Download - Thesis ICM

Transcript
Page 1: Thesis ICM

Boeletuin Amsterdam: Urban gardening, Social Practices and Everyday Urbanism.

Course: LUP-80436 (Msc Thesis Land Use Planning) Credits: 36

Student: Ioana-Cristina Musat Number: 881010592020 Supervisor: prof. dr. AJJ (Arnold) van der Valk Second Reviewer: dr. IM (Marleen) Buizer Wageningen University Land Use Planning Address: Postbus 47, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands

Page 2: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

2

Abstract While spatial planners have traditionally focused on the aesthetic and the physical functionality of their

designs, offering less attention to the social context when dealing with social priority issues (e.g. climate

change, food safety and public green spaces) may result in the planned urban spaces being underused

and undervalued. Climate change, food safety, green public space and public health are issues which

broadly fall under the umbrella of sustainable food planning, a rapidly growing domain of spatial planning

research. Analysis of social practices holds a key in understanding why and how these issues exist, as well

as opportunities for the improvement of urban quality of life. Urban gardening practices raise awareness

about these issues and influence the everyday life of garden members. In the same time citizen-led

gardening practices have the ability to create quality urban places and therefore hold key insights for

spatial planning. Gardeners benevolently offer time and labor resources to design and maintain urban

gardens. This not only has positive effects for their own personal quality of life, but also for the spatial

quality of the urban area itself and reduces resource inputs for design and maintenance that may

normally be borne by the municipality. This study offers a sample of the flourishing urban gardening

scene in Amsterdam, the Netherlands. It focuses on a garden case and thoroughly dismantles it by using

the theoretical lens of social practice theory and the everyday urbanism approach. Although this study is

focused on gardening practices, the analysis of any everyday practice with beneficial effects on urban

quality of life plays a valuable role in implementing a corresponding design. The design will fit the profile

of the place better, ensuring long lasting spatial quality, minimal maintenance from the municipality and

the support of local actors.

Keywords: sustainable food planning, urban garden, social practices, everyday urbanism, spatial planning practice, the Netherlands.

Page 3: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

3

Table of Contents 1. Introduction & Research Design............................................................................................ 4

Content overview and outline of the thesis ........................................................................................... 5

World view of the researcher ................................................................................................................. 7

Research design ...................................................................................................................................... 7

2. Theoretical Framework and Methodology ............................................................................ 12

Social practice theory ............................................................................................................................ 13

Everyday urbanism ................................................................................................................................ 20

Connecting social practice theory with everyday urbanism ................................................................. 28

Methodology ......................................................................................................................................... 30

3. The ‘Boeletuin’ Garden: a Diverse Mix of Practices. ............................................................... 39

Context of the ‘Boeletuin’ garden. ....................................................................................................... 40

Results of the six guideline-based analysis. .......................................................................................... 45

Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................. 59

4. Garden Sub-Cases at the ‘Boeletuin’: Different Meanings, Different Designs. ......................... 65

Community permaculture garden: ‘Zuidmoes’ ..................................................................................... 67

Garden of the individual plots .............................................................................................................. 75

Community research garden ‘The Green Living Lab’ ............................................................................ 83

Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................. 90

5. Context of the Spatial Planning Practice ............................................................................... 95

Spatial planning practice in everyday urbanism. .................................................................................. 96

The role of the spatial planner in everyday urbanism. ......................................................................... 98

Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................... 100

6. Recommendations ............................................................................................................. 102

General recommendations for the spatial planning of urban gardening ........................................... 103

Specific recommendation for the spatial planning of the ‘Boeletuin’ garden .................................... 104

Recommendations for the spatial planner ......................................................................................... 109

7. Conclusion ......................................................................................................................... 110

8. References ......................................................................................................................... 113

Page 4: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

4

1. Introduction & Research Design

Page 5: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

5

This thesis presents the results of the qualitative research conducted in an urban garden, the ‘Boeletuin’, in Amsterdam, the Netherlands. The purpose of this single case-study is the understanding of the relationship between existing gardening practices and the spatial dimension, thereby exploring if there are valuable insights for spatial planning. The underlying aim is to contribute to a spatial planning approach that incorporates existing practices in spatial planning analysis and design. The research intends to shed light on how everyday practices of the people involved shape the physical space they operate in. The study of the urban garden was made in autumn of 2015, over a period of two months.

Content overview and outline of the thesis

The theoretical framework of this thesis is centered around everyday social practices and their effect on

the spatial dimension. It provides the guidelines for the analysis of the gardening practices. The analysis

generated insights about the specific practice characteristics which led to the garden becoming an

attractive, vital place, contributing to the urban quality of life. These insights are valuable for spatial

planning because: the urban gardening practices are sources of awareness on social priority issues (e.g.

food sustainability), create quality urban places, increase the quality of life, minimize resource input from

the municipality and are critical sources of example for the urban planning of similar areas. For the

continuity and the development of the gardening practices to be assured, support must be mutual,

planners need to properly include gardening practices which create quality urban places in visions and

zoning plans. Figure 1 illustrates the rationale used in the development of this study, as well as the core

content of this thesis.

Figure 1. Core content of the thesis. Made by the author.

Page 6: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

6

The content of the thesis is structured in 7 chapters (figure 2). The first chapter introduces the theme,

the purpose of the research and the research design. The main theme is the exploratory research of

social practices and their connection to the spatial dimension in an urban garden case, for the purpose

of gaining insights for the spatial planning practice. The broader aim is the promotion of social practice

based analysis and design in spatial planning. The qualitative research is based on a single case study, the

‘Boeletuin’ garden in Amsterdam.

