can largely be
prevented by growing roadside trees with thick crowns (Chakraverty & Jain, 1984).
D. THE EDUCATIONAL AND RECREATIONAL VALUE OF TREES
Increased urbanization and industrialization have resulted in isolating humans from nature.
Trees can help make urban areas green, livable and beautiful. Trees with colorful flowers or
foliage add extra attractiveness. They are the dominant elements of gardens and contribute
substantially to the garden atmosphere.
According to Kohli (1996), the comfortable urban life needs better avenue trees and shrubs,
because:
• An agricultural component is not feasible;
• Comfortable temperatures and microclimates for residents are needed;
• Pollutants that pose major problems are to be removed;
• Cool shade is needed in summer; and
• Dense populations need vegetation for gaseous exchange.
Trees are thus a source of pleasure and recreation when they are planted along roads and
railway tracks and in botanical gardens, arboreta, city parks, squares, home gardens, public
places, industrial areas, etc. The cultivation of trees for their aesthetic or recreational value is
TREES AND THEIR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE 327
known as “arboriculture.” In an ornamental garden they are usually planted either as specimen
trees or in groups. The educational and recreational value of trees can be studied under the
following headings:
1. Shade and Shelter (or Avenue Trees)
The concept of avenue planting is as old as the vedic period. It was during the period of
Ashoka (260 B.C.) and later during the reign of Kanishka (A.D. 78–101) and the Mughals,
however, that the foundations of proper roadside avenues were laid.
When properly grown, the tall, fast-growing and majestic trees with thick foliage along
roadsides provide not only shade for pedestrians and travelers but also shelter for stray animals
from scorching heat, wind, rain, etc. Species selected for such purposes should not be thorny or
prickly (Chakraverty & Jain, 1984).
The other important factors for selection of roadside trees, according to Chakraverty and
Jain (1984) and Randhawa (1961, 1965–1983), are:
• The trees should be branchless up to 3–4 m above the soil surface so that vehicles can
pass easily, particularly on narrow roads.
• On national highways or on very wide roads, two to three deep rows of large trees
spaced 5–6 m apart should be planted. These trees should have good, dense crowns so
they can provide adequate shade and protection from rain, sun and hail.
• Dwarf trees or medium-sized-to-large shrubs, preferably ever blooming in nature, should
be selected for boulevards and road medians.
• The trees should not have spreading crowns that might obstruct the growth of trees in
the opposite row.
• Trees on the two sides of the road should not be opposite each other; they should be
planted alternately.
• Fuel-wood species and fodder species should not be chosen for the roadsides, because
they are likely to be lopped, pruned and chopped by the neighboring inhabitants, thus
destroying the landscaping and giving the avenue a shabby appearance.
• The root system of the trees should be neither very spreading nor very shallow. Trees
with very robust and spreading root systems damage the masonry work of roads, foot
paths and adjacent buildings. On the other hand, trees with shallow root system, like
Millingtonia hortensis (mahanim), topple over in storms and obstruct traffic. Thus trees
with deep root systems should be selected.
• Trees like Ficus benghalensis (bat or barghad) have hanging aerial roots, which would
obstruct traffic and pedestrians, so they should not be selected.
• Soft-wooded and brittle trees like Albizia lebbek, Cassia siamea, Eucalyptus spp., Eugenia
jambolana, Ficus glomerata, Millingtonia hortensis and Sygyzium cumini should not be
planted along roadsides, for they tend to break in storms and block traffic.
• During summers and rainstorms, protection from sun and rain are most needed, so trees
that shed their leaves during these periods should not be planted. Moreover, fallen leaves
in the rainy season make the road slippery and block the drainage system.
• Various species of Acacia, Zizyphus, etc., which are prickly or thorny, should not be
planted because the fallen prickles or thorns cause trouble for pedestrians, animals and
people and may also damage the tires of cycles and vehicles.
• The trees should have the ability to withstand winter lopping, when little shade is re-
quired. These loppings can be utilized as fuel wood (Singhal & Khanna, 1991).
• Too many species should not be mixed within short distances, particularly on roads
away from cities and towns.
328 THE BOTANICAL REVIEW
Randhawa (1965–1983) recommended avenue trees for planting purposes: as foliage trees
for outer avenues for town roads, Albizia procera (safed siris), Anthocephalus cadamba (kadam),
Averrhoea carambola (kamrak), Bassia latifolia (mahua), Callistemon lanceolatum (lal botal
brush), Dalbergia sissoo (shisham), Eugenia operculata, Mangifera indica (mango), Melia
azedarach (drek), Pithecolobium saman (rain tree), Platanus orientalis (chinar), Polyalthia
longifolia (ashoka), Putranjiva roxburghii, Sterculia alata, Tamarindus indica (imli), etc; as
flowering trees for inner avenues for town roads, Bauhinia purpurea (gulabi kachnar),
B. variegata (kachnar), Cassia fistula (amaltas), Colvillea racemosa (kilbili), Gliricidia maculata
(madre tree), Grevillea robusta, Jacaranda mimosaefolia (nili-gul-mohur), Lagerstroemia flos-
reginae (jarul, crepe flower), L. thorelli (barri sanwani), Peltophorum ferrugineum (ivalvagai),
Poinciana regia (gul mohur), Spathodea nilotica (fountain tree), etc.
2. Ornamental Flowering Plants
Ornamental trees that have showy flowers are called “ornamental flowering trees.” India
has the largest number of flowering trees in the world, indigenous as well as exotic, that can be
utilized for beautifying towns. Many trees bloom at a particular season and appear more effec-
tive when planted in groups.
In small and medium-sized gardens, ornamental trees should be planted only in the bound-
aries as foundation planting. An “arboretum” is a garden of trees. While planting a tree, beauty
and utility should be combined deftly. The best time for planting trees is during the rainy
season.
Dwarf ornamental flowering trees suitable for small compounds are Acacia auriculiformis,
Alangium lamarckii, Bauhinia purpurea, B. variegata, Brownea ariza, B. coccinea, Butea
frondosa, Cassia fistula, C. javanica, C. marginata, Cochlospermum gossypium, Cordia
sebestena, Crataeva religiosa, Erythrina blakei, E. cristagalli, Gliricidia maculata, Guaicum
officinale, Holarrhena antidysentrica, Jacaranda mimosaefolia, Kleinhovia hospita, Lager-
stroemia thorelli, Mesua ferrea, Milletia auriculata, Plumeria alba, P. rubra, Pongamia glabra,
Saraca indica, Solanum wrightii, Spathodea nilotica, Sterculia colorata, Tecomella undulata,
Thespesia populnea, etc. (Cowen, 1950; Randhawa, 1965–1983).
For large compounds, some examples of beautiful flowering trees are Anthocephalus indicus,
Bombax malabaricum, Cassia grandis, C. nodosa, Chorisia speciosa, Colvillea racemosa,
Lagerstroemia flos-reginae, Millingtonia hortensis, Peltophorum ferrugineum, Poinciana re-
gia and Sterculia colorata (Cowen, 1950; Randhawa, 1965–1983).
Trivedi (1983, 1987, 1996) recommended the following small trees for the hills: Acacia
alata (with bright yellow flowers), A. dealbata (with light yellow flowers), Bauhinia variegata
(with rose, purple and white flowers), Magnolia grandiflora (with white flowers), Prunus
serrulata (with pink flowers), Rhododendendron arboreum (with crimson flowers) and R. cam-
panulatum (with magenta flowers). Trivedi also recommends a few trees for cultivation on the
plains.
3. Ornamental Foliage Plants
Ornamental trees with beautiful foliage but inconspicuous flowers are called “ornamental
foliage trees.” Common examples are palms, evergreen conifers, Acacia auriculiformis, Averrhoa
carambola, Callistemon lanceolatum, Citharexylum subserratum, Diospyros embryopteris,
Eucalyptus spp., Ficus infectoria, F. retusa, Kigelia pinnata, Phyllanthus emblica, Polyalthia
longifolia, Putranjiva roxburghii, Tamarindus indica and Terminalia arjuna (Randhawa, 1961,
1965–1983).
TREES AND THEIR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE 329
Evergreen shrubs and trees provide a structure for the garden during winter months. With-
out them the garden will look bleak and dull, when the foliage of most herbaceous perennials
disappears, leaving only bare stems and branches.
In temperate regions conifers constitute the most important and showy group of plants.
Many varieties show symmetrical growth and are frequently used in formal gardens. They keep
their ornamental effect even in winter, when most broad-leaved trees shed their leaves. Com-
mon examples of foliage trees in the hills are the species of Araucaria, Cryptomeria and
Cupressus (Trivedi, 1983, 1987, 1996).
4. Ornamental Fragrance Plants
Many trees combine beauty with fragrance. Some trees that are commonly cultivated for
scent or fragrance are Acacia podalyriaefolia, Anthocephalus indicus (kadam), Biota orientalis,
Citrus aurantifolium (lime), C. japonica, C. limon (lemon), Cymphomandra betacea, Garde-
nia lucida, G. latifolia, G. resinifera (dekamali), Galphimia gracilis, Grewia asiatica, Luculia
gratissima, Magnolia grandiflora (bara champa), Michelia champaca (champa or champak),
Mimusops elengi (maulsari), Nyctanthes arbor-tristis (harsinghar), Plumeria tuberculata, Rhodo-
dendron formosum and Sambucus nigra (Randhawa, 1961). In home gardens these can be
planted opposite windows and doors of bedrooms, so that one can enjoy their fragrance in the
evening, particularly in summer months (Randhawa, 1961, 1965–1983; Trivedi, 1990).
Some examples of fragrant ornamental trees for large compounds are Dillenia indica,
Mimusops elengi and Pterospermum acerifolium (Randhawa, 1965–1983).
Trees with snow-white, fragrant flowers against the background of dark green foliage are
very delightful for moonlit gardens. Some common examples in this category are Bauhinia
alba, Citharexylum subserratum, Crataeva religiosa, Delonix regia, Dillenia indica, Erythrina
variegata, Gardenia resinifera, Gliricidia alba, Holarrhena antidysentrica, Lagerstromia in-
dica (white), Millingtonia hortensis, Mimusops elengi, M. hexandra, Plumeria acutifolia, P. alba,
Prunus domestica and Wrightia tinctoria (Randhawa, 1961).
5. Ornamental Fruiting Plants
Trees commonly grown for their beautiful, attractive and colorful fruits are Citrus micro-
carpea, Hazara orange and other Citrus spp., papaya (Carica papaya), peach (Prunus persica),
pineapple (Ananas comosus), tree tomato (Cymphomandra betacea), banana (Musa
paradisiaca), strawberry tree (Arbutus unedo), quince (Cydonia oblonga), loquat (Eriobotrya
japonica), common spindle tree (Euonymus europeaus), gean (Prunus avium), pomegranate
(Punica granatum) and jujube (Zizyphus jujuba) (Lunardi, 1987; Trivedi, 1983, 1987, 1996).
Planting of trees in and around children’s park can provide vitamins and nutrients to children
when they eat the fruit as they play.
6. Ornamental Hedges
Hedges provide a natural background for a garden, as a frame does for a painting. The
hedge may be external or internal. An external hedge—live fence—is usually tall, measuring
about 1.5–2.5 m (5–9 ft) high, and it may replace the compound wall; thus it demarcates the
garden from the public road. It also serves as a protective screen against wind and noise pollu-
tion. Species selected for external hedges should be tall, fast-growing and evergreen, with thick
and dense foliage from the base to the top. The blooms should not clash with the general color
scheme. An internal hedge that separates parts within a garden is not as tall. It is usually 30–90
330 THE BOTANICAL REVIEW
cm (1–3 ft) tall. Species that are capable of growing under adverse conditions and require
minimal maintenance are selected for both types of hedges.
Species of Biota, Cupressus, Ilex, Juniperus, Thuja, etc. are used for evergreen hedges. The
following flowering trees may be used for making colorful hedges: Bauhinia acuminata,
Bougainvillaea spp., Erythrina indica, Hibiscus spp., Meyenia erecta, Plumbago capensis,
Sesbania aegyptica, Strobilanthes spp. and Tecoma stans (Randhawa, 1961).
7. Live Screens and Fences
In cities and towns trees can be utilized for screening the premises of adjacent houses and
thus maintaining privacy. Servants’ quarters and other unsightly views like manure pits, potting
areas, etc. in large gardens can also be screened by growing closely spaced, small trees. Species
with prickles or spines or having stiff branches or both with nonedible leaves should be pre-
ferred, according to the requirements. Ideally, the species selected for this purpose should be
fast growing, of medium height, long-lived, capable of growing under adverse conditions and
with minimal maintenance requirements (Singhal & Khanna, 1991).
8. Sculpture and Topiary
Topiary is an art of shaping hedges—shrubs—and trees into an ornamental form like a ball,
spiral, table, cube, etc., into a figure like a bird, beast or human or into a theme such as a farmer
with a pair of bullocks. A formal garden is most suitable for topiary work because it creates an
Old World appearance. The most common examples used for such purposes are Buxus
sempervirens, Cupressus macropoda, Murraya exotica and Taxus baccata (Randhawa, 1961,
1965–1983).
9. Education
Ornamental trees are not only a source of recreation and pleasure but also educate people,
when visitors in gardens and travelers along roadsides wish to know the names and uses of
such trees. If roads and gardens are named after some dominant shrub and tree species, the
work of making them familiar to the public becomes easier (Chakraverty & Jain, 1984).
10. Landscaping and Bioaesthetic Planning
Shrubs and trees improve the landscape. For example, trees along roadsides are a source of
beauty not only to the road but also to the length and breadth of the area through which the road
runs. Along roads, fuelwood, fodder and thorny species should not be chosen. Shrubs and trees
constitute two of the most important components of landscaping and bioaesthetic planning of
urban cities and towns. Many species bloom at a particular season and appear more effective
when planted in groups (Randhawa, 1961, 1965–1983).
As far as possible, native species should be selected, because, apart from their aesthetic
value, scenic beauty and immediate utility, these trees involve reduced maintenance costs, pre-
serve biological diversity and prevent species extinction. They are also a valuable national
asset and a reserve of timber and fuel in case of emergency. It is estimated that India has the
largest number of flowering trees in the world, indigenous as well as exotic, that can be utilized
for beautifying cities and towns.
It may be mentioned here that bioaesthetic planning of ornamental trees has a close relation-
ship with plant ecology. Plants must be planted only in those localities or habitats that are
TREES AND THEIR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE 331
similar to their natural habitats or surroundings, because the texture of the soil, the availability
of water resources, the amount of rainfall, the presence of rivers, canals and tanks and the
temperature play an important role in the growth and survival of the trees (Randhawa, 1965–
1983).
Trees must be planted in habitats that are similar to their natural surrounding—i.e., that
have approximately the same edaphic and climatic conditions—otherwise either dwarfing may
occur or the species will not be able to survive. Some examples of ornamental flowering trees
suited to moist localities are Amherstia nobilis, Bauhinia purpurea, Brownea ariza, B. coccinea,
Cassia javanica, C. marginata, C. nodosa, Colvillea racemosa, Guaicum officinale, Lager-
stroemia flos-regine, L. thorelli, Milletia auriculata, Poinciana regia, Peltophorum ferrugineum,
Pithecolobium saman, Saraca indica and Solanum wrightii (Randhawa, 1965–1983).
Examples of ornamental flowering trees suited to dry localities are Acacia auriculiformis,
Butea frondosa, Cassia fistula, Cochlospermum gossypium, Cordia subestena, Erythrina blakei,
E. indica, Jacaranda mimosaefolia, Melia azadirachta, Plumeria alba, Pongamia glabra,
Spathodea campanulata, S. nilotica, Sterculia colorata, Tecomella undulata and Thespesia
populnea (Randhawa, 1965–1983).
Drought-resistant trees suitable for arid regions are Albizia lebbek (siris), Butea frondosa
(dhak), Cassia fistula (amaltas), Casuarina equisetifolia (beefwood tree), Eucalyptus citriodora
(safeda), Melia azedarach (Persian lilac, bakain), Morus indica (mulberry), Phoenix dactylifera
(khajoor), Prosopis juliflora (mesquite bean), Salvadora persica (pilu), etc. (Randhawa, 1965–
1983).
Some examples of salt-resistant trees are Azadirachta indica (neem), Butea frondosa (dhak),
Bassia latifolia (mahua), Eucalyptus citriodora (safeda), Phoenix dactylifera (khajoor), Phyl-
lanthus emblica (amla), Psidium guava (amrood), Tamarix articulata (farash) and Thespesia
populnea (bhendi) (Randhawa, 1965–1983).
Trees for swamps and marshy areas are Eucalyptus rostrata, Salix tetrasperma (willow),
S. babylonica, Sapium sebiferum (makhan), Tamarix articulata (farash), plantain, etc. (Ran-
dhawa, 1965–1983). Sapium sebiferum, known as Chinese tallow tree, is a medium-sized,
deciduous tree whose leaves display lovely autumn tints. It is used for stream training in the
Kangra district of Himachal Pradesh.
11. Veneration
From one end of the world to the other we can trace the extreme power of trees over the
minds of humans. Christmas trees, May trees, pomegranates, Ginkgo biloba, bo trees, etc. can
be cited as occupying a place in the religious and ceremonial activities in diveve cultures through-
out the world. In India alone 99 trees are venerated (Bennet et al., 1992). In ancient times rishis
worshiped several trees as Vrikshadevta and Vanadevta. Groves of trees and flower gardens
were tended with loving care and were called “vrikshavatika” and “pushpavatika,” respec-
tively. Several such protected forest groves or gardens, including Ashoka Vatika, Chitrakoot
and Panchvatti, were known in ancient India.
12. Art and Culture
A tree laden with flowers and/or fruits is a great joy to the beholder. Native trees have a
special place in Indian folk songs. Immortal poets and writers like Valmiki and Kalidasa have
sung songs in praise of trees. Even folktales have celebrated the importance and beauty of trees
in India (Randhawa, 1961, 1965–1983).
332 THE BOTANICAL REVIEW
Indian trees have a personality of their own. The beauty of Indian trees has been sketched or
painted by many artists (Randhawa, 1961, 1965–1983), like Bireshwar Sen and his wife,
Lakshmi, Sarbjeet Singh, Ganga Singh, Anil Roy Chowdhry, Gopal Ghosh, Manishi Day,
Madhava Menon, Devyani Kanwal Krishna, Sudhir Khastgir, Francis Brunell, Madame Sass
Brunner and her daughter Elizabeth, A. K. Gohel, R. A. Eklund, E. Blatter, P. N. Sharma, A. K.
Sharma, H. Smith, Margaret Thacker, G. Millard (Lady Kinnear), Sister Marychionia, Lady
Douie, S. H. Prater, H. Robinson and H. N. Wandrekar. Many of their works have been in-
cluded in books on Indian botany (Seth et al., 2002).
Kalidasa observed that the women of Alkapuri rubbed the dust of lodhra flowers on their
cheeks, maghya flowers decorated their temples, kuruvaka flowers hung from the knots of their
hair and sirisha flowers decorated their ears. Elsewhere, in the monsoon kadamba flowers
glorified women’s heads. The women carried pink lotuses in their hands, decorated their tress
knots with white champaka, wore bracelets of jasmine around their wrists and wore garlands of
jasmine and bela (Randhawa, 1961, 1965–1983).
India’s vast, rich Sanskrit literature contains the names of several trees, including the orna-
mental trees arjuna (Terminalia arjuna), asoka (Saraca indica), champaka (Michelia champaca),
chuta (Mangifera indica), devadaru (Cedrus deodara), gandharaja (Gardenia florida), kadamba
(Anthocephalus cadamba), karnikara (Pterospermum acerifolium), ketaki (Pandanus odora-
tissimus), kimsuka (Butea frondosa), kovidara (Bauhinia purpurea), kunda (Jasminum
pubescens), kuravaka (Lawsonia alba), lodhra (Symplocos racemosa), mandara (Erythrina
indica), naga kesara (Mesua ferrea), narikela (Cocos nucifera), parijataka (Nyctanthes arbor-
tristis), punnaga (Calophyllum inophyllum), sala (Shorea robusta), krishna sirish (Albizia
amara), pitsirish (Albizia lebbek), tala (Borassus flabelliformis) and vakula (Mimusops elengi)
(Randhawa, 1961; Anonymous, 1986; Dwivedi, 2000).
E. TREES AS A SOURCE OF SUSTENANCE
Trees are one of the major sources of sustenance: food; sugars; starches; spices and condi-
ments; beverages; fumitories, masticatories and narcotics; medicines; essential oils; fatty oils
and vegetable fats; waxes; soap substitutes; vegetable ivory; fodder; fuel, bioenergy or biofuel;
fertilizers; fiber; pulp and paper; tannins; dyes; rubber and other latex products; gums; resins;
and cork. These are described separately under the following headings:
1. Food
Trees as a source of food include edible fruits, vegetables and tree legumes. Botanically, a
fruit is a matured or ripened ovary, along with its contents and adhering accessory structures, if
any. The seeds inside the fruits are the fertilized ovules. Sometimes seeds are formed without
fertilization. This phenomenon is called “agamospermy,” a kind of parthenogenesis. A fruit that
matures without seed formation is called “parthenocarpic fruit.” Fruits are eaten raw. Veg-
etables are edible plants that store reserve food—mainly carbohydrates—in roots, stems, leaves
or fruits and that are eaten either cooked or raw. Legumes—or pods—are the proteinaceous
fruits of family Leguminosae. Some of these are edible. The important food-yielding trees are
depicted in Table I.