Theoretical framework and methodology are elaborated in the second chapter. The theoretical

framework is composed of: social practice theory (Shove et al., 2012) and the everyday urbanism

approach (Chase et al., 2008). Both are studied, concepts are extracted and further synthesized into 6

core concepts, as detailed in chapter 2. Focus points and methods of collecting data were guided by these

core concepts. Further, the same core concepts are used as guidelines for the case analysis in chapters 3

and 4.

Ch.1 Ch.2

Ch.3 Ch.4

Ch.5

Ch.6 Ch.7

Introduction. Research Design. Framework. Methodology.

Findings at case garden.Garden scale and initiative scale.

Spatial planning practice. Role of the spatial planner.

Recommendations. Conclusion.

START

ANALYSIS

CONTEXT END

Figure 2. Chapters of the study. Made by author.

The findings from the analysis were structured in two chapters. Chapter 3 describes the larger scale of

the entire garden, while chapter 4 elaborates the smaller scale, the specific gardening practices as sub-

cases of the ‘Boeletuin’ garden. I made the decision to organize findings in two different chapters based

on the two scales, in order to facilitate a holistic understanding of the case. Theoretical guidelines from

social practice theory (which explores why individuals do the activities they do) and from the everyday

urbanism approach (which seeks to understand how their everyday activities influence the physical

space) will further structure the content of these two chapters.

Chapter 5 describes the spatial planning context from the perspective of everyday urbanism. Usually the

context should come prior to the findings. Yet I made the decision to place it after the exploration of the

findings from the case garden (chapter 3 & 4) in order for the reader to keep an open mind to the study,

and not have preconceptions about the spatial planning of urban space. Open mindedness is necessary,

as the theme of the study are the social practices at the garden and the spatial planning context is of

secondary importance. The insights gained from the analysis in the previous two chapters are put in the

Page 7: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

7

spatial planning context, by discussing possible design solutions and the role of the spatial planner in a

citizen-led urban garden.

Chapter 7 consists of recommendations for the spatial planning practice and the case of the ‘Boeletuin’.

Additionally, limitations of the theoretical framework are elaborated in this chapter.

Chapter 8 contains general conclusions and reconnects to the purpose and research questions of the

study. It elaborates the way in which the research questions were answered during the study.

World view of the researcher

The perspective of the researcher is valuable for scientific studies, as it sheds light regarding the angle from which the study is made. It explains certain preferences, be it the research design, the methods used or the theme of the study. Therefore I found it important, for comprehension, validity and transparency reasons to describe my perspective as a researcher in the beginning of the paper. The points which determine my perspective are mainly my personal motivation (the ‘why’), the way I prefer to ask research questions and the methods of doing research (the ‘how’). As for motivation, my background in landscape architecture and spatial planning has focused my attention towards green spaces. Understanding urban gardens and the meanings that they have for people is an important subject for me. I have personally experienced the positive effect that they have on the quality of life and have also observed this in others. I am very much interested in research questions with complex answers and I value the variation in insights from different people. Researching stimulates me when it is surprising, when there is freedom to follow interesting paths or discoveries. My preferred research methods are participant observations and interviews, as I consider it most efficient to obtain subjective insights of different people. My perspective converges to what Creswell (2014) calls the basic set of beliefs which guides the plan to action. I identify my perspective with the social constructivist world view. This basically means to place a high value on social and historical context, while trying to understand complexity and making sense of multiple existing meanings (Creswell, 2014). This worldview leads the research design towards the qualitative orientation. The research design is further explained and elaborated in this chapter. My worldview, which is based on motivations and meanings I have acquired over the years, can also carry biases. My experience and that of close friends and acquaintances, as well academic circles I am part of, place a very high value on the role of gardens in urban surroundings. Therefore, my positive perception of urban gardens is both a driver for the research and a bias. The bias is my firm belief, held prior to undertaking research, of the urban garden’s positive effects on the quality of life. I intend to balance out this bias through different strategies (elaborated in the ‘Validity’ section of chapter 2). One of the strategies is to be transparent about my worldview and the factors that influence my research. Therefore the reader should be aware of this bias when reading the study.

Research design

Page 8: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

8

As explained in the previous section, the social constructivist view focuses on the complex perception of reality. This view guides me to choose a qualitative approach for the research design. The focus on a single case study comes as a reasonable action plan. The research design is a coherent plan, based on logic, used in order to maximize the validity of research findings and acts similarly to an architectural blueprint (Healey et al., 2015). The plan for this study is selected from the typologies proposed for planning research by du Toit & Mouton (2013), illustrated in table 1. The research design for this study is a single case study with an exploratory purpose, carried out through a qualitative methodological approach. The methodology will thoroughly be explained in the next chapter, after introducing the theoretical framework. This brief overview of the research design serves to highlight the rationale and first considerations of the research structure.

Design considerations Research context and aim

Research purpose

Methodological paradigm

Methodological approach

Source of data

Core logic Research design

Basic contexts with theoretical aim

Interpretative, exploratory and descriptive

Interpretive social science

Qualitative Secondary and primary

Interpretation (phenomenologic)and contextualization

Case studies

Research design Research design

subtype Specialized subtype Area of application

Case studies Single case study Embedded single case study

Place studies (Moudon, 2003)

Table 1. Source: Toit & Mouton, 2013. Made by author.

Problem description

The problem description is a key contributor to the research design. The problem description consists of the social aspect and the research aspect. The social aspect is food safety and the research aspect is the gap in studies regarding social practices as a lens for spatial planning research. Although cities are responsible for ecological decline, they are also paradoxically the most important sources of innovation for climate change mitigation and ecological landscape designs. Sustainable food planning is in this context an important subject, because of food safety issues being experienced not only in the Global South, but also in the Global North (Cohen & Ilieva, 2015). Advancing sustainability at the urban scale requires cities to have management competences which include social systems and practices.

Urban gardening is a practice raising awareness of city inhabitants on this issue and is increasing in popularity all over the world. The background of food safety, peak oil and environmental degradation guides people in having more awareness, changing their food related practices and creating a more sustainable food system (Cohen & Ilieva, 2015). Cities are also the meeting point of both physical infrastructure and everyday practices. They coexist along with multiple resources of change, which encompass financing, research, media coverage, cultural

Page 9: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

9

novelty as well as policy development and planning. Therefore developing competences in regards to everyday practices is required for advancing sustainability transitions at urban scale. Scholars need to explore more of the cities role in driving transitions through changes of everyday practices (Cohen & Ilieva, 2015). Amsterdam is one of the top sustainable cities in Europe (Arcadia Index, 2015), therefore information for strengthening urban gardening practices would not only be useful for the studied city, but could also apply to other similar cases in Europe or worldwide. The research gap to which this paper intends to bring a contribution is incorporating a social practice based analysis in spatial planning. The importance of human values, perceptions and social dynamics is highlighted by Jane Jacobs’ studies (1961) of the informal urban support system in planning. Although planners need social science to understand aesthetic and social connections to the built environment, planning practice, however, continues to transfer practices from one place to another without enough attention to the role of context in outcomes (Healey et al., 2015). This research focuses on practices in light of the notion described by Healey et al. (2015): that successful spatial planning practice is directly related to social dynamics and specific locations. The study will use a social and a spatial lens for understanding urban gardening practices. One is the social practice theory (Shove et al., 2012) and the other is the spatial planning approach of everyday urbanism (Chase et al., 2008). Everyday urbanism is an umbrella approach which encompasses tactical urbanism (Lydon & Garcia, 2015) and guerilla gardening (Reynolds, 2014), but also has a focus on human scale planning (Gehl, 2010). Both lenses will further be explained in the ‘Theoretical Framework’ (chapter 3). The combination of the social practice theory and the everyday urbanism approach has yet to be used in spatial planning research. An urban garden case study will serve as starting point for developing inductive premises which will contribute to future research development. The audiences that profit from the study are spatial planners, socio-spatial analysts, landscape architects, food safety scholars, communities interested in urban gardening and farming. Yet the most targeted audience are the spatial planners. Insights regarding recommendations of analysis and design will be formulated with respect to the spatial planning context in the Netherlands. Purpose statement and research question This study is driven by theoretical aims, therefore falling into the category of ‘basic research’ (Healey et al., 2015). General purposes for this type of research are the advancement of fundamental knowledge regarding planning and the world in which planning operates in (Healey et al., 2015). Exploratory research is used, because the topic of this study has not been addressed before (Creswell, 2014). Focused on little known or understood phenomena, exploratory research contributes to more specific research questions for future descriptive or explanatory researches (Healey et al., 2015). The freedom to explore interesting paths and phenomena is ensured through this type of research. The purpose of this case study is to explore gardening practices in the case garden ‘Boeletuin’, located in Amsterdam, in order to gain valuable insights for spatial planning. The study also seeks to explore potential connections between the social and the spatial dimension. At this point of the research the gardening practices, the central phenomena of the study, will be briefly defined as configurations of materials, competences and meanings carried out by individuals in the specific location of an urban garden. An analysis based on social practices plays an important role in identifying risks and opportunities for spatial planning (Chase et al., 2008), (Lydon & Garcia, 2015), (Reynolds, 2014), (Gehl, J., 2010), (Carmona et al., 2010), (Healey et al., 2015). Therefore the underlying aim of this paper is to create an

Page 10: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

10

awareness in the current spatial planning context regarding the importance of social practices in analysis and design and its great potential to improve the urban quality of life. Illustrating the exploratory purpose of the research, the main research question is the following:

What insights can the lens of social practice theory and everyday urbanism offer for the spatial

planning practice, based on the case study of gardening practices at the ‘Boeletuin’ garden in

Amsterdam?

This question allows adaptability and flexibility for the exploratory character of the research. The

question contains theoretical terms, like ‘social practices’, which need further clarification. These terms

will be explained in detail in the ‘Theoretical Framework’ section (chapter 3). The research question

proved to be very rewarding and successful in revealing insights and conclusions which can further

contribute to explanatory studies with a more specific research question. The main research question

was associated with 2 subquestions (Creswell, 2009). The subquestions are addressed in chapters 3 and

chapter 4, as shown in table 2.

Chapter 3 Subquestion

1.1 What insights for spatial planning can the case study of the gardening practice at ‘Boeletuin’ garden reveal, in relation to the set of guidelines* identified through the theoretical lens of social practice theory and Everyday urbanism?

Chapter 4 Subquestion

1.2 What insights for spatial planning do the 3 gardening practice present at the ‘Boeletuin’ garden reveal, in relation to the set of guidelines** identified through the theoretical lens of social practice theory and everyday urbanism? * **Identified guidelines will be described in theoretical framework

Table 2. Research subquestions. Made by author.