2. Sugars
Sugar is a plant product surpassed in importance only by cereals and potatoes. It is one of
the most important reserve food supplies, not only for the plant in which it is found but also
also because it serves as the most necessary food—source of energy—for humans. Sugar in
(Text continues on p. 337)
TREES AND THEIR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE 333T
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le
Ch
erry
,sw
eet
Pru
nu
sa
viu
mR
osa
ceae
See
ds
edib
le
Ch
erry
,so
ur,
ver
n.
gil
asP
run
us
cera
sus
Ro
sace
aeS
eed
sed
ible
Ch
erry
,H
imal
ayan
Pru
nu
sce
raso
ides
Ro
sace
aeS
eed
sed
ible
Ch
erry
,H
imal
ayan
bir
dP
run
us
corn
uta
Ro
sace
aeS
eed
sed
ible
Ch
erry
,E
uro
pea
nb
ird
,v
ern
.ja
man
Pru
nu
sp
ad
us
Ro
sace
aeS
eed
sed
ible
Pea
ch,
ver
n.
aru
Pru
nu
sp
ersi
caR
osa
ceae
See
ds
edib
le
Plu
m,
ver
n.
alu
cha,
alu
-bu
kh
ara
Pru
nu
sd
om
esti
caR
osa
ceae
See
ds
edib
le
Cit
rus
fru
its
Sw
eet
ora
ng
e,m
usa
mb
iC
itru
ssi
nen
sis
Ru
tace
aeG
lan
du
lar
hai
rsar
isin
gfr
om
end
oca
rped
ible
;fr
uit
ish
esp
erid
ium
So
ur
ora
ng
e,k
hat
taC
itru
sa
ura
nti
um
Ru
tace
aeG
lan
du
lar
hai
rsar
isin
gfr
om
end
oca
rped
ible
;fr
uit
ish
esp
erid
ium
Man
dar
ino
ran
ge,
san
tara
Cit
rus
reti
cula
taR
uta
ceae
Gla
nd
ula
rh
airs
aris
ing
fro
men
do
carp
edib
le;
fru
itis
hes
per
idiu
m
Po
mel
o,
gra
pef
ruit
Cit
rus
pa
rad
isi
Ru
tace
aeG
lan
du
lar
hai
rsar
isin
gfr
om
end
oca
rped
ible
;fr
uit
ish
esp
erid
ium
TREES AND THEIR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE 335L
emo
n,
bar
a(p
ahar
i)n
imb
uC
itru
sli
mo
nR
uta
ceae
Gla
nd
ula
rh
airs
aris
ing
fro
men
do
carp
edib
le;
fru
itis
hes
per
idiu
m
Lim
e,n
imb
uo
rk
agh
zin
imb
uC
itru
sa
ura
nti
foli
aR
uta
ceae
Gla
nd
ula
rh
airs
aris
ing
fro
men
do
carp
edib
le;
fru
itis
hes
per
idiu
m
Sh
add
ock
,ch
ako
tra
Cit
rus
ma
xim
aR
uta
ceae
Gla
nd
ula
rh
airs
aris
ing
fro
men
do
carp
edib
le;
fru
itis
hes
per
idiu
m
Oth
erfr
uit
s
Em
lic,
amla
Em
bli
cao
ffic
ina
lis
Eu
ph
orb
iace
aeF
ruit
rich
inta
nn
inan
dv
itam
inC
;co
m-
mo
nly
pic
kle
dan
du
sed
asm
edic
ine;
epic
arp
and
mes
oca
rpo
fd
rup
eed
ible
Pin
eap
ple
,an
anas
An
an
as
com
osu
sB
rom
elia
ceae
Mu
lber
ry,
tut,
shah
too
tM
oru
sa
lba
,M
.a
ust
rali
s,M
.n
igra
,M
.ru
bra
,et
c.M
ora
ceae
Su
ccu
len
tp
eria
nth
and
fles
hy
axis
edib
le
Mo
ney
jack
,la
ko
och
a,b
arh
al,
dah
rua
Atr
oca
rpu
sla
koo
cha
Mo
race
ae
Ch
ines
ed
ate,
juju
be,
ber
,b
adar
aZ
izyp
hu
sm
au
riti
an
aR
ham
nac
eae
Ep
icar
pan
dm
eso
carp
of
dru
pe
edib
le
Lim
eber
ry,
chin
in
aran
gi
Tri
ph
asi
atr
ifo
lia
Ru
tace
ae
Ch
erim
oy
a,H
anu
man
ph
al,
Lak
shm
anp
hal
An
no
na
cher
imo
lia
An
no
nac
eae
Juic
ym
eso
carp
so
fin
div
idu
alb
erri
esed
ible
Jam
bo
lan
,ja
mu
n,
jam
bab
aS
yzyg
ium
cum
ini
My
rtac
eae
Ep
icar
pan
dm
eso
carp
of
dru
pe
edib
le
Wil
dju
jub
e,jh
arb
erZ
izyp
hu
sn
um
mu
lari
aR
ham
nac
eae
Ep
icar
pan
dm
eso
carp
of
dru
pe
edib
le
Car
amb
ola
,k
arm
alA
verr
ho
eaca
ram
bo
laA
ver
rho
acea
e
Bae
l,b
ilv
aA
egle
ma
rmel
os
Ru
tace
aeIn
ner
fles
hy
lay
ero
fp
eric
arp
and
pla
cen
tae
edib
le
Cu
star
dap
ple
,sw
eet
sop
,sh
arif
aA
nn
on
asq
ua
mo
saA
nn
on
acea
eIn
ner
fles
hy
lay
ero
fp
eric
arp
and
pla
cen
tae
edib
le
Dat
e,p
ind
kh
aju
rP
ho
enix
da
ctyl
ifer
aA
reca
ceae
Per
icar
ped
ible
Fig
Fic
us
cari
caM
ora
ceae
Fle
shy
rece
pta
cle
or
thal
amu
sed
ible
Gu
ava,
amro
od
Psi
diu
mg
ua
java
My
rtac
eae
Infe
rio
r(o
rfa
lse)
ber
ries
(i.e
..p
eric
arp
isfu
sed
wit
hth
alam
us)
;ep
icar
p,
mes
oca
rpan
den
do
carp
edib
le
Juju
be,
ber
Ziz
yph
us
ma
uri
tia
na
Rh
amn
acea
eE
pic
arp
and
mes
oca
rped
ible
Lit
chi
Lit
chi
chin
ensi
sS
apin
dac
eae
Ari
led
ible
Lo
qu
atE
rio
bo
trya
jap
on
ica
Ro
sace
aeF
ruit
isa
po
me
wh
ere
thal
amu
sis
enla
rged
tofo
rmfl
esh
y,ed
ible
par
t;p
eric
arp
isca
rtil
agin
ou
san
den
clo
ses
seed
-bea
rin
glo
culi
336 THE BOTANICAL REVIEW
Ta
ble
I,co
nti
nu
ed
Co
mm
on
nam
eG
enu
san
dsp
ecie
sF
amil
yR
emar
ks
Oth
erfr
uit
s,co
nti
nu
edM
ang
o,
aam
Ma
ng
ifer
ain
dic
aA
nac
ard
iace
aeF
lesh
ym
eso
carp
edib
le
Oli
ve
Ole
aeu
rop
aea
Ole
acea
eE
pic
arp
and
mes
oca
rped
ible
;co
mm
erci
alo
liv
eo
ilis
ob
tain
edfr
om
fru
itp
ulp
and
seed
s
Pap
aya,
pap
eeta
Ca
rica
pa
pa
yaC
aric
acea
e
Po
meg
ran
ate,
anar
Pu
nic
ag
ran
atu
mP
un
icac
eae
See
ds
wit
hju
icy
test
aed
ible
Sap
od
ila,
sap
ota
,ch
iku
Ma
nik
ara
ach
ras
Sap
ota
ceae
Ku
mq
uat
Fo
rtu
nel
laja
po
nic
aR
uta
ceae
Wil
dd
ate,
kh
aju
rP
ho
enix
sylv
estr
isA
reca
ceae
On
lyo
ne
carp
eld
evel
op
sin
toa
on
e-se
eded
,ed
ible
ber
ry
Go
rgan
nu
t,m
akh
ana
(see
ds)
Eu
rya
lefe
rox
Eu
ryal
acea
eS
eed
sed
ible
Ph
alsa
Gre
wia
sub
ina
equ
ali
sT
ilia
ceae
Du
rian
Du
rio
zib
eth
inu
sB
om
bac
acea
e
Gra
nad
illa
,p
assi
on
fru
itP
ass
iflo
raed
uli
s,P.
inca
rna
ta,
P.
lau
ri-
oli
a,
P.
lin
gu
lari
s,P.
mo
llis
sim
a,
P.
qu
ad
ran
gu
lari
s
Pas
sifl
ora
ceae
Ro
seap
ple
,g
ula
bja
man
Syz
ygiu
mja
mb
os
My
rtac
eae
Ep
icar
pan
dm
eso
carp
of
dru
pe
edib
le
Jap
anes
ep
ersi
mo
n,
kak
iD
iosp
yro
ska
kiE
ben
acea
e
TREES AND THEIR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE 337
plants may occur in the form of sucrose (a disaccharide of glucose and fructose that, to humans,
tastes sweeter than either of its constituent monosaccharides) or cane sugar, glucose or grape
sugar and fructose or fruit sugar. It occurs in roots (beets, carrots, parsnips, etc.), stems (sugar-
cane, maize, sorghum, sugar maple), flowers (palms), bulbs (onion) and many fruits. The im-
portant trees yielding sugars of commercial interest are shown in Table II.
3. Starches
Starch, a complex carbohydrate, is a polymer of glucose units linked by alpha bonds. It
exists in two forms in plants: unbranched or linear polymers called “amyloses,” in which hun-
dreds of glucose molecules form coiled molecules of starch; and branched polymers called
“amylopectins,” in which only 40–60 glucose molecules that form branched chains do not coil.
Soluble starch (starch grains soaked in hot water until they burst and form a thin, clear
solution or paste) is used in the textile industry for strengthening fibers and cementing loose
ends together, making the thread smoother and easier to weave and thus giving a finish to the
goods. It is used as a mordant in calico printing and a thickener or vehicle for colors. It is also
used in laundry work, in toilet powders, in medicine, as a sizing agent in the paper industry, as
binding material for china clay and many derivatives or products like dextrin, glucose, indus-
trial alcohol and nitrostarch.
Starch is one of the main reserve foods for green plants, which store it in thin-walled cells in
the form of grains of different sizes, shapes and microscopic and physical characteristics. The
chief sources of commercial starch are maize, potato, wheat, rice, sago, cassava and arrowroot,
of which the last two are obtained from shrubs and sago is obtained from trees.
Arrowroot starch is obtained from the tubers of many tropical plants, including: Maranta arun-
dinacea (Marantaceae), yielding Indian arrowroot; Canna edulis (Cannaceae), yielding Queens-
land arrowroot; Curcuma angustifolia (Zingiberaceae), yielding East Indian arrowroot; and Zamia
floridanda (Cycadaceae), yielding Florida arrowroot. Only the last is a small, shrublike plant.
Sago starch is obtained from the starchy pith of the stems of Metroxylon sagu, of the family
Arecaceae. Other important species that yield sago starch are: Arenga saccharifera, Borassus
flabellifer, Caryota urens, Metroxylon koenigii, M. leave and M. rumphii, all Arecaceae; Manihot
esculenta, of the family Euphorbiaceae; and Cycas species, of the family Cycadaceae, a gym-
nosperm. Starchy pith is removed after the trees are cut, and, after washing, the starch is freed
by sedimentation. Dried, it is known as “sago flour”; it is made into a flour and then dried in the
sun or in ovens to obtain shiny, granular starch, called “pearl sago.” Both are used almost
entirely for food purposes, like khir, kanji, payasam, kesari, uppuma, vaangibath, sago curd
bhath, vadam (pappad), macaroni and spaghetti.
4. Spices and Condiments
Spices and condiments are flavoring agents obtained from plants. They are difficult to dis-
tinguish, so the terms are used interchangeably. Because they have little nutritive value, they
are not classified as foods. They contain essential oils, which impart flavor and aroma to food
and add greatly to the pleasure of eating. They stimulate the appetite and increase the flow of
gastric juices. For these reasons they are often referred to as “food accessories” or “adjuncts.”
The important spice- and condiment-yielding trees are shown in Table III.
5. Nonalcoholic Beverages
Beverage plants are those plants which yield beverages or drinks—nonalcoholic or alco-
holic—that are palatable and refreshing. Nonalcoholic beverages usually contain caffeine, an
338 THE BOTANICAL REVIEW
Ta
ble
II
Su
gar
-yie
ldin
gtr
ees
Co
mm
on
nam
eG
enu
san
dsp
ecie
sF
amil
yR
emar
ks
Su
gar
and
sap
fro
msw
eet
sap
of
map
les
Su
gar
map
leA
cer
sacc
ha
rum
Ace
race
aeIn
cisi
on
sar
em
ade
thro
ug
hth
eb
ark
into
the
sap
wo
od
or
larg
ero
ots
and
sap
isco
llec
ted
,u
sual
lyin
Mar
chan
dA
pri
l,w
hen
tem
per
a-tu
res
reac
h2
5�F
atn
igh
tan
d5
5�F
du
rin
gth
ed
ay;
sug
aris
sucr
ose
Bla
ckm
aple
Ace
rn
igru
mA
cera
ceae
Su
gar
fro
mu
no
pen
edin
flo
resc
ence
so
fp
alm
s
Dat
ep
alm
Ph
oen
ixd
act
ylif
era
Ace
race
aeIn
wil
dd
ate
pal
msu
gar
iso
bta
ined
fro
mte
nd
eru
pp
erp
ort
ion
so
fth
est
em;
the
tip
so
fin
flo
resc
ence
so
rst
ems
are
cut
and
swee
tsa
pth
ato
oze
so
ut
and
coll
ecte
dis
call
ed“t
od
dy
”;it
ssu
gar
con
ten
tis
abo
ut
14
%;
itis
bo
iled
and
coo
led
too
bta
inh
ard
cru
de
sug
arca
lled
“jag
-g
ary,
”an
dit
can
be
ferm
ente
dto
mak
eth
eb
ever
age
call
ed“a
r-ra
ck”;
sug
aris
sucr
ose
Wil
dd
ate
pal
mP
ho
enix
sylv
estr
isA
cera
ceae
Pal
my
rap
alm
Bo
rass
us
fla
bel
life
rA
cera
ceae
Co
con
ut
pal
mC
oco
sn
uci
fera
Ace
race
ae
To
dd
yp
alm
Ca
ryo
tau
ren
sA
cera
ceae
Go
mu
tip
alm
Are
ng
ap
inn
ata
Ace
race
ae
Ho
ney
pal
mJu
ba
cach
inen
sis
Ace
race
ae
Nip
ap
alm
Nig
afr
uti
can
sA
cera
ceae
Glu
cose
,d
extr
ose
or
gra
pe
sug
arP
rese
nt
ined
ible
fru
its
of
man
ytr
ees
and
shru
bs
Fru
cto
se,
lev
ulo
seo
rfr
uit
sug
arP
rese
nt
ined
ible
fru
its
of
man
ytr
ees
and
shru
bs
Man
na
or
man
no
se
Man
na
ash
tree
Fra
xin
us
orn
us
Ole
acea
eT
he
juic
eo
oze
so
ut
fro
msl
its
mad
ein
the
bar
kan
dd
ries
into
flak
e-li
ke
asw
eet
sub
stan
ceca
lled
“man
na,
”u
sed
mai
nly
inm
edic
ine
Nec
tar
Gu
lab
ik
ach
nar
Ba
uh
inia
pu
rpu
rea
Cae
salp
inae
Sec
rete
db
yat
trac
tiv
efl
ow
ers
of
man
ysp
ecie
sin
var
iou
sfa
mil
ies;
mai
nly
sucr
ose
,w
ith
som
eg
luco
sean
dfr
uct
ose
;m
ain
foo
do
fb
ees,
wh
ich
par
tial
lyd
iges
tit
;it
isth
us
con
ver
ted
into
ho
ney
;co
n-
tain
ing
70
–7
5%
inv
ert
sug
ar,
pro
tein
s,m
iner
alsa
lts
and
wat
er,
ho
ney
isan
exce
llen
tfo
od
for
hu
man
san
dis
use
din
med
icin
e,in
the
tob
acco
ind
ust
ryan
din
the
pre
par
atio
no
fm
ead
,a
ferm
ente
db
ever
age
Bo
ttle
bru
shC
all
iste
mo
nla
nce
ola
tum
My
rtac
eae
Ho
rse
ches
tnu
tA
escu
lus
ind
ica
Hip
po
cast
anac
eae
Jam
un
Eu
gen
iaja
mb
ola
na
My
rtac
eae
Nee
mA
zad
ira
chta
ind
ica
Mel
iace
ae
Sh
ish
amD
alb
erg
iasi
sso
oF
abac
eae
So
apn
ut
Sa
pin
du
ssp
p.
Sap
ind
acea
e
Tu
nC
edre
lato
on
aM
elia
ceae
Bar
na
Cra
taev
are
lig
iosa
Cap
par
idac
eae
Ch
ines
eta
llo
wS
ap
ium
seb
ifer
um
Eu
ph
orb
iace
ae
So
urc
e:In
form
atio
no
nn
ecta
r-y
ield
ing
tree
sis
fro
mR
and
haw
a,1
96
5–
19
83
.
TREES AND THEIR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE 339
alkaloid, which has stimulating and refreshing qualities. Alcoholic beverages are those that
contain one or more hydroxyl (–OH) groups; e.g., ethanol (CH3–CH
2–OH). They may be fer-
mented or distilled. Fruit juices and other beverages that contain neither caffeine nor alcohol
are called “soft drinks.” They have a high sugar content and thus are a good source of energy.
The important nonalcoholic-beverage woody plants are shown in Table IV.
6. Fumitories, Masticatories and Narcotics
Some narcotic substances are smoked or chewed by humans for pleasure or to seek a “world
full of new sensation or some flight from reality.” Narcotic substances that are used for smok-
ing purposes are called “fumitories,” and those that are used for chewing purposes are called
“masticatories.” They have a distinct stimulating or even narcotic effect due to the presence of
various alkaloids. They are also used in religious ceremonies. The important woody plants of
these categories are shown in Table V.
7. Medicines
Several trees are a source of important drugs. These are obtained from the bark of Bauhinia
variegata (kachnar), Barringtonia acutangula (hijjal), Cinnamomum zeylanicum (dalchini),
C. calisaya, C. ledgerina, C. officinalis, C. robusta, C. succirubra (all yielding quinine), Mimu-
sops elengi (maulsari), Myrica nagi (kaiphal), Symplocos racemosa (lodh), Saraca indica
(ashok), Terminalia arjuna (arjun) and Toddalia asiatica (kanj). The stems and wood of Aca-
cia catechu (katha), Pinus roxburghii (chir) and Santalum album (safed chandan) yield drugs.
Drugs are also obtained from the fruit of Aegle marmelos (bael), Cassia fistula (amaltas),
Emblica officinalis (amla), Terminalia bellerica (bahera) and T. chebula (harar). The seeds of
Croton tiglium (jamalgota), Pongamia pinnata (karanja), Ricinus communis (arand) and Strych-
nos nux-vomica (kuchla) are also used for obtaining drugs.
8. Essential Oils
Like all other necessities of humans, oils are one of the main necessities of daily life. India
holds a prominent position in the world oil industry. Oils are of two types: essential, volatile or
Table III
Spice- and condiment-yielding trees
Common name Genus and species Family Part used
Cassia, vern. tejpat Cinnamomum cassia, syn.C. tamala
Lauraceae Bark
Dalchini or Ceyloncinnamon
Cinnamomum zeylanicum Lauraceae Bark
Sassafras Sassafras albidum Lauraceae Root bark
Cloves Syzygium aromaticum Myrtaceae Unopened flower buds
Allspice Pimenta dioica Myrtaceae Fruits
Juniper berries Juniperus communis andother species
Cupressaceae Mature cones
Star anise or anasphal Illicium verum Apiaceae Fruit
Nutmeg (seed or kernel)and mace (aril)
Myristica fragrans Myristicaceae Seeds
Sweet bay or laurel Laurus nobilis Lauraceae Leaves
340 THE BOTANICAL REVIEW
Ta
ble
IV
Imp
ort
ant
bev
erag
e-y
ield
ing
wo
od
yp
lan
ts
Co
mm
on
nam
eG
enu
san
dsp
ecie
sF
amil
yP
art
use
dC
affe
ine
con
ten
t(%
)
Co
ffee
Co
ffea
ara
bic
a,
C.
can
eph
ora
,C
.li
ber
ica
,C
.ro
bu
sta
,C
.st
eno
ph
ylla
Ru
bia
ceae
Co
ffee
seed
sca
lled
“bea
ns”
1–
1.5
Co
coa
or
cho
cola
teT
heo
bro
ma
caca
oS
terc
uli
acea
eS
eed
s
Mat
éo
rP
arag
uay
tea
Ilex
pa
rag
ua
rien
sis
Aq
uif
oli
acea
eL
eav
es
Gu
aran
aP
au
llin
iacu
pa
na
Sap
ind
acea
eS
eed
s3
–4
.5
Co
laC
ola
nit
ida
Ste
rcu
liac
eae
See
ds
2
Cas
sin
eIl
exvo
mit
ori
aA
qu
ifo
liac
eae
Fre
sho
rd
ried
leav
esan
dsh
oo
ts
Yo
coP
au
llin
iayo
coS
apin
dac
eae
Bar
k3
–4
Co
caan
dco
cain
eE
ryth
roxy
lon
coca
Ery
thro
xy
lace
aeD
ried
leav
es
Ta
ble
V
Tre
esu
sed
asfu
mit
ori
esan
dm
asca
tori
es
Co
mm
on
nam
eG
enu
san
dsp
ecie
sF
amil
yR
emar
ks
Bid
io
rte
nd
uD
iosp
yro
sm
ela
no
xylo
nE
ben
acea
eD
ried
leav
esu
sed
for
wra
pp
ing
the
tob
acco
and
asa
fum
ito
ry
Are
ca,
bet
aln
ut
or
sup
ari
Are
caca
tech
uA
reca
ceae
Bet
aln
uts
(dru
pes
)ch
ewed
alo
ng
wit
hp
an(l
eav
eso
fP
iper
bet
le)
Cat
ech
u,
kat
ha,
kh
air
or
kh
adir
aA
caci
aca
tech
uM
imo
sace
aeK
ath
ao
bta
ined
fro
mh
eart
wo
od
app
lied
top
an(l
eav
eso
fP
iper
bet
le)
Co
lao
rk
ola
nu
tsC
ola
nit
ida
Ste
rcu
liac
eae
See
ds
of
cola
tree
use
das
am
asti
cato
rin
tro
pic
alA
fric
a;it
con
tain
s2
%ca
ffei
ne,
esse
nti
alo
ilan
da
glu
cosi
de,
chel
on
ian
,w
hic
his
ah
eart
stim
ula
nt
TREES AND THEIR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE 341
distilled oils; and fatty, nonvolatile, expressed or fixed oils. These two types of oils can be
distinguished in Table VI.