Both types of single case design were used (Yin, 2009), as illustrated in figure 3. While Chapter 3 is

focused on single unit, holistic analysis of the whole urban garden, chapter 4 looks at the single case from

the perspective of multiple embedded units of analysis, which are the sub-cases, the different gardening

initiatives hosted by the case garden.

Page 11: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

11

Figure 3. Types of single case design. Source: Yin (2009), edited by author.

Page 12: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

12

2. Theoretical Framework and Methodology

Page 13: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

13

In this chapter we establish the theoretical framework that will be used to identify and analyze the practices presented in the case study. The framework is based on: social practice theory and everyday urbanism. First the two will be discussed individually and their concepts will be detailed. In the study they will be used together: the social practice builds up one part of the framework by offering guidelines to analyzing the elements of the gardening practice, while the everyday urbanism completes the framework by offering guidelines for analyzing the spatial planning and design. Therefore in the end of the chapter they will be connected one to another, commonalities and differences will be presented. As pointed out in the problem statement, the social systems and practices need to be considered for urban development (Cohen & Ilieva, 2015). The social practice theory defines practices through understanding the relationships between meanings, competences and materials (Shove et al., 2012). Taking this theory into consideration when researching spatial planning issues, like sustainability or food safety, brings a wide perspective on how communities and stakeholders take up practices connected to these issues. Everyday urbanism is an approach of spatial planning which has a strong connection to social practices (Chase et al., 2008). Concepts like spatial appropriation and flexibility for everyday practices stand at the core of everyday urbanism. While the social practice theory is applicable in almost any context, such as political, commercial, or of communities (Shove et al., 2012), everyday urbanism deals specifically with the everyday practices (e.g. activities and habbits) influencing urban spaces (Chase et al., 2008). The planning criteria mentioned by Jan Gehl’s (2010) is related to everyday urbanism and human scale planning, therefore it is also part of the theoretical framework.

Social practice theory

Elements and links. Social practices are a key factor in understanding how societies change or why they maintain a certain continuity. By exploring processes of transformation as well as stability there is a potential for understanding societal changes (Shove et al., 2012). Societal changes define our everyday life and our impact on the environment in which we live. The definition of social practices used herein is largely based on one established by Shove et al., (2012), paraphrased for our purposes as the following:

We work with the idea that practices are defined by interdependent relations between materials, competences and meanings. (Shove et al., 2012)

In order to better comprehend these concepts a practical example is illustrated in figure 1. Looking at cycling as a practice, we further identify the 3 elements (materials, meanings and competences) and the links between them. The competence is the know-how, the knowledge of driving a bicycle, the material is the physical design and presence of the bicycle and the meaning of cycling can vary from a means of

Page 14: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

14

transportation to having a healthy lifestyle. Once these three elements create links all at once, a conjunction is created, thereby bringing the practice into existence.

Meaning: transportation

or healthy lifestyle

Material: bycicle design,

physical componency

Competence: knowledge

of riding a bycicle

Figure 1. Bycicle-riding practice. Source: author.

Meanings, materials and competences affect each other and in doing so can further strengthen links or result in their breaking (Shove et al., 2012). For example, advances in technology make satellite navigation possible. In doing so, the practice of physical map reading has been utterly reduced. In this case knowledge development as well as development of materials (such as a GPS navigator) has broken up old links and defined a new practice. Elements have ‘lifetimes’ and the ability to circulate. For example, the element of knowledge has a lifetime. Knowledge is a highly transmissible element, as there are institutions, schools and universities which facilitate its transmission at a large scale amongst the individuals of society. Yet highly transmissible elements like knowledge can die out, for example courses of ceremonial dance which were taught in schools of ancient Egypt, which have disappeared and are no longer a part of modern day curricula in schools. In reference to the lifetime of elements, the example of design and operation of infrastructures is a good subject for discussion. At the physical larger scale of the urban environment, there is an increasing need of taking social practices into consideration for design. This means planning by considering characteristics of a practice. For example transportation systems in some cities might show unequal accessibility (Shove et al., 2012): large groups of residents from a more peripheral area may have a lower degree of accessibility to metro or tram when the planning focuses on transportation development in the central urban area. Therefore, the more accessible the material (infrastructure) is, the more daily practices (like going to work, or for leisure) are strengthened. The fact that urban networks are exclusive with regards to social practice distribution is further highlighted by Graham and Marvin (2001). This notion restates the study’s research problem: the research gap of a social practice based analysis and design in spatial planning. Developing competences in regard to social practices needs to be better explored in order to contribute to a solution for sustainable urban transitions (Cohen & Ilieva, 2015). The more knowledge about analysis and design risks and opportunities offered by social practices, the more this gap is filled.

Page 15: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

15

As described previously, practices are defined as entities, organized in models or mechanisms, with a specific conjunction of elements (meanings, competences and materials). Yet practices also manifest as performances. The performance is characterized by the ‘doing’ and these repeated enactments establish the practice itself. For example the bicycle riding practice is represented previously by the mechanism illustrated in figure 1, yet it exists simultaneously as the day to day reenacted activity of cycling, the performance shown in figure 2. Individuals are identified as carriers of the practice. They are the ones responsible for its existence. This analytic distinction between practice-as-entity and practice-as-performance enables a more comprehensive interpretation of enactments and reproductions of practices. The first is more schematic, generally applicable, while the second is related to everyday life. Carriers The carriers are the individuals who enact a practice (Shove et al., 2012). We perform practices throughout the whole day: we eat, we work and we drive bicycles or cars through the city. Yet what makes us choose some practices over others? What makes us take up a new practice and eventually become a carrier? Previous interests and affiliation were found to be reasons for individuals to take up a practice. A circle of connected individuals with similar interests was shown to create more rapid interaction between members. Close knit networks, which are especially conductive to innovation, are created in this process (Crossley, 2008). An example for groups of similar carriers can be found in the business and industry context. People in business and industry have always strived to create ‘communities of practice’ within their own organizations. This facilitated the opportunity to study close-knit networks and how diffusions of practices mirrors movements within and between social worlds. Therefore the following question was raised:

Why not arrange companies, cities and regions so that they facilitate these forms of interaction? (Wenger, E. & Snyder W., 2000)

Communities and practices constitute each other. This conclusion, stated by Wenger (1999), can be used in explaining why top-down initiatives often face challenges: if communities of practice are developed from the experience of doing a performance in real time, it is not possible to will them into reality, or even design them remotely. Communities of practice represent a unit where social practices must develop. They are formed by a group of people with shared expertise and motivation. The organizational principles which govern communities of practice can be: looser, more open to innovation or more rigid. For practices to survive they need to retain carriers. After recruitment of carriers, some scope for innovation in the community of practice keeps them committed. An example is the situation where a gardener with alternative gardening knowledge (like permaculture) intends to exchange knowledge and

Figure 2. Cycling as a performance. Source: linuxandfriends.com

Page 16: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

16

share gardening activities with another gardener, who has knowledge based in traditional agriculture. Depending on the openness of the more ‘traditional’ gardener and the adaptability of the alternative gardener to traditional knowledge, their interaction might be a challenge or a success. They might choose to part ways and look for similar organizational structures, or they can choose to work together and create a specific gardening practice. Practices which live for more than a generation develop the need to attract new carriers. Improvement of design, increasing comfort and quality are important in recruiting individuals. For example the practice of taking a shower has become embedded through social and material networks (houses come equipped with bathrooms). Methods of recruitment are the design of the bathroom, as well as the social expectations from family and friends (Burke, 1996). If friends and family expect that you have a certain lifestyle, involving daily or weekly showering, then the wish for acceptance will influence individual practice choices. Showering is a popular practice that has spread internationally, and it is fairly advanced in its design. It is easy to take it up as a practice, because materials make the experience comfortable and accessible. Another important aspect of practice engagements are the first encounters. They are critical for the recruitment process of the individual. For example, an individual who decides to be part of a book club, yet after first meetings realizes that the people making up this group do not share basic values of his, like common sense or sociability, will most probably give up the practice. On the other hand, if the individual feels welcome in the group, he or she may continue joining the practice. Furthermore, the volunteering aspect is essential to consider. Where participation is voluntary, practices are required to offer more input for keeping committed carriers (Shove et al., 2012). The reason for this is the challenge of creating a reward system for volunteers. In professional, work-related situations money is a material which can be easily exchanged for gaining value. In the case of the studied urban garden which had practices based on voluntary work, the reward system consisted of: food, seeds, learning opportunities, social networking or sharing satisfactory meanings. However, even this still raises challenges in keeping regular carriers. The process of practice transmission, from one carrier to another, is mainly discussed in this study from the point of view of transmitting knowledge. This happens in stages and is time-dependent. Through experience the expertise-level of the carrier grows and his identity changes. Carriers start out as novices, ‘outsiders’. Their career then develops by engaging and constantly enacting the practice. They become committed and then are referred to as ‘full practitioners’ (Lave & Wenger, 1991). A practice will therefore be carried out by individuals which have different degrees of experience and different levels of commitment. New generations of beginners and ‘old-hands’ create patchworks of various performances, which constitutes the practice (Lave & Wenger, 1999). The ‘old-hands’ define the core of the practice and keep the same rhythm and characteristics of the practice, while the new generation has a different motivation for doing activities and will lead with a more innovative style. This part took up and explained concepts like ‘carriers’, ‘communities of practice’ and recruitment factors in order to understand how individuals relate to the practice as a performance. Until now the elements and the components of one single practice were discussed. The next section discusses relations between different practices by defining new concepts such as collaboration and competition.

Page 17: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

17

Connections between practices. Collaboration and competition. In the same way elements link-up and create a practice, so do practices link with other practices and create bundles or complexes. Relations between practices can be either loose or dense. Bundles of practices are loose patterns defined by co-location and co-existence of practices. On the other hand, a complex of practices constitutes a self-standing entity and has a dense and integrated character. Loose patterns that are defined by co-location have the potential to evolve into denser entities (complexes), and therefore play an influential role in social and institutional change. From this point of view cities can be analyzed as urban ‘force fields’, acting as nodes facilitating the meeting and flow of knowledge, different cultures and interests. Proximity is a factor that increases cross-development of otherwise unrelated practices (Amin & Thrift, 2007). For example, the positioning of a school in the vicinity of a park could facilitate a relation between practices based on leisure activities. If the same school is situated near a commercial center this will contribute to a different type of relation between practices, based on commercial activities. Bundles and complexes are influenced by competition and/or collaboration between practices. Previously, it was discussed that the presence of elements and links define the existence of practices. Yet relations of competition and collaboration also define the existence of a practice. Collaboration is characterized by mutual support (Shove et al., 2012). For example in the case of affiliate partnerships: individuals get rewarded for promoting products they enjoy from a company, while the company is also benefiting from promotion and sales. The benefits are enjoyed by both parties and as such, strengthen both practice. In contrast, competition can negatively affect the survival of a practice. For example gardening practice versus television watching. Studies about people’s free time allocation, made from the 1950s until the present, show that the arrival of the television has fundamentally changed leisure choices. At the beginning of the 50s, gardening in Britain was very popular and preferred to television. This changed over time as television gained popularity, resulting in decreased or lack of commitment for gardening (Griffith & Holden, 2004). Bundles and complexes of practices are defined by space, but also by time:

Bundles and complexes of practices are implicated in the reproduction of space and time and the distribution of […] elements (material, meaning and competence). (Shove et al., 2012)

This quote highlights the critical importance of timing (i.e. case of gardening versus the appearance of television watching) for reproduction and transformation of practices. The transformation of practices can be defined by supportive (collaborative) or challenging (competitive) relations. This section explained the relations between practices and introduced the concept of collaborative and competitive relations. The concepts were used to show why and how practices can group together and affect each other’s existence. The next section details a theoretical concept used to define the specific context of the case garden. Global micro-structure. The theoretical concept used to describe the case garden. The concept used for describing the case garden is called ‘global micro-structure’, this choice will be explained after introducing the concept itself. Global micro-structures are a driving force for connectivity and coordination. They combine the global level with self-organizing, microstructural patterns. Global

Page 18: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

18

micro-structures are configurations which exist both alongside and outside conventional societal structures (Knorr Cetina, 2005). These configurations possess a distinctive capacity for change. Global micro-structures are a starting point for societal innovation and are defined as following by the sociologist Knorr Cetina, (2005):

Global systems based on microstructural principles do not exhibit institutional complexity but rather asymmetries, unpredictabilities and playfulness of complex […] interaction patterns. (Knorr Cetina, 2005)

As an example for global microstructures is the practice of guerilla gardening. Guerilla gardening is spreading fast, from a local initiative on the edge and sometimes outside the system norms (Reynolds, 2014), to an accepted and supported global practice. Guerilla gardening started out as a citizen led initiative, of planting without authorization in public green space. The intention is to make these spaces aesthetically pleasing and to create a sense of ownership for neglected, unsafe urban spaces (Reynolds, 2014). It is a spontaneous, uncontrolled movement, which has grown globally and in time got more and more acceptance from authorities. Although considered a bit dangerous in the beginning, being on the edge of legality, this practice is now taken up also by children (figure 3). Appropriating underused/misused public green space and using self-organizing principles to design this space, stands under the concept of global micro-structures. Alternative forms of global micro structures are other self-organizing projects like: do-it-yourself allotment gardens, citizen-led design projects or even living neighborhoods. The description above of the global micro-structures applies well to the researched urban garden. Self-organizing principles are created by the people who manage the garden. The characteristics of the garden are in contrast with the urban context it is situated in (a dense built area of the financial district). This contrast situates it alongside yet outside the regular urban system. The theoretical concept of global micro-structures is very valuable for the context of the selected urban garden, offering a good starting point for exploration. Not necessarily all cases which are outside social or urban order have to be starting points for societal innovation or change. Yet an argument in favor of the garden are the multiple innovative initiatives hosted in the same space. This is a good indicator for potential societal and urban innovation. Conclusion All the theoretical concepts explored so far in this chapter are derived from social practice theory. They illustrate motives and processes behind the dynamics of practices. The concepts contribute to understanding why practices exist, why social practices manifest the way they do and what are the reasons for their formation or their disappearance. Table 3 recalls the concepts described in the study so far.

Figure 3. Source: ‘On Guerilla Gardening’, Richard Reynolds, 2014.

Page 19: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

19

Concept Brief explanation

Elements and processes of a practice

Practice-as-entity Configuration of meanings, competences and materials

Practice-as-performance A reenacted activity

Carriers Individuals who take up a practice

Communities of practice Specific organizational structure hosting a practice

Recruitment factors Reasons and motivations for individuals to take up a practice.

Relations and configurations of different practices

Collaborative relation between practices

Relation based on mutual benefits

Competitive relation between practices

Relation which can negatively impact one of the practices and affect its existence.

Bundles Configuration of practices based on loose relations, usually defined by co-location.

Complexes Configuration of practices based on strong relations based on collaborative relations; they are self-standing entities.

Context (in relation with the specific case of the urban garden)

Global micro-structures Practice patterns set outside societal structures with a high capacity for change and innovation.

Table 3. Concepts from the social practice theory. Source: Shove et al. (2012). Made by author.

The theoretical concepts described in the previous paragraph and listed in table 3 converge into three core concepts of the social practice theory: practice elements and links, carriers, collaboration and competition. Since the theory of social practice provides many concepts, choosing 3 core concepts helped focus the research. Figure 4 shows the relation between concepts and core concepts.

Concepts

1.Practice elements & links2.Carriers3.Collaboration & competition

Core conceptsFrom the theoretical framework

From the social practice theory

Understaning of WHY social practices manifest the way they do.

Figure 4. Core concepts from social practice theory. Made by author.

So far the social practice theory focused on social practices. The approach of everyday urbanism is required to show how social practices influence the spatial dimension, in order to add to the core concepts and make the connection to spatial planning.