Essential oils are by-products of carbohydrate and fat metabolism and occur in some 60
families. The important ones are Apiaceae (= Umbellifereae), Asteraceae (= Compositae),
Fabaceae (= Leguminosae), Geraniaceae, Lamiaceae (= Labiatae), Lauraceae, Myrtaceae, Poa-
ceae (= Graminae) and Rutaceae. They occur in small concentrations, from minute traces to as
much as 1–2%, or even more, in specialized cells, glands or ducts, either in one particular
organ of the plant or distributed over many parts. They may be present in flowers (e.g., roses),
fruits (e.g., oranges), leaves (e.g., eucalyptus), bark (e.g., cinnamomum), roots (e.g., ginger),
woods (e.g., cedar) or seeds (e.g., cardamon) and many resinous exudations.
The utility of essential oils to the plant itself is obscure. The characteristic aroma and flavor
they impart to flowers, fruits and seeds probably attract insects and other animals, which play
an important role in pollination and/or in the dispersal of fruits and seeds. When essential oils
are present in high concentrations, the unpleasant odor may serve to repel enemies like para-
sites, animals and insects. The essential oils may have antiseptic and bactericidal properties
Table VI
Differences between essential and fatty (fixed) oils
Essential oils Fatty (fixed) oils
They evaporate or volatilize in contact with airand hence are called “volatile oils”
They do not evaporate or become volatile whenthey come into contact with air and hence arecalled “nonvolatile oils”
They can be readily removed from the plant tis-sues without any change in their compositionand hence are called “distilled oils”
They cannot be distilled without being decom-posed and hence are called “expressed oils”
They possess a pleasant taste, have a strong, aro-matic odor and may be colored
They do not possess a strong taste or odor andare colorless
They are typically liquids At normal (room) or high temperatures they areeither liquids or fluids and are called “oils”;at normal or cold temperatures they may besolids or semisolids and are called “fats.”Quite obviously, what is an oil in a warmclimate may be a fat in a cold climate.
They are very complex in their chemical compo-sition. The two principal groups are terpenes,which are hydrocarbons, and oxygenated andsulphuretted oils.
Chemically these vegetable fatty oils are close toanimal fats. They consist of glycerine andfatty acid, which is an oleic acid if it is an oilbut stearic or palmatic acid if it is a fat.
They have antiseptic qualities They generally do not possess antiseptic proper-ties
They are used for diverse purposes, but not asfood
Most of them are edible and are available as foodfor humans
Soap is not formed when they are treated with analkali
When a fat is boiled with an alkali, it decom-poses and the fatty acid unites with an alkalito form soap. If potash or lye is used, a softsoap is obtained; if soda is used, a hard soapis obtained.
They can be obtained by distillation, expressionor extraction
They can be obtained by a combination of ex-pression and extraction, but not by distilla-tion
342 THE BOTANICAL REVIEW
and may thus act as a wound fluid. They affect transpiration and other physiological processes
by minimizing the effect of heat on transpiration. They play a vital role as hydrogen donors in
oxido-reduction reactions as potential sources of energy.
Because of their odor and high volatility, essential oils are also put to a variety of uses by
humans. They are extensively used in the manufacture of perfumes, sachets, soaps and other
toilet preparations. The perfumes are stored in closed, compactly filled containers since they
deteriorate due to oxidation and polymerization when they come into contact with air. In
confectionary and aerated waters they are used as flavoring materials or essences for ice creams,
candies, cordials, liqueurs, nonalcoholic beverages, tobacco, etc. They are very valuable in
medicine, dentistry and pharmaceuticals because of their therapeutic, antiseptic and bacteri-
cidal properties. They are used as insecticides and deodorants, as solvents in paint and varnish
industries and in the manufacture of several synthetic odors and flavors, such as attars and
scents. Some of the essential oils (e.g., clove oil) are used as clearing or cleaning agents in
histological work. They are also used in such diversified products as chewing gum, toothpaste,
dhoop, agar batis, incense, shoe polish, library paste and fish glue. The important essential oil-
yielding trees are listed in Table VII.
9. Fatty Oils and Vegetable Fats
Vegetable fatty oils are called “fixed oils” or “nonvolatile oils” because they do not evapo-
rate or become volatile like the essential oils. They are also called “nondistilled oils” because
they cannot be distilled without being decomposed.
Chemically, fatty oils consist of glycerin in combination with a fatty acid. The so-called fats or
tallows are solids at ordinary temperatures and contain stearic or palmitic acid. Their iodine num-
ber (the number of grams of iodine absorbed by 100 g of the fats in a medium in which it is soluble)
is below 70. On the other hand, oils are liquids at ordinary temperatures and contain oleic acid.
Oils are of three types: drying, semidrying and nondrying. The drying oils are able to absorb
oxygen and, on exposure, dry into thin elastic film. They are used mainly in the paint and
varnish industry. Their iodine number is higher than 150. The semidrying oils absorb oxygen
slowly and only in limited amounts. They form a soft film only after long exposure. Their
iodine number is between 100 and 150. The nondrying oils remain liquid at ordinary tempera-
tures and do not form a film. Their iodine number is between 70 and 100.
The fatty oils are insoluble in water but soluble in various organic solvents. When a fat is
boiled with an alkali, it decomposes, and the fatty acid unites with the alkali to form soap. If
soda is used, a hard soap is obtained; and if potash or lye is used, a soft soap is obtained.
When fats break down, they yield fatty acids and glycerin, of which they are composed, and
usually develop a rancid odor and taste. The fatty oils are bland (balmy) and lack the strong
taste, odor and antiseptic qualities of essential oils. Thus they are available as indispensable
articles in human food. Important species that yield fatty oils and vegetable fats are listed in
Table VIII.
10. Waxes
Waxes are quite similar to fats but are esters of monohydric alcohols rather than glycerides.
They are harder than fats and have a high melting point. They are less easily hydrolyzed and do
not become rancid. Waxes are usually found on the epidermis of leaves and fruits. They serve
to prevent excessive loss of water through transpiration, because of their impervious character.
The commercially important waxes obtained from trees are shown in Table IX. Wax is also
obtained from the leaves of the raffia and licuri palms, sugarcane and esparto.
(Text continues on p. 349)
TREES AND THEIR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE 343
Ta
ble
VII
Ess
enti
al-o
il-y
ield
ing
tree
s
Co
mm
on
nam
eG
enu
san
dsp
ecie
sF
amil
yR
emar
ks
Yla
ng
-yla
ng
Ca
na
ng
ao
do
rata
An
no
nac
eae
Oil
isex
trac
ted
fro
mfl
ow
erp
etal
s.C
anan
ga
oil
isu
sed
inso
me
of
the
fin
est
per
fum
ery
crea
tio
ns
inF
ran
ce;
chea
per
gra
des
are
use
din
soap
mak
ing
.
Ner
oli
:tr
ue
oil
of
ner
oli
or
ner
oli
big
arad
eC
itru
sa
ura
nti
um
Ru
tace
aeO
ilis
extr
acte
dfr
om
flo
wer
so
fth
eso
ur
ora
ng
e
Ner
oli
Po
rtu
gal
Cit
rus
sin
ensi
sR
uta
ceae
Oil
isex
trac
ted
fro
mfl
ow
ers
of
the
swee
to
ran
ge
Man
dar
ino
ilC
itru
sre
ticu
lata
Ru
tace
aeO
ilfr
om
pee
lsis
use
din
con
fect
ion
ery,
toil
etp
rod
uct
san
dp
har
mac
euti
cal
pre
par
atio
ns
Pet
itg
rain
oil
Cit
rus
spp
.;in
Ind
ia,
C.
au
ran
tiu
m,
C.
lim
etto
ides
Ru
tace
aeO
ilex
trac
ted
fro
mle
aves
and
twig
sis
use
dto
add
ap
leas
ant
bo
uq
uet
tosc
ents
,co
smet
ics,
skin
crea
ms
and
soap
s
Ora
ng
eo
ilC
itru
ssp
p.;
inIn
dia
,C
.a
ura
nti
foli
,C
.re
ticu
lata
Ru
tace
aeO
ilex
trac
ted
fro
mri
pe
pee
lsis
use
dto
add
ap
leas
ant
bo
uq
uet
tosc
ents
,co
s-m
etic
s,sk
incr
eam
san
dso
aps
Ber
gam
ot
Cit
rus
au
ran
tiu
msu
bsp
.b
erg
am
iaR
uta
ceae
Gre
enis
ho
ilex
trac
ted
fro
mri
pe
pee
lsh
asa
soft
,sw
eet
od
or
and
isu
sed
for
scen
tin
gto
ilet
soap
s,in
mix
edp
erfu
mes
and
asa
clea
rin
gag
ent
Mex
ican
lin
alo
eB
urs
era
pen
icil
lata
,B
.g
lab
rifo
lia
Bu
rser
acea
eV
ery
aro
mat
ico
ilex
trac
ted
fro
mth
ew
oo
dis
wid
ely
use
din
per
fum
es,
soap
s,co
smet
ics,
etc.
and
for
flav
ori
ng
foo
dan
db
ever
ages
My
sore
lin
alo
eB
urs
era
pen
icil
lata
Bu
rser
acea
eV
ery
aro
mat
ico
ilex
trac
ted
fro
mh
usk
so
fb
erri
esis
wid
ely
use
din
per
fum
es,
soap
s,co
smet
ics,
etc.
and
for
flav
ori
ng
foo
dan
db
ever
ages
Cay
enn
eli
nal
oe
An
iba
pa
nu
ren
sis
Lau
race
aeV
ery
aro
mat
ico
ilis
wid
ely
use
din
per
fum
es,
soap
s,co
smet
ics,
etc.
and
for
flav
ori
ng
foo
dan
db
ever
ages
Bra
zili
anb
ois
de
rose
Ari
ba
rosa
eod
ora
var
.a
ma
zon
iaL
aura
ceae
Ver
yar
om
atic
oil
extr
acte
dfr
om
the
wo
od
isw
idel
yu
sed
inp
erfu
mes
,so
aps,
cosm
etic
s,et
c.an
dfo
rfl
avo
rin
gfo
od
and
bev
erag
es
San
dal
wo
od
oil
,v
ern
.sa
fed
chan
dan
Sa
nta
lum
alb
um
and
rela
ted
spp
.S
anta
lace
aeO
ilex
trac
ted
fro
mth
ew
oo
dis
larg
ely
use
das
ap
erfu
me
and
inso
aps,
face
crea
ms
and
toil
etp
ow
der
s.In
med
icin
eit
has
coo
lin
g,
dia
ph
ore
tic,
diu
reti
can
dex
pec
tora
nt
pro
per
ties
.A
nex
cell
ent
fix
ativ
e,it
ism
uch
use
din
ble
nd
s.T
he
swee
t-sc
ente
dw
oo
dis
uti
lize
dfo
rb
ox
esan
dch
ests
.
Ch
amp
aca
oil
Mic
hel
iach
am
pa
caM
agn
oli
acea
eO
ne
of
the
mo
stfa
mo
us
per
fum
eso
fIn
dia
,it
isu
sed
for
var
iou
sp
urp
ose
s
344 THE BOTANICAL REVIEW
Ta
ble
VII
,co
nti
nu
ed
Co
mm
on
nam
eG
enu
san
dsp
ecie
sF
amil
yR
emar
ks
Cam
ph
or,
cam
ph
or
gu
m,
mu
shk
apu
r,ca
mp
ho
ro
ilC
inn
am
om
um
cam
ph
ora
Lau
race
aeC
amp
ho
ris
soli
dw
ith
tou
gh
,w
hit
e,tr
ansl
uce
nt
gra
nu
le-l
ike
mas
ses
ato
rdi-
nar
yte
mp
erat
ure
s.E
xtr
acte
dfr
om
the
wo
od
,tw
igs
and
leav
es,
itis
use
din
the
man
ufa
ctu
reo
fce
llu
loid
,n
itro
cell
ulo
seco
mp
ou
nd
san
dex
pen
siv
ep
er-
fum
esan
din
med
icin
efo
rin
flam
mat
ion
s,rh
eum
atic
pai
ns
and
spra
ins,
asa
card
iac
stim
ula
nt
and
tore
liev
ed
iarr
ho
ea.
Th
eb
y-p
rod
uct
isca
lled
“sa-
fro
le.”
Ced
arw
oo
do
ilJu
nip
eru
svi
rgin
ian
aC
up
ress
acea
eO
ilex
trac
ted
fro
mth
eh
eart
wo
od
isv
alu
able
asa
clea
rin
gag
ent
inth
ep
rep
a-ra
tio
no
fp
erm
anen
tm
icro
sco
pic
mo
un
tsan
dfo
ru
sew
ith
oil
-im
mer
sio
nle
nse
sb
ecau
seo
fit
sh
igh
refr
acto
ryin
dex
.It
isal
sou
sed
inso
aps,
per
-fu
mes
,li
nim
ents
,d
eod
ora
nts
and
clea
nin
gan
dp
oli
shin
gp
rep
arat
ion
san
das
anad
ult
eran
to
fg
eran
ium
and
san
dle
wo
od
oil
s.B
ecau
seo
fit
sin
sect
i-ci
dal
pro
per
ties
itis
uti
lize
das
am
oth
rep
elle
nt
and
infl
ysp
ray
s.
Deo
dar
oil
Ced
rus
deo
da
ra,
Jun
ipe-
rus
ma
cro
po
da
Pin
acea
e,C
up
res-
sace
aeT
he
var
ian
tso
fce
dar
wo
od
oil
use
din
Ind
iaar
eo
bta
ined
fro
mch
ips,
saw
du
sto
rw
oo
do
fC
edru
sd
eod
ara
and
fro
mth
esh
avin
gs
and
saw
du
sto
fJu
nip
e-ru
sm
acr
op
od
a
Clo
ve
oil
,v
ern
.lo
un
g-
ka-
tel
Syz
ygiu
ma
rom
ati
cum
My
rtac
eae
Oil
extr
acte
dfr
om
flo
wer
bu
ds
isu
sed
inp
erfu
mes
,so
aps,
con
fect
ion
ery
and
med
icin
e,as
ast
imu
lan
t,ca
rmin
ativ
ean
din
flat
ule
nce
and
asa
clea
rin
gag
ent
inh
isto
log
ical
wo
rkfo
rm
icro
sco
py
Oil
of
turp
enti
ne,
pin
eo
ilP
inu
ssp
p.
Pin
acea
eO
ilfr
om
resi
ns
isu
sed
inth
em
anu
fact
ure
of
var
nis
hes
,la
cqu
ers,
dis
infe
c-ta
nts
,p
ain
ts,
lin
ole
um
,se
alin
gw
ax,
oil
clo
th,
lub
rica
tin
gco
mp
ou
nd
s,in
ks,
etc.
Cin
nam
on
oil
Cin
na
mo
mu
mze
yla
nic
um
Lau
race
aeO
ilfr
om
chip
san
dw
aste
bar
kis
use
din
the
pre
par
atio
no
fci
nn
amo
nq
uil
lsan
das
den
itif
rice
san
dp
erfu
mes
Eu
caly
ptu
so
ilE
uca
lyp
tus
citr
iod
ora
,E
.d
ives
,E
.g
lob
ulu
s,et
c.
My
rtac
eae
Oil
fro
mth
ele
aves
and
term
inal
bra
nch
lets
isa
sou
rce
of
citr
on
ella
l,ci
tro
nel
-lo
lan
dm
enth
ol.
Itis
wid
ely
use
din
per
fum
ery,
asa
mo
squ
ito
rep
elle
nt,
ger
mic
ide
and
dis
infe
ctan
tan
din
med
icin
ein
the
trea
tmen
to
fas
thm
aan
db
ron
chit
is.
Nu
tmeg
oil
Myr
isti
cafr
ag
ran
sM
yri
stic
acea
eO
ils
fro
mn
utm
eg(t
he
aro
mat
ick
ern
els)
and
mac
e(t
he
aril
s)o
fth
efr
uit
so
fM
yris
tica
fra
gra
ns
(ver
n.
jaip
hal
)ar
eu
sed
exte
rnal
lyto
trea
trh
eum
atis
man
din
soap
san
dp
erfu
mes
.O
ilo
bta
ined
fro
mth
ele
aves
isu
sed
inth
ep
rep
arat
ion
of
chew
ing
gu
m,
flav
ori
ng
esse
nce
san
dco
smet
ics.
TREES AND THEIR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE 345
Mac
assa
ro
ilS
chle
ich
era
trij
ug
aS
apin
dac
eae
Ex
trac
ted
fro
mse
eds
of
the
gu
m-l
actr
ee(v
ern
.g
ausa
m),
the
oil
has
av
alu
able
stim
ula
tin
gan
dcl
ean
sin
gef
fect
on
the
scal
p,
pro
mo
tin
gh
air
gro
wth
.It
isal
sou
sed
tocu
resk
ind
isea
ses,
itch
es,
rheu
mat
ism
and
hea
dac
hes
.
Ag
aro
il,
agar
atta
rA
qu
illa
ria
ag
all
och
aT
hy
mel
aeac
eae
Ag
aro
il,
fro
mre
sin
ou
sp
ort
ion
so
fth
ew
oo
d,
isp
ale
yel
low
tob
row
nis
hy
el-
low
or
dar
kam
ber
inco
lor.
Itis
use
din
per
fum
ery
and
asan
ince
nse
.T
rue
agar
ish
eav
ier
than
wat
er.
Keo
rao
il,
atta
ro
fk
ewd
a,at
tar
keo
ra,
keo
raw
ater
,sa
nd
ali
atta
r,k
ewd
ao
ro
ilk
ewd
a
Pa
nd
an
us
tect
ori
us
(=P.
od
ora
tiss
imu
s)P
and
anac
eae
Scr
ewp
ine
flo
wer
sar
eu
nu
sual
lyla
rge:
asi
ng
lefl
ow
erw
eig
hs
up
to1
50
g.
Th
eo
ilis
use
din
the
pre
par
atio
no
ffr
agra
nt
hai
ro
ils,
per
fum
es,
etc.
Caj
epu
to
ilM
ela
leu
cale
uca
den
dro
nM
yrt
acea
eO
ilex
trac
ted
fro
mfr
esh
leav
esan
dtw
igs
isu
sed
inp
har
mac
euti
cals
asth
roat
loze
ng
es,
gar
gle
s,et
c.an
din
med
icin
eas
are
med
yfo
rco
lds,
thro
atd
is-
ease
s,h
ead
ach
es,
etc.
Ele
ng
io
ilM
imu
sop
sel
eng
iS
apo
tace
aeT
he
esse
nti
alo
il,
fro
mb
ull
etw
oo
dfl
ow
ers,
isa
pal
ey
ello
w,
mo
bil
eli
qu
idw
ith
av
ery
del
icat
e,sw
eet
and
ten
acio
us
flo
ral
od
or.
Itis
use
din
the
man
ufa
ctu
reo
fp
erfu
mes
.
346 THE BOTANICAL REVIEW
Ta
ble
VII
I
Fat
ty-o
il-
and
veg
etab
le-f
at-y
ield
ing
tree
s
Co
mm
on
nam
eG
enu
san
dsp
ecie
sF
amil
yR
emar
ks
Dry
ing
oil
sfr
om
seed
s
Tu
ng
oil
Ale
uri
tes
ford
ii,
A.
mo
nta
na
Eu
ph
orb
iace
aeU
sed
inth
ep
ain
tan
dv
arn
ish
ind
ust
ry;
also
use
dfo
rw
ater
pro
ofi
ng
wo
od
,p
aper
and
fab
rics
,an
dth
eref
ore
val
uab
lefo
ro
utd
oo
rp
ain
ts
Kek
un
a,ca
nd
len
ut,
lum
ban
go
ilA
leu
rite
sm
olu
cca
na
Eu
ph
orb
iace
aeU
sed
inm
akin
gp
ain
t,v
arn
ish
,la
cqu
er,
lin
ole
um
and
soft
soap
Wal
nu
to
ilJu
gla
ns
reg
iaJu
gla
nd
acea
eM
atu
rean
do
ldk
ern
els
yie
lda
dry
ing
oil
.A
ned
ible
oil
,it
isal
sou
sed
for
wh
ite
pai
nt,
arti
sts’
oil
pai
nts
,p
rin
tin
gin
kan
dso
ap.
Lau
relw
oo
do
ilC
alo
ph
yllu
min
op
hyl
lum
Gu
ttif
erae
Use
das
anil
lum
inan
t,fo
rso
apm
akin
gan
dto
trea
trh
eum
atis
m
Mar
go
sao
ilA
zad
ira
chta
ind
ica
Mel
iace
aeU
sed
asan
anti
sep
tic
and
for
bu
rnin
gp
urp
ose
s
Oit
icia
oil
Lic
an
iari
gid
aR
osa
ceae
Use
din
the
pai
nt
and
var
nis
hin
du
stry
;al
sou
sed
inm
akin
gli
no
leu
man
dp
rin
tin
gin
ks
and
for
imp
rov
ing
the
elas
tici
tyo
fru
bb
erp
rod
-u
cts
No
nd
ryin
go
ils
fro
mse
eds
Cas
tor
oil
Ric
inu
sco
mm
un
isE
up
ho
rbia
ceae
Use
das
ap
urg
ativ
e,a
lub
rica
nt
and
anil
lum
inan
t;al
sou
sed
inso
aps,
the
tex
tile
ind
ust
ry,
typ
ewri
ter
ink
s,p
erfu
mes
,v
arn
ish
esan
dp
ain
ts
Oli
ve
oil
Ole
aeu
rop
aea
Ole
acea
eU
sed
mai
nly
assa
lad
and
coo
kin
go
il;
also
use
din
soap
mak
ing
,as
alu
bri
can
tan
din
med
icin
e
Veg
etab
lefa
ts
Co
con
ut
oil
Co
cos
nu
cife
raA
reca
ceae
Dri
edco
con
ut
mea
ty
ield
so
il.
Ref
ined
coco
nu
to
ilis
edib
le.
Use
dfo
rco
ok
ing
,co
nfe
ctio
ner
y,m
akin
gca
nd
yb
ars,
soap
,co
smet
ics,
shav
ing
crea
m,
sham
po
oan
do
ther
toil
etp
rep
arat
ion
san
dal
soas
anil
lum
inan
t.
Pal
mo
il,
pal
m-k
ern
elo
ilE
laei
sg
uin
een
sis
Are
cace
aeE
xtr
acte
dfr
om
the
fib
rou
sp
ulp
of
nu
tsan
dfr
om
ker
nel
s.U
sed
inm
akin
gso
apan
dm
arg
arin
ean
das
afu
elfo
rd
iese
len
gin
es;
also
use
dfo
rm
akin
gg
lyce
rin
,sh
amp
oo
,so
apan
dca
nd
les.
TREES AND THEIR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE 347
Mah
ua
oil
,m
ow
rao
rb
assi
afa
t;m
ahu
ao
ril
lip
eb
utt
erM
ad
hu
cain
dic
aS
apo
tace
aeO
ilo
bta
ined
fro
mse
eds
isu
sed
mai
nly
inth
em
anu
fact
ure
of
lau
n-
dry
soap
and
also
inm
akin
gca
nd
y,in
the
jute
ind
ust
ry,
and
totr
eat
skin
dis
ease
s,rh
eum
atis
m,
hea
dac
he,
con
stip
atio
n,
pil
es,
etc.
Ph
ulw
ara
bu
tter
Dip
lokn
eura
bu
tyra
cea
(=M
ad
hu
cab
uty
race
a)
Sap
ota
ceae
Oil
ob
tain
edfr
om
seed
sis
use
dm
ain
lyin
the
man
ufa
ctu
reo
fla
un
-d
ryso
apan
dal
soin
mak
ing
can
dy,
inth
eju
tein
du
stry
,an
dto
trea
tsk
ind
isea
ses,
rheu
mat
ism
,h
ead
ach
e,co
nst
ipat
ion
,p
iles
,et
c.
Car
apa
oil
Xyl
oca
rpu
sm
olu
ccen
sis
Mel
iace
aeO
ilo
bta
ined
fro
mse
eds
isu
sed
for
soap
and
asan
illu
min
ant
Nu
tmeg
bu
tter
Myr
isti
cafr
ag
ran
sM
yri
stic
acea
eS
eed
sco
nta
inab
ou
t4
0%
of
ay
ello
wfa
t,u
sed
inso
ap,
oin
tmen
t,p
erfu
mes
and
can
dle
san
dal
soto
trea
trh
eum
atis
m
Po
ng
amo
ilP
on
ga
mia
pin
na
taP
apil
ion
acea
eO
ilo
bta
ined
fro
mse
eds
isu
sed
for
soap
mak
ing
,as
anil
lum
inan
t,an
din
the
trea
tmen
to
fsk
ind
isea
ses
and
rheu
mat
ism
Bab
assu
oil
Orb
ign
yam
art
ian
a,
O.
ole
ifer
aA
reca
ceae
Oil
ob
tain
edfr
om
nu
tsis
use
das
asu
bst
itu
tefo
rco
con
ut
oil
and
for
mak
ing
bu
llet
-pro
of
gla
ss,
exp
losi
ves
and
lub
rica
nts
Co
hu
ne
oil
Orb
ign
yaco
hu
ne
Are
cace
aeO
ilo
bta
ined
fro
mn
uts
isu
sed
asa
sub
stit
ute
for
coco
nu
to
ilan
dfo
rm
akin
gb
ull
et-p
roo
fg
lass
,ex
plo
siv
esan
dlu
bri
can
ts
Lic
uri
oil
Sya
gru
sco
ron
ata
Are
cace
aeO
ilo
bta
ined
fro
mn
uts
isu
sed
asa
sub
stit
ute
for
coco
nu
to
ilan
dfo
rm
akin
gb
ull
et-p
roo
fg
lass
,ex
plo
siv
esan
dlu
bri
can
ts
Mu
rum
uru
oil
Ast
roca
ryu
mm
uru
mu
ru,
A.
tucu
ma
,A
.vu
lga
reA
reca
ceae
Oil
ob
tain
edfr
om
nu
tsis
use
das
asu
bst
itu
tefo
rco
con
ut
oil
and
for
mak
ing
bu
llet
-pro
of
gla
ss,
exp
losi
ves
and
lub
rica
nts
Co
coa
bu
tter
Th
eob
rom
aca
cao
Ste
rcu
liac
eae
Fat
ob
tain
edfr
om
bea
ns
isu
sed
for
cosm
etic
san
dp
erfu
mes
,as
ab
ase
for
oin
tmen
tsan
das
alu
bri
can
tfo
rm
assa
gin
g
Sh
eab
utt
erB
uty
rosp
erm
um
pa
rkii
Sap
ota
ceae
Th
efa
tis
edib
lean
dis
use
das
asu
bst
itu
tefo
rco
coa
bu
tter
and
inm
akin
gso
apan
dca
nd
les
Bo
rneo
tall
ow
Sh
ore
aa
pte
raD
ipte
roca
rpac
eae
Fat
fro
mk
ern
els
isu
sed
for
soap
mak
ing
and
asa
sub
stit
ute
for
co-
coa
bu
tter
Ch
ines
ev
eget
able
tall
ow
Sa
piu
mse
bif
eru
mE
up
ho
rbia
ceae
Ob
tain
edfr
om
ath
ick
lay
ero
fh
ard
,w
hit
efa
to
nse
eds,
itis
use
din
soap
,co
smet
ics
and
can
dle
s.S
eed
sy
ield
dry
ing
oil
,u
sed
for
pai
nts
,v
arn
ish
esan
dp
last
ics
and
asan
illu
min
ant.
Mac
assa
ro
ilS
chle
ich
era
ole
osa
Sap
ind
acea
eO
ilfr
om
seed
sis
use
din
coo
kin
g,
asa
hai
ro
ilan
dfo
ril
lum
inat
ion
Ucu
hu
ba
bu
tter
,o
tob
ab
utt
erV
iro
lasp
p.
My
rist
acea
eU
sed
for
var
iou
sp
urp
ose
s
348 THE BOTANICAL REVIEW
Ta
ble
IX
Wax
-yie
ldin
gtr
ees
Co
mm
on
nam
eG
enu
san
dsp
ecie
sF
amil
yR
emar
ks
Car
nau
ba
wax
Co
per
nic
iace
rife
raA
reca
ceae
Th
em
ost
imp
ort
ant
veg
etab
lew
axfr
om
the
wax
pal
mtr
ee(t
he
“tre
eo
fli
fe”
inB
ra-
zil)
,it
occ
urs
asan
exu
dat
ion
on
leav
esan
dis
use
din
the
man
ufa
ctu
reo
fca
n-
dle
s,so
ap,
hig
h-l
ust
erv
arn
ish
,p
ain
t,ca
rw
ax,
sho
ep
oli
sh,
carb
on
pap
er,
bat
teri
es,
insu
lati
on
,p
ho
no
gra
ph
reco
rds,
salv
e,so
un
dfi
lm,
oin
tmen
t,et
c.
Wax
tree
Cer
oxy
lon
an
dic
ola
Are
cace
aeU
sed
asa
sub
stit
ute
for
carn
aub
aw
ax
My
rtle
wax
Myr
ica
pen
sylv
an
ica
,M
.ce
rife
raM
yri
cace
aeB
erri
esar
eco
ver
edw
ith
thic
kla
yer
of
wax
,u
sed
for
the
man
ufa
ctu
reo
fso
apan
dca
nd
les
wit
ha
ple
asan
tfr
agra
nce
Jap
anes
ew
axR
hu
ssu
cced
an
eaA
nac
ard
iace
aeB
erri
esy
ield
wax
,u
sed
inth
em
anu
fact
ure
of
can
dle
s,w
axm
atch
es,
pen
cils
,le
ath
er,
furn
itu
rep
oli
sh,
soap
and
lip
stic
kan
din
the
vu
lcan
izat
ion
of
rub
ber
Ta
ble
X
Sap
on
in-y
ield
ing
tree
s
Co
mm
on
nam
eG
enu
san
dsp
ecie
sF
amil
yR
emar
ks
So
apn
ut
or
soap
ber
ries
,v
ern
.ri
tha
Sa
pin
du
sem
arg
ina
tus,
S.
mu
koro
ssi,
S.
sap
on
ari
a
Sap
ind
acea
eU
sed
asa
soap
sub
stit
ute
for
was
hin
gh
air
and
wo
ole
n,
silk
enan
do
ther
del
icat
efa
b-
rics
;al
sou
sed
inth
ep
rep
arat
ion
of
hai
rto
nic
So
apb
ark
Qu
illa
jasa
po
na
ria
Ro
sace
aeD
ried
inn
erb
ark
con
tain
s9
%sa
po
nin
,u
sed
for
was
hin
gd
elic
ate
fab
rics
,cl
ean
ing
len
ses
and
pre
cisi
on
inst
rum
ents
,as
anex
pec
tora
nt
and
emu
lsif
yin
gag
ent
inm
edic
ine
and
inth
em
anu
fact
ure
of
sham
po
o,
cosm
etic
san
dh
air
ton
ic
TREES AND THEIR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE 349
11. Soap Substitutes
Saponins are a group of water-soluble glucosides that yield soap froth in water, form emul-
sions with oils and fats, and are capable of absorbing large amounts of gases such as carbon
dioxide. Because of these properties they are used for cleansing and other purposes, both at
home and in industry. The important saponin-containing trees are listed in Table X.
It may be added here that leaves of a familiar garden plant, bouncing bet or soapwort
(Saponaria officinalis, family Caryophyllaceae), when placed in water, produce a lather that is
utilized for washing and imparting luster to silk and woolen fabrics. Similarly, bulbs of the
Californian soaproot (Chlorogalum pomeridianum, family Liliaceae) yield a good lather, which
is utilized for washing fabrics.
12. Vegetable Ivory
The seeds of Phytelephas macrocarpa, in the family Arecaceae, commonly called “ivory
nut” or “tagua palm tree,” is the chief source of vegetable ivory. It is extensively used as a
substitute for true ivory. It can be carved and used in the manufacture of buttons, chess pieces,
poker chips, dice, knobs, inlays, billiard balls, toys, etc. Metroxylon amicarum, in the Arecaceae
family, can likewise be used for these purposes.
13. Fodder
The leaves of trees and shrubs are rich in calcium and phosphorus. Although considered
inferior to grasses, trees in different parts of India are lopped for fodder, especially when grasses
are scarce. The important fodder-yielding trees are Acacia nilotica (= A. arabica), A. catechu,
Acer spp., Aegle marmelos, Bauhinia variegata, Celtis australis, Dendrocalamus strictus, Ficus
glomerata, F. religiosa, Grewia spp., Helicteres isora, Kydia calycina, Leucaena leucocephala,
Melia azedarach, Millettia auriculata, Morus australis, M. serrata, Ougeinia oojeinsis, Populus
ciliata, Quercus glauca, Q. incana, Zizyphus mauritiana and Z. nummularia (Singh, 1982; Anony-
mous, 1983).
14. Fuel, Bioenergy or Biofuel
Bioenergy is the energy available from biological sources, both living and immediate re-
mains. Fuel is any material that burns readily in air. Biofuels are materials of biological origin
that are used for producing heat and other forms of energy. Fuel is a great necessity of modern
life. Wood, peat and coal, which represent three stages in the carbonization of the original
woody plant tissue, are important fuel substances.
Because their moisture content is lower than that of green wood, seasoned or oven-dried
wood makes excellent fuel: 99% of it is combustible, so it leaves only a small amount of ash.
Hardwoods, such as ash, beech, hickory, maple and oak, which burn for a longer time and
provide more uniform heat than does gymnospermic wood, are excellent fuelwoods. The mean
calorific value of oven-dried Indian hardwoods is about 9000 btu. The different forms of en-
ergy that can be obtained from wood are shown in Table XI.
The qualities needed for fuelwood are physical properties of the wood as well as environ-
mental and silvicultural properties of the species. Small-diameter, thornless shrubs and trees,
which are easy to cut with primitive tools and easy to transport, are generally preferred. Like-
wise, fuelwood that is easy to split and either has a low moisture content or dries rapidly is
preferred over other wood, because considerable heat is lost in burning moist wood. Such
wood is also nontoxic and produces less smoke. For health reasons, too, these are important
350 THE BOTANICAL REVIEW
Table XI
Forms of energy obtained from wood
Process Form of energy
Direct burning Heat, fire
Gasification Producer gas
Carbonization (the process of heating wood andconverting it into carbon)
Charcoal (has twice as much heating power aswood and burns without flame or smoke)
Pyrolysis Charcoal, gas, oil
Hydrolysis, fermentation Ethanol
Gasification, synthesis Methanol
fuelwoods: ventilation is poor in village houses. While burning, wood should neither split nor
spark. Wood density is positively correlated with the calorific value of fuelwood. A negative
correlation also exists between wood density and growth rate, so fast-growing species gener-
ally have inferior burning properties. The best fuelwood species burn slowly and produce good
heat from glowing charcoals. Acacia and Casuarina spp. are regarded as the best fuelwood
species (Singhal & Khanna, 1991).
Some common fuelwood species of India are Acacia catechu, A. leucocephala, A. nilotica
var. cupressiformis, A. nilotica var. indica, Albizia amara, A. lebbek, Anogeissus latifolia,
Azadirachta indica, Borassus flabellifer, Carrissa spinarum, Dalbergia sissoo, Delonix elata,
Eucalyptus spp., Euphorbia spp., Leucaena leucocephala, Mangifera indica, Melia azedarach,
Moringa tinctoria, Morus serrata, Pithecellobium dulce, Prosopis juliflora, P. spicigera, Psidium
guajava, Sesbania sesban, Syzygium cuminii, Tamarix indica, Thespesia populnea, Zizyphus
mauritiana, etc. (Singhal & Khanna, 1991).
15. Fertilizers
Several species of nitrogen-fixing bacteria of Rhizobium, including R. leguminosarum,
R. lupini, R. meliloti and R. phaseoli, live inside the root nodules of leguminous trees. Simi-
larly, Frankia, a nitrogen-fixing mycelial bacterium, is associated symbiotically with the root
nodules of several nonlegume plants, including Alnus, Casuarina, Coriaria, Myrica and Ru-
bus. Both Rhizobium and Frankia are capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen. When the roots
of these plants decay, they enrich the soil with nitrogen salts.
16. Fibers
Botanically, a fiber is a special type of cell (sclerenchymatous) that has thick walls, a narrow
lumen and tapering ends. Chemically, it is made up of cellulose and lignin. Commercially, a
plant fiber is a strand consisting of one or hundreds of cells that varies in length from a fraction
of a millimeter to 2 meters or more. Depending on how fibers are used, they can be classed as
textile fibers (for fabrics, netting, cordage), brush fibers, plaiting and rough weaving fibers (for
hats, sandals, baskets, chairs, etc.), filling fibers, natural fabrics and papermaking fibers.
The important fiber-yielding woody plants, including trees and shrubs, are Abroma angusta,
Abutilon spp., Acacia leucocephala, Ananas comosus, Antiaris toxicaria, Boehmeria nivea,
Borassus flabellifer, Butea monosperma, Caryota urens (leaves), Cordia dichotoma, C. rothii,
Ficus bengalensis, F. cunia, F. religiosa, Grewia glabra, G. elastica, G. optiva, G. tiliaefolia,
G. vestita, Hardwickia binata, Hibiscus spp., Malachra capitata, Marsdenia volubilis, Panda-
nus spp. (leaves), Sterculia foetida, S. urens, S. villosa, Trema orientalis and Urena lobata.
TREES AND THEIR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE 351
Most fibers are obtained from the bark of these plants. Silky flosses produced in the fruits of
Bombax ceiba, Ceiba pentandra and Cochlospermum religiosum are also used as fibers for
filling purposes. The well-known coir fiber is obtained from the fibrous mesocarp of the coco-
nut palm, Cocos nucifera. It is coarse, stiff, buoyant and elastic and is therefore used for ship
ropes, mats, brushes, ropes, etc. (Watt, 1889–1893; Anonymous, 1983; Maithani et al., 1991).
17. Pulp and Paper
An important use of fibers is in the manufacture of paper, which is playing an increasingly
important role in modern civilized society. It can be divided into two categories: cultural paper
(printing and writing paper) and industrial paper (packing and wrapping papers and boards).
The word “paper” comes from the Latin papyrus (the name of Cyperus papyrus of the
family Cyperaceae), a sedge plant, the pith of which was used for paper in Egypt as early as
2400 B.C. The Chinese, however, were the first to actually make the paper. In 1799 Louis
Robert of France invented the papermaking machine, which was improved by Henry and Sealy
Fourdrinier of London in 1803.
The important and major raw materials of the pulp and paper industry are wood fibers
(furnishing more than 90% of all the paper produced in the world), cotton and linen rags
(yielding fine grades of paper, because of their high cellulose content), agricultural residues
(bamboo, bagasse, straw, etc.) and waste paper (for recycled paper). Raw materials of minor
importance are esparto grass (Stipa tebnacissima, family Poaccae), textile fibers (jute, hemp,
coir, ramie, sisal hemp, sunn hemp, etc.), bast fibers of paper mulberry (Broussonetia papyrifera,
family Moraceae) and fibers of papyrus (Cyperus papyrus), baobab (Adansonia digitata) and
Daphne cannabina. Chinese and Japanese rice paper is made from Tetrapanax papyriferum,
Edgeworthia tomentosa and Wickstroemia canescens.
Generally, softwood tracheids are preferred over hardwood fibers for papermaking because
the tracheids of conifers are longer (about 2–4 mm) than are hardwood fibers (0.5–1.5 mm).
Spruce wood is the most important raw material for pulp. Its fibers are long and strong, with a
maximum content of cellulose. Almost free of resins, gums and tannins, it is light colored,
sound and usually free of defects. The important species used are Picea rubens (red spruce),
P. glauca (white spruce), P. sitchensis (sitka spruce), etc.
The other important raw materials for pulp are pines, other conifers and hardwoods, like
Pinus australis (yellow pine), P. banksiana (jack pine), Tsuga canadensis (eastern hemlock),
T. heterophylla (western hemlock), Abies balsamea (balsam fir), A. concolor (white fir), Larix
laricina (tamarack), Populus tremuloides and P. grandidentata (aspens), Fagus grandifolia
(beech), Acer saccharum (sugar maple) and Betula lutea (birch).
Although ancient Indian written records are on the leaves of the tree called “bhojpatra”
(Betula alnoides, family Betulaceae), the art of papermaking in India started with the installa-
tion of first papermaking machine at Serampore in West Bengal in 1830. The main fibrous raw
materials for papermaking are Bambusa arundinacea, Boswellia serrata, Dendrocalamus
strictus, Eulaliopsis binata (Sabai grass) and Pinus roxburghii. These are followed by Abies
pindrow, Adansonia digitata, Agave americana, Arundo donax, Bambusa polymorpha, B. tulda,
Broussonetia papyrifera, Daphne papyracea, Dendrocalamus giganteus, D. hamiltonii, Euca-
lyptus citriodora, E. globulus, Ochlandra travancorica and Populus ciliata. The following
Indian hardwood species are used for making bleachable pulp: Albizia lebbeck, Anogeissus
latifolia, Chloroxylon swietenia, Gmelina arborea, Lannea coromandelica, Prosopis chilensis,
Pterocarpus marsupium, Sesbania grandiflora, Sterculia urens, Tectona grandis and Terminalia
bellerica.
352 THE BOTANICAL REVIEW
(Text continues on p. 357)
18. Tannins
Tannins are soluble, astringent, bitter and complex phenolic substances of plant origin.
These are glycosidal in nature and acidic in reactions. They may be hydrolizable or condensed
in nature. Whereas hydrolyzable tannins are easily split into alcohols and acids by water, con-
densed tannins are not, for they are made up of polymers of cyclic compounds. Tannins may be
present in individual cells or in special containers known as “tannin sacs.” In individual cells,
tannins are found in the cell sap or are impregnated in the cell’s walls, often accumulating in
large quantities in dead tissues such as cork or present in bark, wood, leaves, roots, fruits and
galls.
The biological functions of tannins are not very clear. It is thought that tannins protect the
protoplast against desiccation, decay and injury by animals. It may be concerned with the
formation of cork or with protection of the plant. Economically, tannins are important in vari-
ous ways. They have the ability to unite with certain types of proteins, such as those in animal
skins (hides), to form a strong, flexible, resistant and insoluble substance known as “leather.”
The process and art of converting raw hides and skins of animals into leather, usually through
the use of certain chemicals, is called “tanning.” Tannins react with salts of iron to form dark
blue, blue-black or greenish black compounds, which are the basis of tannin or writing inks.
Tannins are also useful in medicine, because of their astringent nature. Tanning materials are
often utilized in oil drilling to reduce the viscosity of the drill without reducing the specific
gravity. Tannins may be obtained from the different parts of the trees, as shown in Table XII.