Page 20: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

20

Everyday urbanism

The association of the two terms ‘everyday’ and ‘urbanism’ signals a new position and approach in

understanding cities. ‘Everyday’ tells about the utterly ordinary human experience shared by urban

residents such as: working, leisure and simple movement through the city. Urbanism is a contested field,

because of the large number of overlapping meanings constituting a city, examples of which are:

experiential, material, social, political, aesthetic, etc. It is thus challenging to group them in one single

understanding. As we look further into the concept of ‘urbanism as a way of life’ (Wirth, 1938) we

embrace the primary role of human experience as the fundament of urbanism (Chase et al., 2008). The

human experience in planning should not be conceptualized, but rather simplified and observed in real

time. This notion is better illustrated by the philosophical position of the sociologist Lefevbre (1947),

pioneer in analyzing everyday life and introducing concepts like ‘social space’ and ‘the right to the city’:

We are unable to seize the human facts. We fail to see them where they are, namely in humble,

familiar, everyday objects. Our search for the human takes too far, too deep. We seek it in the clouds

or in mysteries, whereas it is waiting for us, besieging us on all sides. (Lefebvre, 1947)

While the first part of the theoretical framework was dedicated to the social practice theory, this second

part addresses a framework which takes up spatial planning from the viewpoint of everyday urban

practices. Everyday urbanism is an umbrella approach covering a number of varied types of urbanism,

such as do-it-yourself urbanism, tactical urbanism, guerilla gardening, etc. Everyday urbanism embraces

the diversity of life and the varied urban bottom-up projects. These bottom-up projects can range from

small scale informal projects, like guerilla gardening, to larger scale projects like living neighborhoods.

Historical facts that led to everyday urbanism.

The approach of everyday urbanism was developed in direct opposition to big scale projects and real estate developments which are abstracted from people (Jane Jacobs, 1961), (Chase et al., 2008). European and international urban context in the early 1920s was influenced by large scale projects, like Le Corbusiers’ ‘radiant city’. The ‘radiant city’ model was intended to erase the existing vernacular and build the cities of the future (figure 5). The failings of these projects is obvious in many American cities which were carefully planned, but underused (Jane

Jacobs, 1961), (Chase et al., 2008). What was forgotten in designs was the human scale, favoring instead car-purposed infrastructure on a grand scale. This led to a highly negative impact on liveliness of cities and the decrease of quality of life. Figure 6 shows a public housing neighborhood (lower left corner) in New York, which was planned and designed in line with Le Corbusiers’ concept of the ‘radiant city’. The

Figure 5. Model of the ‘radiant city’. Source: archdaily.com.

Page 21: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

21

streets are very wide, buildings are surrounded by greenery which does not function as a park and instead creates unsafe areas without identity. The helicopter view emphasizes the huge scale fitting a lifeless model rather than human everyday needs. Applying everyday urbanism. Everyday life is the basis for all social experiences in everyday urbanism and needs a stage to unfold itself. Planning without considering the existing activities, movements and interests of people, can lead to aesthetically pleasing models and simulations of highly populated urban spaces, but these simulations do not hold to reality when constructed. Therefore, everyday practices that create liveliness and the quality of life should be forefront when planning (Lefebvre, 1947).

A good example of everyday urbanism projects is ‘Parking day’, a project which started out in America and then spread globally. Citizens claim parking lots with the intention of making it more lively and creating a higher quality for urban life (figure 7). These spatial qualities, which can be created in smaller scale yet also in larger scales of neighborhoods and living areas, often are situated outside the regular urban and social patterns. They reinterpret the city. Self-organizing and appropriation of space connects to what is described in the social practice theory as global micro-structures.

Figure 7. Park(ing) day. Source: parkingday.org.

Figure 6. New York City. Source: newworldeconomics.com.

Page 22: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

22

Everyday urbanism focuses on what makes cities alive: places where people gather, where they move, where people start up creative activities and where they express themselves. In this way they are reclaiming elements of the ordinary that have been hidden in the urban environment. For example an

unused old car might become an artistic canvas. An intersection can develop into a large scale painting made by the everyday urban life (figure 8). These spatial qualities have been found in overlooked places, from vacant lots to popular public places, from suburban to urban and central areas (Chase et al., 2008). In Everyday urbanism people take up the creative role of being designers and spatial planners themselves. They adapt the physical space to their everyday needs. The success of applying everyday urbanism as a spatial planning method is demonstrated by many international

projects (Chase et. al, 2008). Spatial and temporal dimension from the perspective of everyday urbanism To gain insights for spatial planning by using the everyday urbanism, concepts are first elaborated. Space and time are key concepts for planning, therefore the perspective from which everyday urbanism defines them is valuable for the analysis of the case study.

Ordinary life unfolds in everyday space. Everyday space is itself a texture of time, space and intricate social practices. For example a historical square may be a good space for observing everyday life. The texture there consists of not only the physical elements defining the shape of the square (buildings, public furniture, textures and materials), but also the various activities going on in the square, be they leisure oriented or

commercial. These activities are acted out by groups of people passing by, street musicians and people staying, enjoying a drink or taking a break. Social and spatial elements are interwoven, as street musicians choose the best spots to sing in. Figure 9 shows a beatboxing singer who has chosen an intersection point in the historical center of Brussels to maximize the number of people who participate in his performance. The texture of everyday life is completed by time. The timeline influence certain habits and activities. For example lunch brakes, evenings, or holidays will probably be moments of maximal flows of people in a

Figure 8. Source: honestlywtf.com.

Figure 9. Brussels square. Source: dailymail.co.uk.