19. Dyes
Dyes are colored compounds (pigments) that are capable of being fixed to fabrics perma-
nently; i.e., they neither fade on exposure to light nor wash out with soap. Therefore, a colored
organic substance is not necessarily a dye. For example, trinitrotoluene, which is yellow in
color, cannot fix to a cloth and therefore is not a dye. On the other hand, picric acid, which is
also yellow in color, can fix to a cloth and therefore is a dye. A large number of plants secrete or
contain pigments, but only about 150 are commercially important. In addition, synthetic or
aniline dyes are now obtained from coal-tar products. These are cheaper, brighter, more perma-
nent and easier to use, and they offer a wider range of colors. Among the chief uses of dyes is
in coloring fabrics in the textile industry, where they are used with weak salt solutions of
various metals like iron, chromium, aluminum or tin. A fine layer of metallic oxide, which
forms an insoluble compound with the dye, is deposited on the cloth. Such salts of metals that
increase the adherence of various dyes to the fabrics are called “mordants.” These actually form
a chemical bridge between the fiber molecules and the dye. Dyes are also used for coloring
paints, varnishes, leather, ink, paper, wood, furs, food, cosmetics and medicines. A partial list
of important dye-yielding trees in given in Table XIII.
20. Rubber and Other Latex Products
Rubber is obtained from the milky juice or latex of various tropical or subtropical woody
plants. Latex is a gummy white liquid full of minute globules, a mixture of water, hydrocar-
bons, resins, oils, proteins, acids, salts, sugars and caoutchoue, a substance used as a source of
rubber. Rubber is a polyterpene consisting of a long chain of thousands of isoprene (hydrocar-
bon) units. The tissue containing latex is called “laticiferous tissue.” It consists of latex cells or
latex coenocytes and latex vessels, the latter being formed by the fusion of many latex cells.
Laticifers occur in bark, leaves and other softer parts of trees.
TREES AND THEIR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE 353
Ta
ble
XII
Tan
nin
-yie
ldin
gtr
ees
Co
mm
on
nam
eG
enu
san
dsp
ecie
sF
amil
yR
emar
ks
Tan
nin
so
bta
ined
fro
mb
ark
Man
gro
ve
Aeg
icer
as
corn
icu
latu
m,
Bru
gu
iera
con
-ju
ga
ta,
B.
cyli
nd
rica
,B
.p
arv
iflo
ra,
Rh
izo
ph
ora
can
del
ari
a
Rh
izo
ph
ora
ceae
Bar
kis
ver
yh
ard
and
hea
vy
and
con
tain
s2
2–
33
%ta
nn
in;
extr
act
isth
ech
eap
est
sou
rce
of
tan
nin
gm
ater
ial
Wat
tle
Aca
cia
dea
lba
ta,
A.
dec
urr
ens,
A.
leu
co-
cep
ha
la,
A.
mea
rnsi
i,A
.m
oll
is,
A.
nil
oti
ca,
A.
po
lya
can
tha
Mim
osa
ceae
Wat
tles
con
tain
40
–5
0%
tan
nin
.B
ark
,re
mo
ved
wh
entr
ees
are
5–
15
yea
rso
ld,
isg
rou
nd
toa
po
wd
er.
Po
ds
also
con
-ta
inta
nn
in.
Wat
tles
yie
lda
ver
yfi
rm,
pin
kle
ath
er,
use
dfo
rso
les.
Av
aram
Ca
ssia
au
ricu
lata
Cae
salp
inia
ceae
Co
nta
ins
18
–2
3%
tan
nin
;u
sed
for
tan
nin
g
Ko
nn
aib
ark
Ca
ssia
fist
ula
Cae
salp
inia
ceae
Co
nta
ins
10
–1
2%
tan
nin
;u
sed
for
tan
nin
g
Su
mac
Rh
us
mys
ure
nsi
sA
nac
ard
iace
aeU
sed
for
tan
nin
g
Arj
un
Ter
min
ali
aa
rju
na
Co
mb
reta
ceae
Co
nta
ins
20
–2
4%
tan
nin
;u
sed
for
tan
nin
g
Ind
ian
alm
on
dTer
min
ali
aca
tap
pa
Co
mb
reta
ceae
Use
dfo
rta
nn
ing
Juju
be
Ziz
yph
us
ma
uri
tia
na
,Z
.n
um
mu
lari
a,
Z.
oen
op
hli
aR
ham
nac
eae
Use
dfo
rta
nn
ing
Cer
iop
sC
erio
ps
roxb
urg
hia
na
Rh
izo
ph
ora
ceae
Bar
kco
nta
ins
20
–3
7%
tan
nin
;le
aves
,9
–1
5%
Cu
dd
aph
alm
on
dB
uch
an
an
iala
nza
nA
nac
ard
iace
aeU
sed
for
tan
nin
g
Cas
uar
ina
Ca
sua
rin
aeq
uis
etif
oli
a,
C.
sub
ero
saC
asu
arin
acea
eU
sed
for
tan
nin
g
Sal
Sh
ore
aro
bu
sta
Dip
tero
carp
acea
eB
ark
con
tain
s3
–9
%ta
nn
in;
use
dfo
rta
nn
ing
Po
meg
ran
ate
Pu
nic
ag
ran
atu
mP
un
icac
eae
Bar
kan
dfr
uit
use
dfo
rta
nn
ing
Ho
gp
lum
Sp
on
dia
sp
inn
ata
An
acar
dia
ceae
Use
dfo
rta
nn
ing
Oak
Lit
ho
carp
us
den
sifl
ora
,Q
uer
cus
alb
a,
Q.
bo
rea
lis,
Q.
infe
cto
rea
,Q
.le
uco
-tr
ich
op
ho
ra,
Q.
mo
nta
na
,Q
.ve
luti
na
Fag
acea
eB
ark
con
tain
s6
–3
0%
tan
nin
;u
sed
for
tan
nin
g
Mal
let
Eu
caly
ptu
so
ccid
enta
lis
My
rtac
eae
Bar
kco
nta
ins
35
–5
0%
tan
nin
Hem
lock
Tsu
ga
can
ad
ensi
s,T.
het
ero
ph
ylla
Pin
acea
eB
ark
con
tain
8–
30
%ta
nn
in;
use
dfo
rta
nn
ing
Eu
rop
ean
larc
hL
ari
xd
ecid
ua
Pin
acea
e
No
rway
spru
ceP
icea
ab
ies
Pin
acea
e
Tan
ekah
ab
ark
Ph
yllo
cla
du
str
ich
om
an
oid
esP
od
oca
rpac
eae
354 THE BOTANICAL REVIEW
Ta
ble
XII
,co
nti
nu
ed
Co
mm
on
nam
eG
enu
san
dsp
ecie
sF
amil
yR
emar
ks
Tan
nin
so
bta
ined
fro
mw
oo
d
Ch
estn
ut
Ca
sta
nea
den
tata
,C
.sa
tiva
Fag
acea
eW
oo
dco
nta
ins
30
–4
0%
tan
nin
Qu
ebra
cho
Sch
ino
psi
sb
ala
nsa
e,S
.lo
ren
tzii
An
acar
dia
ceae
Wo
od
,k
no
wn
as“a
xe
bre
aker
,”is
on
eo
fth
eh
ard
est
kn
ow
nw
oo
ds;
its
spec
ific
gra
vit
yis
1.3
0–
1.4
0.
Wo
od
con
tain
s4
0–
60
%ta
nn
in;
use
dfo
rta
nn
ing
.
Tan
nin
so
bta
ined
fro
mle
aves
Su
mac
Rh
us
cop
all
ina
,R
.g
lab
ra,
R.
mys
ure
nsi
s,R
.p
un
jab
ensi
s,R
.su
cced
an
ea,
R.
ty-
ph
ina
An
acar
dia
ceae
10
–2
5%
tan
nin
inle
aves
/le
afg
alls
;u
sed
for
tan
nin
g
Sm
ok
etr
ee,
Ind
ian
sum
acC
oti
nu
sco
gg
yria
An
acar
dca
ceae
Use
dfo
rta
nn
ing
Gu
mg
hat
ti,
dh
awa
sum
acA
no
gei
ssu
sla
tifo
lia
Co
mb
reta
ceae
Lea
ves
con
tain
32
–3
9%
tan
nin
;u
sed
for
tan
nin
g
Sic
ilia
nsu
mac
Rh
us
cori
ari
aA
nac
ard
iace
aeL
eav
esco
nta
in2
0–
35
%ta
nn
in
Tan
nin
so
bta
ined
fro
mfr
uit
s
My
rob
alan
Ter
min
ali
ab
elle
rica
,T.
cata
pp
a,
T.
che-
bu
la,
T.
citr
ina
,T.
tom
ento
saC
om
bre
tace
aeN
uts
con
tain
30
–4
0%
tan
nin
;u
sed
for
tan
nin
g
Em
bli
cm
yro
bal
anE
mb
lica
off
icin
ali
sE
up
ho
rbia
ceae
Tan
nin
con
ten
t2
8%
infr
uit
,2
1%
intw
igs,
8–
9%
inst
ems,
22
%in
leav
es
Div
id
ivi
Ca
esa
lpin
iaco
ria
ria
,C
.d
igyn
aC
aesa
lpin
iace
aeP
od
sco
nta
in4
0–
50
%ta
nn
in;
use
dfo
rta
nn
ing
Wil
dju
jub
eZ
izyp
hu
sxy
loca
rpa
Rh
amn
acea
eU
sed
for
tan
nin
g
Po
meg
ran
ate
Pu
nic
ag
ran
atu
mP
un
icac
eae
Fru
itsh
ells
and
bar
ku
sed
for
tan
nin
g
To
raC
aes
alp
inia
spin
osa
Cae
salp
inia
ceae
Fru
its
con
tain
43
–5
1%
tan
nin
;u
sed
for
tan
nin
gan
dm
akin
gin
kan
das
ab
lack
dy
e
Alg
aro
bil
laC
aes
alp
inia
bre
vifo
lia
Cae
salp
inia
ceae
Use
dfo
rta
nn
ing
Val
on
iaQ
uer
cus
ma
cro
lep
sis
Fag
acea
eS
un
-dri
edac
orn
cup
sco
nta
in4
5%
tan
nin
;u
sed
for
tan
nin
g
Tan
nin
so
bta
ined
fro
mro
ots
Pal
met
toS
ab
al
pa
lmet
toA
reca
ceae
Tan
nin
con
ten
tin
roo
tsis
low
(10
%)
TREES AND THEIR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE 355
Ta
ble
XII
I
Dy
e-y
ield
ing
tree
s
Co
mm
on
nam
eG
enu
san
dsp
ecie
sF
amil
yR
emar
ks
Dy
eso
bta
ined
fro
mw
oo
d
Lo
gw
oo
dH
aem
ato
xylo
nca
mp
ech
ian
um
Cae
salp
inia
ceae
Hea
rtw
oo
dco
nta
ins
pu
rpli
shre
dd
ye;
wit
hir
on
salt
sit
be-
com
esb
lack
;u
sed
for
mak
ing
ink
san
din
his
tolo
gic
alw
ork
asa
stai
n;
also
use
dfo
rd
yei
ng
Cu
tch
Aca
cia
cate
chu
,A
.ca
tech
uo
ides
,A
.su
nd
raM
imo
sace
aeH
eart
wo
od
con
tain
s4
4–
69
%ca
tech
in;
use
das
ad
yei
ng
stu
ff,
asa
mas
tica
tory
and
inm
edic
ine;
cutc
his
the
by
-p
rod
uct
Sap
pan
wo
od
,B
razi
lw
oo
d,
Bra
zili
ne
Ca
esa
lpin
iaec
hin
ata
,C
.sa
pp
an
Cae
salp
inia
ceae
Hea
rtw
oo
dy
ield
sa
red
dy
e;u
sed
for
dy
ein
gco
tto
nan
dw
oo
lan
dfo
rp
rep
arin
gre
din
k
Red
san
dal
wo
od
,re
dsa
nd
ersw
oo
d,
san
tali
ne
Pte
roca
rpu
ssa
nta
lin
us
Pap
ilio
nac
eae
Hea
rtw
oo
dy
ield
sa
red
dy
e;u
sed
for
dy
ein
gco
tto
nan
dw
oo
lan
dfo
rp
rep
arin
gre
din
k
Fu
stic
Ch
loro
ph
ora
tin
cto
ria
Mo
race
aeN
atu
ral
yel
low
,b
row
nan
do
liv
ed
yes
ob
tain
edfr
om
hea
rt-
wo
od
are
use
dfo
rd
yei
ng
Osa
ge
ora
ng
eM
acl
ura
po
mif
era
Mo
race
aeB
rig
ht
ora
ng
ew
oo
dy
ield
so
ran
ge-
yel
low
,g
old
and
gre
end
yes
Cam
wo
od
Ba
ph
ian
itid
aF
abac
eae
Red
wo
od
dy
eis
ob
tain
ed
Bar
wo
od
Pte
roca
rpu
ser
ina
ceo
us,
P.
soya
uxi
iP
apil
ion
acea
eY
ield
ssh
ades
of
bro
wn
,re
dan
dv
iole
td
yes
Art
oca
rpu
sA
rto
carp
us
het
ero
ph
yllu
s,A
.la
koo
cha
Mo
race
aeY
ield
sb
rig
ht
yel
low
dy
e;u
sed
by
Bu
dd
his
tm
on
ks
Dy
eso
bta
ined
fro
mle
aves
Lo
dh
Sym
plo
cos
cra
taeg
oid
esS
ym
plo
cace
aeY
ello
wd
ye
iso
bta
ined
Ch
loro
ph
yll
a(C
55H
72O
5N
4M
g),
Ch
loro
ph
yll
b(C
55H
70O
6N
4M
g);
all
gre
enp
lan
ts
Use
dfo
rco
lori
ng
foo
d,
soap
and
sim
ilar
pro
du
cts
Dy
eso
bta
ined
fro
mro
ots
and
tub
ers
Ind
ian
mu
lber
ryM
ori
nd
aa
ng
ust
ifo
lia
,M
.b
rac-
tea
ta,
M.
citr
ifo
lia
,M
.ti
nct
ori
aR
ub
iace
aeR
oo
tsy
ield
red
and
yel
low
dy
es
356 THE BOTANICAL REVIEW
Ta
ble
XII
I,co
nti
nu
ed
Co
mm
on
nam
eG
enu
san
dsp
ecie
sF
amil
yR
emar
ks
Dy
eso
bta
ined
fro
mb
ark
Bis
ho
pw
oo
dB
isch
ofi
aja
van
ica
Eu
ph
orb
iace
aeR
edan
dta
nd
yes
are
ob
tain
ed
Tea
kTec
ton
ag
ran
dis
Ver
ben
acea
eY
ield
sy
ello
wd
ye
for
colo
rin
gb
ask
ets
Qu
erci
tro
nQ
uer
cus
velu
tin
aF
agac
eae
Yie
lds
bri
gh
ty
ello
wd
ye
use
dfo
rd
yei
ng
Lo
kao
,b
uck
tho
rnR
ha
mn
us
glo
bo
sa,
R.
uti
lis
Rh
amn
acea
eY
ield
sg
reen
dy
eu
sed
for
dy
ein
gsi
lks
and
cott
on
s
Dy
eso
bta
ined
fro
mfl
ow
ers
Fla
me
of
the
fore
st,
dh
akB
ute
am
on
osp
erm
aP
apil
ion
acea
eY
ield
sy
ello
wd
ye
use
din
Ho
life
stiv
als
Tre
eo
fso
rro
wN
ycta
nth
esa
rbo
r-tr
isti
sO
leac
eae
Yie
lds
ora
ng
ed
ye
use
dfo
rco
lori
ng
silk
and
cott
on
Sw
eet
ind
raja
oW
rig
hti
ati
nct
ori
aA
po
cyan
acea
eY
ield
sb
lue
dy
e
Red
ced
arTo
on
aci
lia
taM
elia
ceae
Yie
lds
yel
low
ish
red
dy
eu
sed
for
dy
ein
gco
tto
n
Dy
eso
bta
ined
fro
mfr
uit
s
Kam
la,
kam
ela
Ma
llo
tus
ph
ilip
pin
ensi
sE
up
ho
rbia
ceae
Yie
lds
red
dy
eu
sed
for
dy
ein
gsi
lk
Dy
eso
bta
ined
fro
mse
eds
An
nat
toB
ixa
ore
lla
na
Bix
acea
eU
sed
for
colo
rin
gfo
od
stu
ffs
asw
ell
asw
oo
ls,
pai
nts
,v
ar-
nis
hes
and
soap
s
Dh
arau
liW
rig
hti
ato
men
tosa
Ap
ocy
anac
eae
Yie
lds
yel
low
dy
e
Dy
eso
bta
ined
fro
md
iffe
ren
tp
arts
Gu
mre
sin
,g
amb
og
eG
arc
inia
cam
bo
gia
,G
.co
wa
,G
.h
an
bu
ryi,
G.
mo
rell
a,
G.
xan
tho
chym
us
Gu
ttif
erae
Pit
h,
flo
wer
s,le
aves
and
fru
its
yie
lda
yel
low
emu
lsio
nu
sed
for
mak
ing
wat
erco
lors
and
go
ld-c
olo
red
spir
itv
arn
ish
esfo
rm
etal
s
TREES AND THEIR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE 357
Laticifers are not known in gymnosperms. They are present in a large number of species and
genera belonging to about 20 families, mostly dicotyledonous. Important rubber plants belong
to Apocyanaceae, Euphorbiaceae and Moraceae.
Latex performs five functions in plants: healing of wounds; protection (warding off the
attack of animals) because of the presence of bitter or poisonous alkaloids; storage of food
reserve (for nutrition); formation and storage of excretory products; and transport of materials
(conduction or translocation or as a fluid reservoir).
Joseph Priestley, the discoverer of oxygen, coined the term “rubber,” owing to the fact that
it could be used for removing pencil marks. In 1839 Charles Goodyear discovered the vulcani-
zation process, in which sulphur is added to rubber to cross-link the molecules of isoprene
chains. This process makes the latex impervious to weather conditions and improves its elastic-
ity. Rubber is one of the best insulating and dielectric materials available. The important rub-
ber-yielding woody plants are shown in Table XIV.
21. Gums
Gums contain large amounts of sugars and are closely allied to pectins. They are colloidal in
nature and have the ability to dissolve in water and form a viscid solution (viscous liquids) or
to absorb water and swell to form a gelatinous paste. On exposure to air these pastes dry to
hard, clear, glassy masses by losing their water. Gums are insoluble in alcohol and ether.
Gums exude naturally or in response to wounding from the stems and are formed by disin-
tegration of internal tissues, mostly from the decomposition of cellulose through a process
known as “gummosis.” They are mostly obtained from bark or secondary phloem.
Gums are used in a variety of ways. The finer grades are utilized in finishing silk, clarifying
liqueurs and preparing high-quality watercolors. The intermediate grades are used in printing
inks, in sizing, finishing and dyeing textile fabrics, in confectionery and in the pharmaceutical
industry. The cheaper grades are used as adhesives, in calico printing, in sizing of paper and in
the paint industry. In the cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries gums act as emollients or
demulcents or serve to bind or emulsify mixtures in lotions, ointments and creams. They may
add body and bulk to foodstuffs like commercial ice creams.
Commercial gums are dried exudations of dry-region plants belonging to the Anacardiaceae,
Combretaceae, Fabaceae, Meliaceae, Rosaceae and Rutaceae. One hundred or more species of
Acacia alone are known to yield gum. The important gum-yielding trees are shown in Table XV.
22. Resins
Although resins resemble gum in superficial appearance, they differ in origin and chemical
composition. Some resins are sticky, viscous liquids; others are hard, brittle, amorphous solids,
generally clear or transparent but sometimes opaque. Important resin-yielding families, differ-
ences among three main types of resins and resin-yielding trees are presented in Tables XVI,
XVII and XVIII, respectively.
Resins represent oxidation products of various essential oils. They are complex and varied
in their chemical composition. Chemically, they are polymerized terpenes that are usually mixed
with volatile oils. Unlike gums, resins are insoluble in water but soluble in alcohol, ether,
turpentine, spirit, carbon disulphide and other solvents. The latter property is utilized to form
varnishes; when applied in thin films, the solvent evaporates, leaving behind a hard, water-
proof layer of resin. Resins are fusible; that is, when heated they first soften and then melt to a
more or less clear, sticky fluid. They are resistant to most reagents and to decay but, when
ignited, burn with a smoky flame.
(Text continues on p. 370)
358 THE BOTANICAL REVIEW
Ta
ble
XIV
Ru
bb
er-y
ield
ing
tree
s
Co
mm
on
nam
eG
enu
san
dsp
ecie
sF
amil
yR
emar
ks
Ela
stic
rub
ber
Hev
eao
rP
ará
rub
ber
Hev
eab
rasi
lien
sis
Eu
ph
orb
iace
ae9
8%
of
the
wo
rld
’sru
bb
erco
mes
fro
mth
istr
ee,
wh
ich
isn
ativ
eto
Am
azo
-n
ia;
inIn
dia
itis
ap
lan
tati
on
cro
pin
Ker
ala,
Tam
ilN
adu
and
Kar
nat
aka
Cas
till
ao
rP
anam
aru
bb
erC
ast
illa
ela
stic
aM
ora
ceae
Nat
ive
toM
exic
oan
dC
entr
alA
mer
ica
Cau
cho
rub
ber
Ca
stil
lau
lei
Mo
race
aeN
ativ
eto
Am
azo
nia
Cea
ráo
rM
anic
ob
aru
bb
erM
an
iho
tg
lazi
ovi
iE
up
ho
rbia
ceae
Nat
ive
toB
razi
l;al
sog
row
nin
Ind
ia
Ass
amo
rIn
dia
rub
ber
Fic
us
ela
stic
aM
ora
ceae
Nat
ive
ton
ort
her
nIn
dia
and
Mal
aysi
a;o
flo
wg
rad
ean
dli
ttle
com
mer
cial
val
ue
Man
gab
eira
Ha
nco
rnia
spec
iosa
Ap
ocy
anac
eae
Nat
ive
toB
oli
via
,B
razi
lan
dP
arag
uay
Ch
ilte
rub
ber
Cn
ido
sceo
lus
spp
.E
up
ho
rbia
ceae
No
nel
asti
cru
bb
er
Gu
tta-
per
cha
Pel
aq
uiu
mel
lip
ticu
m,
P.
gu
tta
,P.
po
lya
n-
thu
m
Sap
ota
ceae
Ob
tain
edfr
om
gra
yis
hw
hit
ela
tex
of
this
Mal
aysi
antr
ee;
late
x,
pre
sen
tin
sacs
that
occ
ur
inth
eco
rtex
,p
hlo
em,
pit
han
dle
aves
,is
use
dfo
rin
sula
-ti
on
,su
bm
arin
eca
ble
s,g
olf
bal
ls,
wat
erp
roo
fin
gan
dad
hes
ives
and
asa
sub
stit
ute
for
chic
le
Bal
ata
Ma
nil
kara
bid
enta
taS
apo
tace
aeN
ativ
eto
Tri
nid
adan
dS
ou
thA
mer
ica;
use
dfo
rin
sula
tio
n,
sub
mar
ine
ca-
ble
s,g
olf
bal
ls,
wat
erp
roo
fin
gan
dad
hes
ives
and
asa
sub
stit
ute
for
chic
le
Jelu
ton
gD
yera
cost
ula
taA
po
cyan
acea
eA
Mal
ayas
ian
tree
;u
sed
asa
sub
stit
ute
for
chic
le
Ch
icle
,sa
po
dil
la,
nas
eber
ryM
an
ilka
raa
chra
sS
apo
tace
aeN
ativ
eto
the
Yu
catá
nP
enin
sula
,cu
ltiv
ated
inIn
dia
;la
tex
con
tain
s2
0–
25
%g
utt
a-p
erch
a–li
ke
gu
mca
lled
“ch
icle
,”w
hic
his
the
bas
iso
fth
ech
ewin
gg
um
ind
ust
ry;
also
use
din
mak
ing
surg
ical
tap
ean
dd
enta
lsu
pp
lies
So
rva,
lech
eca
spe
Co
um
am
acr
oca
rpa
Ap
ocy
anae
aeA
larg
eA
maz
on
ian
tree
;u
sed
asa
sub
stit
ute
for
chic
le
TREES AND THEIR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE 359
Ta
ble
XV
Gu
m-y
ield
ing
tree
s
Co
mm
on
nam
eG
enu
san
dsp
ecie
sF
amil
yR
emar
ks
Gu
mar
abic
,k
um
taA
caci
ase
neg
al
Mim
osa
ceae
Gu
mo
bta
ined
fro
mb
ark
;u
sed
for
all
pu
rpo
ses
men
tio
ned
inth
ete
xt
Kh
air
Aca
cia
cate
chu
Mim
osa
ceae
Gu
mo
bta
ined
fro
mb
ark
;u
sed
for
all
pu
rpo
ses
men
tio
ned
inth
ete
xt
Bab
ul,
acac
ia,
kik
arA
caci
an
ilo
tica
Mim
osa
ceae
Gu
mo
bta
ined
fro
mb
ark
;u
sed
inco
nfe
ctio
ner
y
Aca
cia
Aca
cia
mo
des
taM
imo
sace
aeU
sed
inm
edic
ine
and
inp
rin
tin
gca
lico
So
nk
hai
r,k
aig
erA
caci
afe
rru
gin
eaM
imo
sace
aeG
um
ob
tain
edfr
om
bar
k;
use
dfo
ral
lp
urp
ose
sm
enti
on
edin
the
tex
t
Kar
aya,
kan
dy
a,k
atir
a,k
ute
era,
kat
illo
,k
ull
o,
Ind
iao
rst
ercu
lia
gu
m
Ste
rcu
lia
ure
ns,
S.
vill
osa
Ste
rcu
liac
eae
Gu
mo
bta
ined
fro
mh
eart
wo
od
;u
sed
asa
sub
stit
ute
for
gu
mtr
agac
anth
,al
soin
the
cosm
etic
and
cig
arin
du
stri
esin
sev
eral
emu
lsio
ns,
loti
on
s,p
aste
san
das
ala
xat
ive;
form
sa
stro
ng
adh
esiv
eg
elw
ith
ali
ttle
wa-
ter
Gu
mg
hat
tiA
no
gei
ssu
sla
tifo
lia
Co
mb
reta
ceae
Use
das
asu
bst
itu
tefo
rg
um
arab
ic;
also
use
din
cera
mic
s,fo
od
san
dth
ep
etro
leu
min
du
stry
,as
ad
rill
ing
mu
dco
nd
itio
ner
,an
din
the
exp
lo-
siv
esin
du
stry
Gu
mlo
cust
,ca
rob
Cer
ato
nia
sili
qu
aC
aesa
lpin
iace
aeN
ot
atr
ue
gu
mb
ecau
seit
iso
bta
ined
no
tfr
om
wo
un
ded
wo
od
yti
ssu
esb
ut
fro
mth
een
do
sper
mo
fse
eds;
was
use
db
yE
gy
pti
ans
asan
adh
e-si
ve
for
bin
din
gm
um
mie
s,n
ow
use
din
the
foo
din
du
stry
and
for
oth
erp
urp
ose
sm
enti
on
edin
the
tex
t
Cel
lulo
seg
um
,ca
bo
xy
-m
eth
yl
cell
ulo
seg
um
;g
reen
pla
nts
Pre
par
edb
ym
ixin
gp
uri
fied
cell
ulo
sew
ith
sod
ium
mo
no
chlo
roac
etat
ein
anal
kal
ine
med
ium
;ex
tra
wh
iten
ing
and
bri
gh
ten
ing
of
det
erg
ents
isd
ue
toth
isg
um
;al
sou
sed
inth
ep
aper
,te
xti
le,
foo
dan
dp
ain
tin
du
s-tr
ies
—L
imo
nia
aci
dis
sim
aR
uta
ceae
Su
bst
itu
tefo
rg
um
arab
ic
Ho
gg
um
Co
chlo
sper
mu
mre
lig
iosu
mC
oh
losp
erm
acea
eS
ub
stit
ute
for
gu
mar
abic
;is
edib
le
Cy
cas
gu
mC
yca
sci
rcin
ali
sC
yca
dac
eae
Lar
chg
um
La
rix
occ
iden
tali
sP
inac
eae
Gu
mo
bta
ined
fro
mw
oo
dch
ips;
use
das
asu
bst
itu
tefo
rg
um
arab
ic
Mes
qu
ite
gu
m,
kab
uli
kik
arP
roso
pis
chil
ensi
s,P
gla
nd
u-
losa
,P.
juli
flo
raM
imo
sace
aeG
um
ob
tain
edfr
om
stem
s;u
sed
for
pri
nti
ng
cali
co
Ch
erry
gu
mP
run
us
cera
soid
es,
P.
cera
sus
Ro
sace
aeU
sed
asa
sub
stit
ute
for
gu
mar
abic
360 THE BOTANICAL REVIEW
Ta
ble
XV
,co
nti
nu
ed
Co
mm
on
nam
eG
enu
san
dsp
ecie
sF
amil
yR
emar
ks
Eas
tIn
dia
nco
pal
Ca
na
riu
mb
eng
ale
nse
Bu
rser
acea
eG
um
ob
tain
edfr
om
stem
s;u
sed
asa
har
d-d
ryin
gv
arn
ish
Gu
mb
enzo
in,
ben
jam
inSty
rax
ben
zoin
Sty
raca
ceae
So
urc
eo
fb
enzo
icac
id
Jhin
gan
gu
mL
an
nea
coro
ma
nd
elic
aA
nac
ard
iace
aeU
sed
inp
rin
tin
gca
lico
and
assi
zin
gin
the
pap
eran
dte
xti
lein
du
stri
es
Mal
abar
kin
og
um
Pte
roca
rpu
sm
ars
up
ium
Pap
ilio
nac
eae
Val
uab
lem
edic
ine
ind
iarr
hea
and
dy
sen
tery
Ben
gal
kin
oB
ute
am
on
osp
erm
aP
apil
ion
acea
eV
alu
able
med
icin
ein
dia
rrh
eaan
dd
yse
nte
ry
—A
stra
ga
lus
pro
lixu
sP
apil
ion
acea
eG
um
ob
tain
edfr
om
stem
s;u
sed
inco
smet
ics,
pri
nti
ng
cali
coan
dco
nfe
c-ti
on
ery
Gar
mez
uA
stra
ga
lus
stro
bil
ifer
us
Pap
ilio
nac
eae
Gu
mo
bta
ined
fro
mst
ems;
use
din
con
fect
ion
ery
Gu
mn
eem
Aza
dir
ach
tain
dic
aM
elia
ceae
Wo
od
app
le,
ku
tb
elF
ero
nia
lim
on
iaR
uta
ceae
Gu
mo
bta
ined
fro
mtr
un
kan
db
ran
ches
;u
sed
asa
sub
stit
ute
for
gu
mar
abic
Bia
lam
An
iso
pte
rasc
ap
hu
laD
ipte
roca
rpac
eae
Co
wa
Ga
rcin
iaco
wa
Gu
ttif
erae
Gu
mo
bta
ined
fro
mtr
un
kan
db
ran
ches
;u
sed
for
pre
par
ing
yel
low
var
-n
ish
Sem
lag
on
dB
au
hin
iare
tusa
Mim
osa
ceae
Su
bst
itu
tefo
rg
um
arab
ic;
use
dfo
rsi
zin
gcl
oth
and
pap
eran
dfo
rw
ater
-p
roo
fin
gte
rrac
edro
ofs
Alb
izia
gu
ms
Alb
izia
chin
ensi
s,A
.le
bb
ek,
A.
od
ora
tiss
ima
,A
.p
roce
raM
imo
sace
aeU
sed
for
var
iou
sp
urp
ose
s
Bau
hin
iag
um
sB
au
hin
iap
urp
ure
a,
B.
race
-m
osa
,B
.va
rieg
ata
Mim
osa
ceae
—C
hlo
roxy
lon
swie
ten
iaR
uta
ceae
Yie
lds
amb
ero
rre
dd
ish
bro
wn
gu
m
Man
go
Ma
ng
ifer
ain
dic
aA
nac
ard
iace
aeS
ub
stit
ute
for
gu
mar
abic
—Ter
min
ali
ab
elle
rica
Co
mb
reta
ceae
Co
nta
ins
cry
stal
so
fca
lciu
mca
rbo
nat
e
—Ter
min
ali
ato
men
tosa
Co
mb
reta
ceae
Use
das
ince
nse
TREES AND THEIR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE 361
Table XVI
Resin-yielding families
Family Resin
Gymnosperms
Pinaceae Calophony, balsam, Canada balsam, kauri-resin, manil copal,oleo-resin, sandarac
Fossil conifers Amber (from Pinus succinifera)
Angiosperms
Anacardiaceae Mastic
Apiaceae Ammoniacum, asafoetida, galbanum
Berberidaceae Podophyllum
Burseraceae Elemi, frankincense, myrrh
Caesalpiniaceae Copal
Convolvulaceae Jalap, seamony
Dipterocarpaceae Dammars
Guttiferae Gamboge
Hamamelidaceae Storax
Liliaceae Acaroid resin, aloes, dragons blood
Leguminosae (Fabaceae) Balsam of perum, Congo copal, copaiba balsam, Peru balsam,tolu balsam
Styracaceae Benzoin
Zygophyllaceae Guiacum
Table XVII
Differences among three main types of resins
Hard resins Oleo resins Gum resins
Little, if any, essential oil Considerable essential oils aswell as resinous materials
Mixture of both true gums andresins, thus contain smallamounts of essential oilsand traces of coloring matter
Usually solid, more or lesstransparent, brittle sub-stances
More or less liquid in nature Occur naturally as milky exuda-tions, collected as tears orirregular masses
No particular odor or taste Distinct aroma and flavor May have an aroma and flavor
Nonvolatile and very poor con-ductors of electricity but be-come negatively electrifiedwhen friction is applied;readily fusible and burn inair with a smoky flame
Volatile essential oil component
Common examples: copals, da-mars
Common examples: balsams,elemis, turpentines
Common examples: anmoni-acum, asafoetida, galbanum
362 THE BOTANICAL REVIEW
Ta
ble
XV
III
Res
in-y
ield
ing
tree
s
Co
mm
on
nam
eG
enu
san
dsp
ecie
sF
amil
yR
emar
ks
Har
dre
sin
s
Zan
zib
arco
pal
,M
adag
asca
rco
pal
,M
oza
mb
iqu
eco
pal
Tra
chyl
ob
ium
verr
uco
sum
Fab
acea
eH
ard
est
of
all
cop
als
exce
pt
amb
er;
liv
ing
,se
mif
oss
ilo
rfo
ssil
inn
atu
re;
yel
low
ish
tob
row
nis
hre
d
Inh
amb
ane
cop
alC
op
aif
era
con
jug
ata
Fab
acea
e
Co
ng
oco
pal
,A
ng
ola
cop
alC
op
aif
era
aem
eusi
i,C
.m
op
an
eF
abac
eae
Liv
ing
asw
ell
asfo
ssil
inn
atu
re;
lig
ht
yel
low
Sie
rra
Leo
ne
cop
alC
op
aif
era
cop
all
ifer
a,
C.
sali
kou
nd
aF
abac
eae
Lig
ht
yel
low
Acc
raco
pal
,B
enin
cop
alD
an
iell
ao
gea
Fab
acea
eL
oca
lly
call
ed“o
gea
gu
m”
inL
iber
ia,
Gh
ana
and
Nig
eria
So
uth
Am
eric
anco
pal
,D
emer
ara
cop
al,
Par
áco
pal
Hym
ena
eaco
urb
ari
lF
abac
eae
So
ftes
to
fal
lco
pal
s
Man
ila
cop
alA
ga
this
alb
aA
rau
cari
acea
eL
ivin
g,
sem
ifo
ssil
or
foss
ilin
nat
ure
;y
ello
w
Kau
rico
pal
,k
auri
gu
mA
ga
this
au
stra
lis
Ara
uca
riac
eae
Liv
ing
,se
mif
oss
ilo
rfo
ssil
inn
atu
re;
yel
low
Dam
arm
ata
ku
chin
gH
op
eam
icra
nth
aD
ipte
roca
rpac
eae
Dam
arp
enak
Ba
lan
oca
rpu
sh
eim
iiD
ipte
roca
rpac
eae
Dam
arte
mak
Sh
ore
ah
ypo
chra
Dip
tero
carp
acea
e
Sal
dam
ar,
gu
gg
ald
hu
ma,
ral
dh
um
a,la
ld
hu
ma
Sh
ore
aro
bu
sta
Dip
tero
carp
acea
eU
sed
asan
ing
red
ien
to
f“s
amag
ri,”
wh
ich
isb
urn
edin
reli
gio
us
cere
mo
nie
s
Kal
ad
amar
Sh
ore
atu
mb
ug
ga
iaD
ipte
roca
rpac
eae
Use
das
anin
cen
sean
din
mar
ine
yar
ds
asa
sub
stit
ute
for
pit
ch
Wh
ite
dam
ar,
pin
eyre
sin
,In
dia
nco
pal
,d
hu
pa
Va
teri
ain
dic
aD
ipte
roca
rpac
eae
Use
din
med
icin
eto
trea
tch
ron
icb
ron
chit
is,
dia
rrh
eaan
drh
eum
a-ti
sm
Bla
ckd
amar
Ca
na
riu
mst
rict
um
Bu
rser
acea
eU
sed
asa
sub
stit
ute
for
bu
rgu
nd
yp
itch
inm
edic
alp
last
ers
Bat
avia
nd
amar
Sh
ore
aw
iesn
eri
Dip
tero
carp
acea
e
Ro
ckd
amar
Ho
pea
od
ora
taD
ipte
roca
rpac
eae
Use
din
var
nis
hes
TREES AND THEIR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE 363
Am
ber
Pin
us
(=P
init
es)
succ
ini-
fera
(pri
nci
pal
sou
rce)
Pin
acea
eF
oss
iliz
edte
rpen
oid
resi
no
ccu
rrin
go
nth
esh
ore
so
fth
eB
alti
cS
ea,
itis
the
on
lyje
wel
of
pla
nt
ori
gin
.It
isex
ceed
ing
lyh
ard
,b
ritt
le,
yel
low
tob
row
no
rev
enb
lack
,tr
ansp
aren
to
ro
paq
ue
wit
ha
char
acte
rist
icar
om
atic
od
or;
wh
enru
bb
ed,
itta
kes
ah
igh
po
lish
and
bec
om
esn
egat
ivel
ych
arg
ed.
Use
dfo
rb
ead
s,o
rnam
ents
,m
ou
thp
iece
so
fp
ipes
and
ho
lder
sfo
rci
gar
san
dci
gar
ette
s,et
c.S
om
etim
eso
rgan
ism
so
fth
ep
ast
are
emb
edd
edin
it.
Am
ber
Hym
ena
easp
p.,
Co
pa
ifer
asp
p.
(oth
erso
urc
es)
Fab
acea
eF
oss
iliz
edte
rpen
oid
resi
no
ccu
rrin
go
nth
esh
ore
so
fth
eB
alti
cS
ea,
itis
the
on
lyje
wel
of
pla
nt
ori
gin
.It
isex
ceed
ing
lyh
ard
,b
ritt
le,
yel
low
tob
row
no
rev
enb
lack
,tr
ansp
aren
to
ro
paq
ue
wit
ha
char
acte
rist
icar
om
atic
od
or;
wh
enru
bb
ed,
itta
kes
ah
igh
po
lish
and
bec
om
esn
egat
ivel
ych
arg
ed.
Use
dfo
rb
ead
s,o
rnam
ents
,m
ou
thp
iece
so
fp
ipes
and
ho
lder
sfo
rci
gar
san
dci
gar
ette
s,et
c.S
om
etim
eso
rgan
ism
so
fth
ep
ast
are
emb
edd
edin
it.
Lac
qu
erR
hu
sve
rnic
iflu
a,
R.
suc-
ced
an
eaA
nac
ard
iace
aeN
atu
ral
var
nis
hex
ud
edfr
om
Asi
atic
tree
s,it
affo
rds
pro
tect
ion
be-
cau
seit
rem
ain
su
nch
ang
edb
yac
ids,
alk
alis
,al
coh
ol
or
hea
tu
pto
16
0�F
Rh
us
succ
eda
nea
yie
lds
liq
uid
resi
nfr
om
the
mes
oca
rpo
ffr
uit
s,w
hic
his
use
din
oin
tmen
ts,
wax
var
nis
hes
,et
c.
Bu
rmes
ela
cqu
er,
thit
siM
ela
no
rrh
oea
usi
tata
An
acar
dia
ceae
Aff
ord
sp
rote
ctio
nb
ecau
seit
rem
ain
su
nch
ang
edb
yac
ids,
alk
alis
,al
coh
ol
or
hea
tu
pto
16
0�F
Sh
ella
cB
ute
am
on
osp
erm
a,
Ca
jan
us
caja
nP
apil
ion
acea
eN
ot
stri
ctly
ap
lan
tp
rod
uct
bu
ta
resi
no
us
sub
stan
cese
cret
edo
nth
etw
igs
of
man
ytr
ees
by
the
sap
-fee
din
gst
ick
lac
inse
ctTa
cha
r-d
iala
cca
(“la
cca”
isd
eriv
edfr
om
the
San
skri
tw
ord
laks
ha
,m
ean
ing
“lak
h”)
.U
sed
inth
em
anu
fact
ure
of
ph
on
og
rap
hre
c-o
rds,
hig
h-g
rad
ein
sula
tors
,sp
irit
var
nis
h,
seal
ing
wax
,d
raw
ing
ink
,w
ater
colo
rs,
nit
roce
llu
lose
lacq
uer
san
das
sizi
ng
inp
aper
and
stif
fen
ing
infe
lth
ats.
Sh
ella
cS
chle
ich
era
ole
osa
Sap
ind
acea
eN
ot
stri
ctly
ap
lan
tp
rod
uct
bu
ta
resi
no
us
sub
stan
cese
cret
edo
nth
etw
igs
of
man
ytr
ees
by
the
sap
-fee
din
gst
ick
lac
inse
ctTa
cha
r-d
iala
cca
(“la
cca”
isd
eriv
edfr
om
the
San
skri
tw
ord
laks
ha
,m
ean
ing
“lak
h”)
.U
sed
inth
em
anu
fact
ure
of
ph
on
og
rap
hre
c-o
rds,
hig
h-g
rad
ein
sula
tors
,sp
irit
var
nis
h,
seal
ing
wax
,d
raw
ing
ink
,w
ater
colo
rs,
nit
roce
llu
lose
lacq
uer
san
das
sizi
ng
inp
aper
and
stif
fen
ing
infe
lth
ats.
364 THE BOTANICAL REVIEW
Ta
ble
XV
III,
con
tin
ued
Co
mm
on
nam
eG
enu
san
dsp
ecie
sF
amil
yR
emar
ks
Har
dre
sin
s,co
nti
nu
ed
Sh
ella
cZ
izyp
hu
sxy
lop
yru
sR
ham
nac
eae
No
tst
rict
lya
pla
nt
pro
du
ctb
ut
are
sin
ou
ssu
bst
ance
secr
eted
on
the
twig
so
fm
any
tree
sb
yth
esa
p-f
eed
ing
stic
kla
cin
sect
Ta
cha
r-d
iala
cca
(“la
cca”
isd
eriv
edfr
om
the
San
skri
tw
ord
laks
ha
,m
ean
ing
“lak
h”)
.U
sed
inth
em
anu
fact
ure
of
ph
on
og
rap
hre
c-o
rds,
hig
h-g
rad
ein
sula
tors
,sp
irit
var
nis
h,
seal
ing
wax
,d
raw
ing
ink
,w
ater
colo
rs,
nit
roce
llu
lose
lacq
uer
san
das
sizi
ng
inp
aper
and
stif
fen
ing
infe
lth
ats.
Sh
ella
cF
icu
sre
lig
iosa
Mo
race
aeN
ot
stri
ctly
ap
lan
tp
rod
uct
bu
ta
resi
no
us
sub
stan
cese
cret
edo
nth
etw
igs
of
man
ytr
ees
by
the
sap
-fee
din
gst
ick
lac
inse
ctTa
cha
r-d
iala
cca
(“la
cca”
isd
eriv
edfr
om
the
San
skri
tw
ord
laks
ha
,m
ean
ing
“lak
h”)
.U
sed
inth
em
anu
fact
ure
of
ph
on
og
rap
hre
c-o
rds,
hig
h-g
rad
ein
sula
tors
,sp
irit
var
nis
h,
seal
ing
wax
,d
raw
ing
ink
,w
ater
colo
rs,
nit
roce
llu
lose
lacq
uer
san
das
sizi
ng
inp
aper
and
stif
fen
ing
infe
lth
ats.
Sh
ella
cA
caci
an
ilo
tica
Mim
osa
ceae
No
tst
rict
lya
pla
nt
pro
du
ctb
ut
are
sin
ou
ssu
bst
ance
secr
eted
on
the
twig
so
fm
any
tree
sb
yth
esa
p-f
eed
ing
stic
kla
cin
sect
Ta
cha
r-d
iala
cca
(“la
cca”
isd
eriv
edfr
om
the
San
skri
tw
ord
laks
ha
,m
ean
ing
“lak
h”)
.U
sed
inth
em
anu
fact
ure
of
ph
on
og
rap
hre
c-o
rds,
hig
h-g
rad
ein
sula
tors
,sp
irit
var
nis
h,
seal
ing
wax
,d
raw
ing
ink
,w
ater
colo
rs,
nit
roce
llu
lose
lacq
uer
san
das
sizi
ng
inp
aper
and
stif
fen
ing
infe
lth
ats.
Aca
roid
or
gra
ss-t
ree
resi
ns
Xa
nth
orr
ho
eah
ast
ilis
,X
.ta
tea
na
,X
.a
ust
rali
sL
ilia
ceae
Res
inco
llec
ted
aro
un
dth
eb
ases
of
old
leav
esis
yel
low
fro
mth
efi
rst
spec
ies
and
red
fro
mth
eo
ther
spec
ies.
Use
din
mak
ing
seal
ing
wax
and
spir
itv
arn
ish
esan
das
asu
bst
itu
tefo
rro
sin
inp
aper
sizi
ng
and
ink
;al
soas
aso
urc
eo
fp
icri
cac
idan
din
med
i-ci
ne.
San
dar
acTet
racl
inis
art
icu
lata
,C
al-
litr
isq
ua
dri
valv
isC
up
ress
acea
eS
ecre
ted
inth
efo
rmo
fsm
all
tear
so
nth
eb
ark
,it
ish
ard
,w
hit
ean
dra
ther
bri
ttle
.U
sed
for
coat
ing
lab
els,
neg
ativ
es,
card
bo
ard
leat
her
and
met
alan
din
den
tal
cem
ent,
ince
nse
and
fum
igat
ing
po
wd
er.
TREES AND THEIR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE 365
Ch
ios
mas
tic
Pis
taci
ale
nti
scu
sP
ista
ciac
eae
Ex
cret
edfr
om
the
bar
kin
the
form
of
lon
g,
ov
oid
,p
ale
yel
low
,b
rit-
tle
tear
s.U
sed
for
coat
ing
met
als
and
bo
tho
ilan
dw
ater
colo
rp
ictu
res;
inth
ep
rep
arat
ion
of
tran
spar
ent
var
nis
hes
and
inch
ewin
gg
um
;al
sou
sed
inp
erfu
mer
y,m
edic
ine,
lith
og
rap
hic
wo
rkan
das
ace
men
tfo
rd
enta
lw
ork
.
Bo
mb
aym
asti
cP
ista
cia
cab
uli
caP
ista
ciac
eae
Du
ll,
mil
k-c
olo
red
resi
n.
Use
dfo
rco
atin
gm
etal
san
db
oth
oil
and
wat
erco
lor
pic
ture
s;in
the
pre
par
atio
no
ftr
ansp
aren
tv
arn
ish
esan
din
chew
ing
gu
m;
also
use
din
per
fum
ery,
med
icin
e,li
tho
-g
rap
hic
wo
rkan
das
ace
men
tfo
rd
enta
lw
ork
.
Mal
bar
,g
um
or
Ind
ian
kin
oP
tero
carp
us
ma
rsu
piu
mF
abac
eae
Use
din
med
icin
efo
rth
roat
tro
ub
les
and
inta
nn
ing
Wes
tA
fric
ank
ino
Pte
roca
rpu
ser
ina
ceu
sF
abac
eae
Red
resi
n,
use
din
med
icin
efo
rth
roat
tro
ub
les
and
inta
nn
ing
Ben
gal
kin
oB
ute
am
on
osp
erm
aF
abac
eae
Use
din
med
icin
efo
rth
roat
tro
ub
les
and
inta
nn
ing
Gu
mk
ino
Eu
caly
ptu
sca
ma
ldu
len
sis
My
rtac
eae
Sec
rete
db
etw
een
the
wo
od
and
the
bar
k
Gu
mk
ino
Dip
tery
xo
do
rata
,C
oc-
colo
ba
uvi
fera
Po
lyg
on
acea
eS
ecre
ted
bet
wee
nth
ew
oo
dan
dth
eb
ark
Les
chA
nti
ari
sto
xica
ria
Mo
race
aeW
hit
ere
sin
,u
sed
for
po
iso
nin
gar
row
san
din
med
icin
e
Ole
ore
sin
s
Tu
rpen
tin
e,b
irja
,b
iro
ja,
lish
a,la
ssa
Pin
us
au
stra
lis,
P.
cari
-b
aea
,P.
po
nd
ero
sa(i
nA
mer
ica)
;P.
rox-
bu
rgh
ii,
P.
wa
llic
hia
na
,P.
mer
kusi
i,P.
insu
-la
ris,
P.
kesi
ya(i
nIn
-d
ia);
P.
pin
ast
er,
P.
ma
riti
ma
(in
Fra
nce
);P.
pin
ast
er,
P.
ha
lep
ensi
s,P.
nig
ra,
P.
pin
ea(i
nS
pai
n);
P.
pin
ast
er,
P.
pin
ea(i
nP
ort
ug
al);
P.
ha
lep
ensi
s(i
nG
reec
e);
P.
sylv
es-
tris
(in
Ru
ssia
,P
ola
nd
and
Ger
man
y)
Pin
acea
eE
xu
ded
fro
mco
nif
ero
us
tree
sas
av
isco
us,
ho
ney
-lik
eli
qu
ido
ra
soft
,st
ick
ysu
bst
ance
call
ed“p
itch
.”O
nd
isti
llat
ion
ity
ield
ses
sen
tial
oil
(cal
led
“oil
”o
r“s
pir
ito
ftu
rpen
tin
e”)
and
rosi
n(t
he
resi
du
e).
Th
eo
ilis
use
din
the
pai
nt
and
var
nis
hin
du
stry
,in
pri
nti
ng
cott
on
and
wo
ol,
asa
solv
ent
for
rub
ber
and
gu
tta-
per
cha,
inm
edic
ine
and
inth
em
anu
fact
ure
of
pin
eo
il,
terp
i-n
eol,
cam
ph
or,
pin
eta
r,v
orm
eol,
vo
neo
lac
etat
ean
do
ther
chem
ical
s.T
he
rosi
n,
or
colo
ph
on
y,is
ab
ritt
le,
fria
ble
,fa
intl
yar
om
atic
,so
lid
use
din
the
man
ufa
ctu
reo
fso
ap,
var
nis
h,
pai
nt,
oil
clo
th,
lin
ole
um
,se
alin
gw
ax,
adh
esiv
es,
pri
nte
rs’
ink
,fl
oo
ran
dro
of
cov
erin
gs,
rub
ber
s,d
rug
s,p
last
ics,
etc.
and
asa
sizi
ng
mat
eria
lfo
rp
aper
.R
osi
no
ilis
use
das
gre
ase,
alu
bri
can
tan
da
solv
ent.
366 THE BOTANICAL REVIEW
Ta
ble
XV
III,
con
tin
ued
Co
mm
on
nam
eG
enu
san
dsp
ecie
sF
amil
yR
emar
ks
Ole
ore
sin
s,co
nti
nu
ed
Ven
etia
ntu
rpen
tin
eL
ari
xd
ecid
ua
Pin
acea
eU
sed
inh
isto
log
y,li
tho
gra
ph
icw
ork
,v
arn
ish
esan
dv
eter
inar
ym
edic
ine;
yel
low
ish
or
gre
enis
hli
qu
idw
ith
ach
arac
teri
stic
tast
ean
do
do
r
Bo
rdea
ux
turp
enti
ne
Pin
us
pin
ast
erP
inac
eae
Th
ere
sid
ue,
call
ed“B
urg
un
dy
pit
ch,”
isa
stim
ula
nt
and
cou
nte
rirr
i-ta
nt
and
isu
sed
inp
last
ics,
oin
tmen
tsan
dp
har
mac
euti
cals
Str
asb
ou
rgtu
rpen
tin
eA
bie
sa
lba
Pin
acea
eT
he
resi
du
e,ca
lled
“Bu
rgu
nd
yp
itch
,”is
ast
imu
lan
tan
dco
un
teri
rri-
tan
tan
dis
use
din
pla
stic
s,o
intm
ents
and
ph
arm
aceu
tica
ls
Jura
turp
enti
ne
Pic
eaa
bie
sP
inac
eae
Can
ada
bal
sam
Ab
ies
ba
lsa
mea
Pin
acea
eT
rue
turp
enti
ne
(ole
ore
sin
)fr
om
the
bal
sam
fir,
itis
av
isci
d,
yel
-lo
wis
ho
rg
reen
ish
sub
stan
ceu
sed
asa
mo
un
tin
gm
ediu
mfo
rm
icro
sco
pic
wo
rkan
da
cem
ent
for
op
tica
lle
nse
s;al
sou
sed
asan
irri
tan
t,st
imu
lan
tan
dan
tise
pti
c,as
aco
mp
on
ent
inco
llo
dio
nan
dm
any
pla
ster
san
das
afi
xat
ive
for
soap
and
per
fum
es.
Tec
hn
ical
ly,
bal
sam
sar
ear
om
atic
ole
ore
sin
sth
atco
nta
inb
en-
zoic
or
cin
nam
icac
idan
dar
ele
ssv
isco
us
and
con
tain
less
oil
than
turp
enti
nes
.O
nd
isti
llat
ion
bal
sam
sy
ield
esse
nti
alo
ils
that
are
use
din
med
icin
ean
das
fix
ativ
esin
the
per
fum
ein
du
stry
.
Ore
go
nb
alsa
mP
seu
do
tsu
ga
taxi
foli
aP
inac
eae
Av
isci
d,
yel
low
ish
or
gre
enis
hsu
bst
ance
use
das
am
ou
nti
ng
me-
diu
mfo
rm
icro
sco
pic
wo
rkan
da
cem
ent
for
op
tica
lle
nse
s;al
sou
sed
asan
irri
tan
t,st
imu
lan
tan
dan
tise
pti
c,as
aco
mp
on
ent
inco
llo
dio
nan
dm
any
pla
ster
san
das
afi
xat
ive
for
soap
and
per
-fu
mes
Sp
ruce
gu
mP
icea
rub
ens
Pin
acea
eO
bta
ined
fro
mw
oo
dan
db
ark
,th
eo
leo
resi
nis
thin
,cl
ean
,b
itte
ran
dst
ick
y,h
ard
ens
on
exp
osu
reto
air
and
has
ap
leas
ing
,re
sin
ou
sta
ste.
Use
das
am
asti
cato
ryb
ecau
seit
soft
ens
inth
em
ou
than
db
eco
mes
red
dis
h.
TREES AND THEIR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE 367
Bal
sam
of
Per
uM
yro
xylo
np
erei
rae
Fab
acea
eA
dar
k,
red
dis
hb
row
n,
thic
k,
vis
cou
s,sy
rup
yli
qu
ido
bta
ined
by
wo
un
din
gth
etr
ee.
Use
din
med
icin
efo
rtr
eati
ng
slo
w-h
eali
ng
wo
un
ds
and
skin
dis
ease
s(e
spec
iall
yd
uri
ng
Wo
rld
War
II)
and
,b
ecau
seo
fit
sst
imu
lati
ng
and
anti
sep
tic
effe
cto
nm
uco
us
mem
-b
ran
es,
for
trea
tin
gco
ug
hs,
bro
nch
itis
,et
c.;
also
use
das
asu
b-
stit
ute
for
van
illa
,as
afi
xat
ive
inp
erfu
mes
and
inth
eso
apin
du
stry
.T
he
com
mo
nn
ame
isa
mis
no
mer
bec
ause
the
tree
gro
ws
inC
entr
alA
mer
ica,
no
tin
Per
u.
Bal
sam
of
To
luM
yro
xylo
nb
als
am
um
Pap
ilio
nac
eae
Ab
row
no
ry
ello
wis
hb
row
n,
pla
stic
sub
stan
cew
ith
ap
leas
ant
aro
-m
atic
tast
ean
do
do
r;u
sed
for
alm
ost
the
sam
ep
urp
ose
sas
bal
-sa
mo
fP
eru
Lev
ant
sty
rax
or
sto
rax
Liq
uid
am
ber
ori
enta
lis
Ham
amel
idac
eae
Ase
mil
iqu
id,
stic
ky,
gra
yis
hb
row
n,
op
aqu
e,ar
om
atic
sub
stan
ceo
bta
ined
fro
min
ner
bar
kb
yw
ou
nd
ing
the
tree
;u
sed
inco
smet
-ic
s,so
ap,
adh
esiv
es,
lacq
uer
san
din
cen
seas
afi
xat
ive,
inp
er-
fum
esan
din
med
icin
efo
rth
etr
eatm
ent
of
cou
gh
san
dsc
abie
s
Am
eric
anst
yra
xL
iqu
ida
mb
erst
yra
cifl
ua
Ham
amel
idac
eae
Acl
ear,
thic
k,
bro
wn
ish
yel
low
sem
iso
lid
or
soli
dsu
bst
ance
ob
-ta
ined
fro
min
ner
bar
kb
yw
ou
nd
ing
the
tree
;u
sed
inco
smet
ics,
soap
,ad
hes
ives
,la
cqu
ers
and
ince
nse
;as
afi
xat
ive
inp
erfu
mes
;an
din
med
icin
efo
rth
etr
eatm
ent
of
cou
gh
san
dsc
abie
s.In
dia
imp
ort
sit
fro
mF
ran
ce.
Sia
mb
enzo
in,
bal
sam
icre
sin
Sty
rax
ben
zoid
es,
S.
tan
k-in
ense
Sty
race
aeY
ello
wis
ho
rb
row
nis
h,
peb
ble
-lik
eh
ard
and
bri
ttle
tear
sw
ith
am
ilk
yw
hit
ece
nte
ran
da
stro
ng
,v
anil
la-l
ike
aro
ma;
use
das
in-
cen
sean
din
med
icin
eas
ast
imu
lan
t,d
iure
tic,
carm
inat
ive
and
exp
ecto
ran
t;in
the
man
ufa
ctu
reo
fp
erfu
me,
soap
,to
ilet
wat
er,
loti
on
,to
oth
po
wd
eran
dfu
mig
atin
gm
ater
ials
;a
sou
rce
of
ben
-zo
icac
id
Su
mat
rab
enzo
inSty
rax
ben
zoin
Sty
race
aeR
edd
ish
or
gra
yis
hb
row
nte
ars
that
agg
reg
ate
tofo
rmb
lock
so
rlu
mp
s;u
sed
asin
cen
sean
din
med
icin
eas
ast
imu
lan
t,d
iure
tic,
carm
inat
ive
and
exp
ecto
ran
t;in
the
man
ufa
ctu
reo
fp
erfu
me,
soap
,to
ilet
wat
er,
loti
on
,to
oth
po
wd
eran
dfu
mig
atin
gm
ater
i-al
s;a
sou
rce
of
ben
zoic
acid
368 THE BOTANICAL REVIEW
Ta
ble
XV
III,
con
tin
ued
Co
mm
on
nam
eG
enu
san
dsp
ecie
sF
amil
yR
emar
ks
Ole
ore
sin
s,co
nti
nu
ed
Co
pai
ba,
Co
pai
ba
bal
sam
,ca
pai
va
Co
pa
ifer
asp
p.,
esp
e-ci
ally
C.
off
icin
ali
s,C
.re
ticu
lata
Fab
acea
eO
bta
ined
by
bo
rin
gh
ole
sin
toh
eart
wo
od
,it
isa
thin
,cl
ear,
colo
r-le
ssli
qu
idth
attu
rns
yel
low
and
vis
cid
wit
hag
e,is
aro
mat
ican
dh
asa
bit
ter
tast
e;u
sed
inm
akin
gla
cqu
er,
var
nis
han
dtr
acin
gp
aper
,as
afi
xat
ive
inp
erfu
me
and
soap
;in
ph
oto
gra
ph
yfo
rh
alf-
ton
esan
dsh
ado
ws
and
inm
edic
ine
asa
lax
ativ
e,d
isin
fec-
tan
t,d
iure
tic
and
mil
dst
imu
lan
t
Gu
rjan
bal
sam
Dip
tero
carp
us
ala
tus,
D.
ind
icu
s,D
.tu
rbin
tus
Dip
tero
carp
acea
eT
hic
k,
op
aqu
ean
dg
ray
ish
,it
isu
sed
inm
edic
ine
and
for
cau
lkin
gan
dv
arn
ish
ing
bo
ats
Illu
rin
bal
sam
,A
fric
anco
pai
ba,
Sie
rra
Leo
ne
fran
kin
cen
seD
an
iell
ao
live
ri,
D.
thu
rife
raF
abac
eae
Th
ick
,v
ery
frag
ran
t,p
un
gen
t,p
epp
er-l
ike
ole
ore
sin
Man
ila
elem
iC
an
ari
um
luzo
nic
um
Bu
rser
acea
eO
oze
sfr
om
tru
nk
bar
kin
frag
ran
t,w
hit
em
asse
so
ntr
eetr
un
ks;
use
dlo
call
yfo
rto
rch
es,
for
cau
lkin
gb
oat
s,in
lith
og
rap
hic
wo
rk,
inth
em
anu
fact
ure
of
cem
ents
,ad
hes
ives
and
ink
,in
per
-fu
me,
inm
edic
ine,
inp
last
ics
and
oin
tmen
ts,
and
inth
ev
arn
ish
ind
ust
ryto
mak
ep
rod
uct
sto
ug
han
del
asti
c
Afr
ican
elem
iB
osw
elli
afr
erea
na
Bu
rser
acea
e
Mex
ican
elem
iA
myr
isb
als
am
ifer
a,
A.
elem
ifer
aR
uta
ceae
Bra
zili
anel
emi
Bu
rser
ag
um
mif
era
,P
roti
um
hep
tap
hyl
-lu
m
Bu
rser
acea
e
Mec
cab
alsa
mC
om
mip
ho
rao
pa
ba
l-sa
mu
mB
urs
erac
eae
Ag
reen
ish
,tu
rbid
ole
ore
sin
wit
han
od
or
of
rose
mar
y;
use
din
ince
nse
,p
erfu
mes
and
med
icin
e
Mex
ican
lin
alo
eB
urs
era
pen
icil
lata
Bu
rser
acea
eO
bta
ined
fro
mth
ear
om
atic
fru
its;
use
din
per
fum
e
Sal
aig
um
,In
dia
no
lib
anu
mB
osw
elli
ase
rra
ta:
Bu
rser
acea
eU
sed
asan
ince
nse
,in
med
icin
efo
rrh
eum
atis
m,
ner
vo
us
dis
ease
san
do
intm
ents
and
asa
fire
lig
hte
r
TREES AND THEIR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE 369
Gu
mre
sin
s
Am
mo
nia
cum
Do
rem
aa
mm
on
iacu
mA
pia
ceae
Ex
ud
esfr
om
stem
san
dfl
ow
erin
gb
ran
ches
asa
mil
ky
juic
eth
ath
ard
ens
on
exp
osu
reto
form
bri
ttle
,b
row
nis
hy
ello
wte
ars,
wh
ich
occ
ur
sin
gly
or
inm
asse
s;u
sed
inp
erfu
mer
yan
din
med
icin
eas
aci
rcu
lato
ryst
imu
lan
t
Her
abo
lm
yrr
hC
om
mip
ho
ram
yrrh
aB
urs
erac
eae
Oo
zes
fro
mst
ems
asa
pal
ey
ello
wli
qu
idth
ath
ard
ens
tofo
rmb
row
no
rb
lack
tear
s;u
sed
inp
erfu
mer
y,as
aco
nst
itu
ent
of
mo
uth
was
han
dd
enti
fric
esan
din
med
icin
eas
ato
nic
,st
imu
lan
tan
dan
tise
pti
c
Bis
abo
l,sw
eet
my
rrh
Co
mm
iph
ora
eryt
hra
eaB
urs
erac
eae
Use
din
ince
nse
,p
erfu
mes
and
emb
alm
ing
and
asa
con
stit
uen
to
fC
hin
ese
joss
stic
ks
Gu
mre
sin
Co
mm
iph
ora
cau
da
taB
urs
erac
eae
Ap
ale
yel
low
liq
uid
that
gra
du
ally
soli
dif
ies
and
turn
sb
row
no
rb
lack
;u
sed
inm
edic
ine,
asin
cen
sean
dfo
rem
bal
min
g
Fra
nk
ince
nse
of
oli
ban
um
Bo
swel
lia
cart
eri
Bu
rser
acea
eE
xu
des
fro
mb
ark
asa
clea
r,y
ello
wre
sin
that
har
den
sin
tosm
all
yel
low
gra
ins;
use
din
ince
nse
and
per
fum
esan
das
afi
xat
ive
for
face
po
wd
ers,
pas
till
esan
dfu
mig
atin
gp
ow
der
s
Ind
ian
fran
kin
cen
se,
lub
anB
osw
elli
ase
rra
taB
urs
erac
eae
Ob
tain
edfr
om
bar
k,
the
ole
o-g
um
-res
inco
nta
ins:
oil
y,tu
rpen
tin
icli
qu
id,
use
das
asu
bst
itu
tefo
rtu
rpen
tin
eo
il;
aro
sin
-lik
ere
sin
,u
sed
inth
eso
apin
du
stry
;an
dg
um
,u
sed
inp
rin
tin
gca
lico
Op
op
anax
Co
mm
iph
ora
kata
fB
urs
erac
eae
Use
din
per
fum
ery
and
inm
edic
ine
Op
op
anax
Op
op
an
ax
chir
on
ium
Ap
iace
aeA
nh
erb
use
din
per
fum
ery
and
inm
edic
ine
Cey
lon
gam
bo
se,
Ind
ian
gam
bo
ge
Ga
rcin
iah
an
bu
ryi,
G.
mo
rell
aG
utt
ifer
aeY
ello
wem
uls
ion
ob
tain
edfr
om
the
pit
h,
leav
es,
flo
wer
san
dfr
uit
s;u
sed
inp
rep
arin
gw
ater
colo
rsan
dg
old
-co
lore
dsp
irit
var
nis
hes
and
inm
edic
ine
asa
vio
len
tca
thar
tic
Mad
arC
alo
tro
pis
gig
an
tea
,C
.h
am
ilto
nii
Asc
lep
iad
acea
eU
sed
asa
sub
stit
ute
for
gu
tta-
per
cha
370 THE BOTANICAL REVIEW
Resins are very important in industry. Two types are used in manufacturing varnishes and
lacquers. The first type comprises resins that, after melting, can be combined with linseed oil or
turpentine and utilized for forming amber, copal and other oil varnishes. Oil varnishes are
superior but costly.
The word “copal” is of Mexican origin. In England many of the harder copals are known as
“animes.” The copals are resins of recent semifossil or fossil tropical and subtropical tree spe-
cies. They contain almost no oil and yield a hard, elastic varnish, which is much used for
outdoor work.
The second type of resins comprises those that dissolve in alcohol, turpentine or other
volatile solvents. They are utilized for forming spirit varnishes, such as rosin, damar, sandarac,
mastic and elemis. Spirit varnishes are less expensive and more easily prepared and applied.
They produce brilliant, transparent finishes. All damars are used chiefly in spirit varnishes and
in the manufacture of nitrocellulose lacquers. Damar varnishes are softer, less durable and
adhere better. They are used mainly for varnishing paper because of their luster and light color.
They are also used for indoor work and in histology. “Elemi” is a collective name for several
oleoresins of different origin that exude as clear, pale liquids. Most tend to harden on exposure,
but some may remain soft.
Resinous substances have been used for waterproof coatings and also for decorative coat-
ings for ages. The ancient Egyptians varnished their mummy cases, and the Incas utilized resins
in their embalming mixtures. Resins are also used in the preparation of soap—they dissolve in
alkali to form soap—and in medicine, for sizing paper, as a stiffening material for mats, in the
preparation of fixatives, incenses, perfumes, tobacco flavorings, sealing wax, plastics, lino-
leum, oilcloth, printers’ ink, adhesives, etc. Their combustible properties are utilized for mak-
ing torches; their waterproofing qualities, for making boats.
Resins tend to lessen the amount of water lost from the tissues of plants. Because of their antisep-
tic properties, resins prevent decay, and, when present in wood, add strength and durability.
Resin is secreted in plant tissues in specialized canals or cavities called “resin ducts,” which
are lined with a special layer of secretory cells, called the “epithelial layer,” that secrete resin
into the cavity through a thin cuticular layer. Resin ducts may be present in leaves, wood and
bark of stems. They normally ooze out through the bark and harden on exposure to air. Com-
mercial resins, however, are extracted from artificial wounds or fossil materials.
23. Cork
Commercial cork is obtained from the outer bark (phellem) of cork oak, Quercus suber, an
evergreen tree of the family Fagaceae. It is native to the western Mediterranean region: about
70% of the world’s commercial cork comes from Portugal alone. Cork is nothing more than
thin-walled but strong cellulosic cell walls, which are heavily coated with suberin, a substance
that is impervious to water. Cell lumens, which represent nearly 53% of the total cork volume,
are filled with air, thus making cork very light—its specific gravity is 0.15–0.25.
Cork is buoyant, light and highly compressible, but it is resilient, chemically inert to mois-
ture and common liquids, resistant to deterioration, an excellent insulator, a nonconductor of
electricity, a low thermal conductor and impervious to water and other liquids. It imparts no
flavor or odor to substances, is slow to catch fire, absorbs sound and vibrations and has a high
coefficient of friction. All of these properties render commercial cork invaluable in the world
market, and it is used either as natural cork or as composition cork, the latter as linoleum,
linotiles, binder-coated cork and cork (insulation) boards. Cork is used in the preparation of
stoppers, hats and helmets, tips for cigarettes, carburetor floats, fishing-net floats, golf-club
handles, penholders, fishing rods, life preservers, floats and life jackets, surf balls, seals for
TREES AND THEIR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE 371
jars, sealing liners, shoe insoles, sporting goods, picture frames, small cork balls in referees’
whistles, etc.
24. Food for Silkworms
Mulberry silk accounts for 95% of the world’s silk production. It is produced by Bombyx
mori L., which feeds on the leaves of mulberry plants. Morus is the Latin word for “mulberry”
(French: muries; Italian: gelso; Japanese: lewwa). It belongs to the family Moraceae, of the
order Unisexuales or Urticales. The following species of Morus are known in the world: acidosa,
arabica, atropurpurea, australis, bombycis, boninensis, cathayama, celtidifolia, cordatifelia,
indica, glabrata, insignis, japonica, kagayamae, laevigata, latifolia, lhou, macroura, micro-
phylla, miyabean, mizuho, mollis, mongolica, mosozygia, multicaulis, nigra, nigriformis,
notabilis, pabularia, philippinensis, rotundifolia, rubra, serrata, sinensis, tiliaefolia and
yoshimurai (Seth & Lal, 2002).
Tasar silk is the product of the secretion from the silk glands of Antheraea proylei and
A. mylitta, the temperate and tropical tasar silkworms, respectively. Although Antheraea spe-
cies are polyphagous in nature, the food plants of first choice are known as “primary” and
others, as “secondary.” The three main food plants of tropical tasar silkworms are: Terminalia
alata, syn. T. tomentosa, vern. asan; Terminatia arjuna, vern. arjun; and Shorea robusta, vern.
sal. In addition to the three main food plants, the tasar silkworm may feed on the following
(Seth, 2000a):
• Anogeissus latifolia; axlewood, vern. dhawa, dhaura, dhaunta; family Combretaceae,
order Myrtales
• Bauhinia variegata; vern. kachnar; family Caesalpiniaceae, order Rosales
• Bombax ceiba, syn. Salmalia malabarica, Bombax malabaricum, Gossampinus mala-
barica; silk cotton tree, vern. semul, shembal, raket-senbal, kaanti sembal, pagun; fam-
ily Bombacaceae, order Malvales
• Canthium dicoccum, syn. C. didymum, Plectronia didyma; vern. rangruri; family Rubi-
aceae, order Rubiales
• Capadessa fruiticosa: vern. nalbali; family Meliaceae, order Geraniales
• Careya arborea; kumbi, vern. kumbi; family Lecythidaceae, order Myrtales
• Carissa carundus; karunda, vern. karumcha, karaunda; family Apocynaceae, order
Gentianales
• Celastrus paniculatus; vern. malkangni; family Celastraceae, order Celastrales
• Chloroxylon swietenia; East Indian satinwood, vern. bhirra, girya; family Rutaceae, or-
der Geraniales
• Dodonaea viscosa; vern. aliar, sinatha; family Sapindaceae, order Sapindales
• Ficus benjamina; family Moraceae, order Unisexuales or Urticales
• Ficus religiosa; peepal, vern. pipal, pipli; family Moraceae, order Unisexuales or Urticales
• Ficus retusa; vern. kamrup, chilkan; family Moraceae, order Unisexuales or Urticales
• Ficus tsiela; vern. jari; family Moraceae, order Unisexuales or Urticales
• Ficus tsjakela; family Moraceae, order Unisexuales or Urticales
• Hardwickia binata; anjan, vern. anjan; family Caesalpiniaceae, order Rosales
• Lagerstroemia indica; common crape myrtle, vern. saoni; family Lythraceae, order
Myrtales
• Lagerstroemia parviflora; landau, vern. Sida, dhaura, Bali, Sidi; family Lythraceae, or-
der Myrtales
• Madhuca indica, syn. M. latifolia, Bassia latifolia; mahua, mowra, illipe, butter tree,
vern. mahua, mohwa, mauwa; family Sapotaceae, order Sapindales
372 THE BOTANICAL REVIEW
• Melastoma malabathricum; vern. phutki; family Melastomataceae, order Myrtales
• Ricinus communis; castor, castor seed, vern. erandi, bharenda; family Euphorbiaceae,
order Euphorbiales
• Shorea roxburghii, syn. S. talura; lac tree of South India; family Dipterocarpaceae, or-
der Parietales
• Syzygium cuminii, syn. Eugenia jambolana, E. cuminii; jaman, jambolan, blackplum,
java plum, vern. jamun, jam; family Myrtaceae, order Myrtales
• Tectona grandis; teak, vern. sagun, sagwan; family Verbenaceae, order Lamiales
• Terminalia bellerica; belleric myrobalan, bahera, vern. bahera; family Combretaceae,
order Myrtales
• Terminalia catappa; Indian almond tree, vern. deshibadam; family Combretaceae, order
Myrtales
• Terminalia chebula; chebulic myrobalan, vern. haritaki, harar; family Combretaceae,
order Myrtales
• Terminalia coriacea, syn. T. tomentosa var. coriacea; leathery murdah, vern. tani; fam-
ily Combretaceae, order Myrtales
• Terminalia crenulata, syn. T. tomentosa var. crenulata; vern. karu maruthu, tehmbava;
family Combretaceae, order Myrtales
• Terminalia paniculata; flowering murdah, kindal, vern. kinjal; family Combretaceae,
order Myrtales
• Zizyphus jujuba, syn. Z. sativa, Z. vulgaris; vern. pitni ber, ban ber, beri; family Rham-
naceae, order Celastrales
• Zizyphus mauritiana, syn. Z. jujuba; Indian jujube, common jujube, vern. ber, hevi;
family Rhamnaceae, order Celastrales
• Zizyphus rugosa, vern. bhand, churna; family Rhamnaceae, order Celastrales
• Zizyphus xylopyra, including Z. glaberrima santapau; katber, kathber, ghont; family
Rhamnaceae, order Celastrales
The introduction of two oak tasar silkworms, Antheraea proylei and A. pernyi, has enabled
India to produce oak tasar silk. The main food plants of oak tasar silkworms belong to Quercus
species, the oaks of the family Fagaceae, order Fagales. The other food plants of temperate
tasar belong to genera like Castanopsis and Lithocarpus, of the family Fagaceae, order Fagales,
and Salix, of the family Salicaceae, order Salicales. The different species of these food plants
are (Seth, 2000b):
• Castanopsis hystrix, syn. C. rufescens; vern. katus, hingori
• Castanopsis indica; Indian chestnut, vern. bank katus, serang
• Lithocarpus dealbatus, syn. Quercus dealbata
• Quercus aegilops; valonia oak
• Quercus acutissima, syn. Q. serrata
• Quercus borealis; American red oak
• Quercus castaneaefolia; chestnut-leaved oak
• Quercus cerris; turkey oak
• Quercus coccinea; scarlet oak
• Quercus crispula
• Quercus dentata
• Quercus dilatata; green oak, moru oak, vern. moru, tilonj
• Quercus floribunda
• Quercus frainetto; Hungarian oak
• Quercus glauca; blue Japanese oak, vern. bran, siri, inai
TREES AND THEIR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE 373
• Quercus griffithii; vern. dingim
• Quercus hispanica var. lucombeana; lucombe oak
• Quercus ilex; evergreen oak, holly or holm oak, vern. bechur, iri
• Quercus infectoria; gall oak, Dyer’s oak, vern. majuphal, mazu, muphal
• Quercus lamellosa; vern. buk, shalshi
• Quercus lanata, syn. Q. lanuginosa; woolly oak, vern. ranj, kiani
• Quercus lanceaefolia, syn. Castanopsis lanceaefolia; vern. siri, shingra
• Quercus leucotrichophora, syn. Q. incana; ban oak, gray oak, vern. ban, rin, vari, iri
• Quercus libani; Lebanon oak
• Quercus lineata; vern. phalut
• Quercus lusitanica; Lusitanian oak
• Quercus mongolica
• Quercus myrsinaefolia
• Quercus palustris; pin oak
• Quercus petraea; sessile oak
• Quercus prinus
• Quercus reticulatum; net leaf oak
• Quercus robur; English oak
• Quercus rubra
• Quercus semecarpifolia; brown oak of Himalaya, kharsu oak, vern. karshu, kharshu
• Quercus semiserrata; vern. schop
• Quercus suber; cork oak
• Quercus undulata
• Salix viminalis; English willow, osier, basket willow, vern. bibsu, kumanta
Eri silk, also known as “errandi” or “endi,” is produced by the eri silkworm Samia ricini,
syn. Philosamia ricini, Attacus ricini. It belongs to the family Saturniidae, order Lepidoptera.
Being polyphagous, it may feed on the leaves of a large number of plants (Seth, 2000c):
• Ricinus communis; castor, castor seed, vern. erandi; family Euphorbiaceae, order Eu-
phorbiales
• Ailanthus altissima, syn. A. glandulosa; ailanto, tree of Heaven, vern. barkessuru, barpat;
family Simaroubaceae, order Geraniales
• Ailanthus excelsa; vern. maharuk, barkessuru; family Simaroubaceae, order Geraniales
• Ailanthus grandis; family Simaroubaceae, order Geraniales
• Ailanthus triphysa, syn. A. malabarica; vern. guggal dhup, family Simaroubaceae, or-
der Geraniales
• Carica papaya; papaya, papaw tree, vern. papeeta; family Caricaceae, order Geraniales
• Cinnamomum cecidodaphne; family Lauraceae, order Laurales
• Coriaria nepalensis; vern. masuri, makola; family Coriariaceae, order Sapindales
• Evodia fraxinifolia; vern. payam; family Rutaceae, order Geraniales
• Gmelina arborea; gumhar, vern. gambhar, gumbhar, kambhari; family Verbenaceae, or-
der Lamiales
• Heteropanax fragrans; vern. kesseru, tarla; family Araliaceae, order Umbellales
• Hodgsonia heteroclita; vern. thebow; family Cucurbitaceae, order Passiflorales
• Jatropha curcas; physic nut, purging nut, vern. botera, bagbherenda, jangliarandi,
safedarand; family Euphorbiaceae, order Euphorbiales
• Jatropha multifida; coral plant, vern. bhotera; family Euphorbiaceae, order Euphorbiales
• Manihot esculenta, syn. M. utilissima, M. aipi, M. dulcis, M. palmata; cassava, manioc,
tapioca, vern. simul-alu; family Euphorbiaceae, order Euphorbiales
374 THE BOTANICAL REVIEW
• Ricinus virdia; family Euphorbiaceae, order Euphorbiales
• Sapium eugeniifolium; vern. korha, family Euphorbiaceae, order Euphorbiales
• Sapium sebiferum; Chinese tallow tree, vern. pippal-yang, vilayati-shisham, pahari-
shisham; family Euphorbiaceae, order Euphorbiales
• Zanthoxylum armatum, syn. Z. alatum; vern. darmar, Nepali dhaniya, tejphal, tumru;
family Rutaceae, order Geraniales
• Zanthoxylum limonella, syn. Z. budrunga, Z. rhetsa; vern. bazramani; family Rutaceae,
order Geraniales
• Zizyphus mauritiana, syn. Z. jujuba; Indian jujube, common jujube, vern. baer, ber;
family Rhamnaceae, order Rhamnales
Muga silk is produced by the muga silkworm Antheraea assama Westwood, syn. A. asamensis
Helf., A. mejankari Moore. It belongs to the phylum Arthropoda, class Insecta, order Lepi-
doptera and family Saturniidae. The muga silkworm is polyphagous (Seth, 2000d). Its primary
food plants are:
• Machilus bombycina; vern. som; family Lauraceae, order Laurales
• Litsaea monopetala, syn. L. polyantha; vern. soalu, meda, ketmarra, patoia, kakuri;
family Lauraceae, order Laurales
Its secondary food plants are:
• Actinodaphne angustifolia, syn. A. hookeri; pisa, vern. petarichawa; family Lauraceae,
order Laurales
• Cinnamomum glanduliferum; cinnamon, vern. dieng-puin-waith, dieng-sing, gonhorai,
gonhorai-arong, gonsalu, gonsarai, malligiri, marisgiri; family Lauraceae, order Laurales
• Cinnamomum obtusifolium, syn. Actinodaphne obovata; vern. patichanda, patihanda;
family Lauraceae, order Laurales
• Gmelina arboraea; gumhar, vern. bambari; family Verbenaceae, order Lamiales
• Litsaea cubeba, syn. L. citrata; vern. mezankari, sittimbar; family Lauraceae, order Laurales
• Litsaea nitida, vern. kothalua; family Lauraceae, order Laurales
• Litsaea salicifolia; vern. dighleti, digloti; family Lauraceae, order Laurales
• Magnolia pterocarpa, syn. M. sphenocarpa; vern. panchapa; family Magnoliaceae, or-
der Magnoliales
• Michelia champaca; champak; family Magnoliaceae, order Magnoliales
• Michelia oblonga; family Magnoliaceae, order Magnoliales
• Machilus odoratissima; machilus, vern. kawala; family Lauraceae, order Laurales
• Symplocos grandiflora; family Symplocaceae, order Ebenales
• Symplocus paniculata, syn. S. crataegoides; sapphire berry, sweet leaf, vern. ludh; fam-
ily Symplocaceae, order Ebenales
• Symplocos ramosissima; vern. lodh; family Symplocaceae, order Ebenales
• Zanthoxylum armatum, syn. Z. alatum and its var. planispinum, Z. planispinum; vern.
darmar, Nepali dhaniya, tejphal, tumru; family Rutaceae, order Geraniales
• Zanthoxylum limonella, syn. Z. budrunga, Z. rhetsa; vern. bazramani; family Rutaceae,
order Geraniales
• Zizyphus jujuba, syn. Z. sativa, Z. vulgaris; vern. ber, pitni ber; family Rhamnaceae,
order Rhamnales
• Zizyphus mauritiana, syn. Z. jujuba; Indian jujube, common jujube, vern. bear, ber;
family Rhamnaceae, order Rhamnales
A large number of wild silkworms are known in nature. They, too, produce silk by feeding
on the leaves of a number of plants. However, the silk they produce is not of good quality. The
TREES AND THEIR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE 375
food plants of these wild silkworms are: Acer campbellii, A. caudatum, Actinodaphne sikkimensis,
Anacardium occidentale, Ardisia species, Artemisia vulgaris, Bischofia javanica, Careya arbo-
rea, Cedrella serrata, C. toona, Clerodendron infortunatum, Coriaria nepalensis, Cydonia
oblonga syn. C. vulgaris, Dalbergia sissoo, Dillenia indica, D. pentagyna syn. D. pentagynia,
Emblica officinalis syn. Phyllanthus emblica, Eugenia fruiticosa, Glochidion hohenackeri syn.
G. lanceolarium, G. velutinum, Juglans rigia, Lagerstroemia speciosa syn. L. flos reginae,
Lannea coromandelica syn. Odina wodier, Leucosceptrum canum, Litsaea glutinosa syn.
L. sebifera, Lyonia ovalifolia syn. Pieris ovalifolia, Machilus odoratissima, Mangifera indica,
Melastoma malabathricum, Meyna laxiflora syn. Vangueria spinosa, Microcos paniculata syn.
Grewia microcos, Mimusops elengi, Mitragyna rotundifolia syn. Stephegyne diversifolia, Oci-
mum spp., Phyllanthus lanceolaria, Prunus cerasoides syn. P. puddum, Pterospermum semi-
sagittatum, Pyrus communis, P. pashia, Salix babylonica, S. tetrasperma, Sapium insigne,
Schleichera oleosa, syn. S. trijuga, Symplocos paniculata, syn. S. crataegoides, S. racemosa,
Syzygium cuminii syn. Eugenia jambolana, Terminalia alata syn. T. tomentosa, Turpinia
nepalensis, T. pomifera, Wendlandia thyrsoidea syn. W. notonia, Zanthoxylum acanthopodium
and Z. armatum syn. Z. alatum (Seth, 2000e).
IV. Conclusions
As discussed above, trees are of great importance to people, not only economically and
ecologically but also ornamentally and bioaesthetically. Because trees meet the needs of hu-
mans, the primary objective of any afforestation, biodiversity, ecodevelopment, bioaesthetic or
landscape plan must be both to protect native tree–growing areas from further destruction and
to plant trees in large areas. For any society, planting and care of trees serve as important
endeavors and symbolize hope for the future. Multipurpose trees and shrubs have the capacity
to provide for a variety of end uses while reversing the process of land degradation.
Most of our environmental problems can be solved to a great extent if we grow more trees,
especially in urbanized localities and cities. Because people in different parts of the world have
become aware of the needs of trees and forests, many countries have started celebrating annual
“Forest Festivals” or “Tree Festivals” or “Greening Weeks” or “Arbor Days.” In India, too, tree
planting has been adopted as a national policy. The first successful tree-planting week was
celebrated in Delhi in July 1947, with the participation of national leaders like Jawaharlal
Nehru, Rajendra Prasad and Abdul Kalam Azad, among many others (Randhawa, 1961, 1965–
1983). In 1950 the celebration was renamed “Vana Mahotsava” (Grand Festival of Forests [or
Trees]) (Seth et al., 1962).
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