Page 23: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

23

touristic area (e.g. historical square). Time creates a rhythm in the figurative “field” of everyday practice, where habits, needs and spontaneous accidents interact to create a pattern of everyday life. From the perspective of everyday urbanism time consists of a set of 3 temporalities, as mentioned by Chase et al. (2008): cyclical, linear and spontaneous time. The cyclical time is characterized by the rhythms of nature: night and day, changing seasons, birth and death. The linear time is defined by rational processes, measured into quantifiable schedules of work and leisure. Units are used for measurement of linear time: timetables, coffee-breaks, etc. The third category of time is the “everyday” time, and lies in spontaneous and discontinuous moments (Lefebvre, 1947). Of the three, spontaneous time is the most relevant to social change. Linear and cyclical temporalities, repeated across days, weeks, months and years, shape the rhythm of our lived experience. In contrast, spontaneous time punctuates the repetitive routine of daily life and creates instances of rupture in the temporal rhythms. These instances of rupture may manifest as fleeting sensations of play, rest, love and knowledge in otherwise forgettable daily motions. For example the daily routine of going to work might one day be interrupted by a street performer singing a song reminding the by-passer of a certain memory, or perhaps projecting an emotion of hope. These moments have the role of a momentary illumination, revealing possibilities and limitations in the current life, carrying the role of messengers of what life is and what it might be. These moments are valuable keys for social change. They are potential revolutions in an individual’s everyday life which explore new and unacknowledged realities of the urban experience (Chase et al., 2008). Spatial and temporal dimension- their role for strategies and tactics. The spatial and temporal dimension in everyday urbanism are valuable concepts for exploring spatial planning cases. The spatial and temporal dimension is handled through two types of approaches for design: strategies and tactics. Strategies are the practices of institutions which are in power, acted out through delineation of proper spatial or institutional places. In strategic decisions space has an advantage over time, as decisions usually have a long lasting spatial character. Most top-down planning and design projects are strategic. They are developed by professional planners, architects, designers and realized in collaboration with the local or regional administration.

In contrast to strategies, tactics is a way of operating without having a proper place, making them far more time dependent. Tactical practices depend on opportunities, on wisely chosen moments and on the adaptability of the actors. Motivated actors take up practical solutions for urban issues, making it a pragmatic planning practice (Lydon & Garcia, 2015). Tactics therefore express a form of everyday creativity which challenges the status quo of places in the city (Chase et al., 2008); (Lydon & Garcia, 2015). Figure 10. Tactical pedestrian crossing, Oakville. Source: youtube.com.

Page 24: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

24

Tactical projects are short term actions, often temporary in character, but may have long lasting effects. They are usually carried out by citizens empowering themselves to design the urban space according to their needs, rather than simply using it as provided. These needs could be in the name of public safety, as in Oakville, Canada, where the need to safely cross the street forced residents to take matters in their own hands and find a creative solution (figure 10). The utilization of both strategic and tactical planning and design can create everyday spaces characterized by quality of life. When both types work together there is a better chance of spatial design which facilitates quality of life and everyday practices (Certeau, 1984). The ‘play streets’ project in London and New York (Lydon & Garcia, 2015) illustrates a design project where a collaboration of tactical (neighborhood) and strategic (city department) planning led to temporary design of child friendly streets (figure 16). To fully grasp urban design from the perspective of everyday urbanism, the role of people in the process is elaborated on next. The two concepts of appropriation and place-making reveal valuable insights for spatial planning. Appropriation Appropriation is a core concept of everyday urbanism. It means people occupy a space and transform it through their practices. Appropriation is an ongoing dialogue between urban inhabitants and the space where they carry out daily activities. As everyday practices are constantly changing, spatial qualities like flexibility (i.e. minimal rules and regulations) and looseness can support this process. This also provides opportunities for small scale, spontaneous interventions. If the principles of flexibility do not apply to the space, a rigid organized area with a high amount of limitations and regulations for its use can hinder appropriation (Chase et al., 2008). Performances shape the appropriation process. They illustrate the urban vernacular and are all visible activities which interact with the spatial context: from drying laundry on the balcony to dancing at street parades. The vernacular is what ordinary people do in their everyday lives. These activities create specific spatial configurations, some of which manifest architecturally independent. The urban vernacular is in contrast to designated and fixed spaces, showing what should be, yet is challenging to plan by using strategic urban plans. The urban vernacular is a local improvisation with temporal character. For example, street performers or children, which playfully reinterpret public space. Through appropriation playful spaces are Figure 12. ‘Dutch design week’, Eindhoven. Source: author.

Figure 11. Play streets, London. Source: lbhf.gov.uk.

Page 25: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

25

created, where control cannot be used and a tacit form of understanding governs the space (Chase et al., 2008). Space is adaptable and changes roles, from a theatre to a stage. Figure 12 illustrates an example of a playful and flexible space in the city of Eindhoven, the Netherlands. This space reaches out in a dialogue with bystanders and by-passers, with children of all ages. The painting tools, an unused car in a public square start a conversation to which the people respond excited. If reenacted, the appropriation performances can become an instrument of urban memory, leading to place-making (the concept of place-making will be elaborated next). The activity in figure 10 is part of an artistic event in the city of Eindhoven, the ‘Dutch design week’. If this event is repeated, than it will enter the urban memory and the memory of the social collective. Thus it will become part of the city and an expected and embraced performance. Place-making. Place-making occurs after repeated appropriation and is based on the qualities of spatial design. If the spatial design is flexible and takes the human scale and activities into consideration, than it is open for place-making. Planning for the place is concerned with the physical and aesthetical entities as well as behavioral settings, therefore it connects the ‘hard’ city (spaces and constructions) with the ‘soft’ city (people and activities) (Carmona et al., 2010). This process starts after understanding how daily practices take place. Planning for the place implies going against traditional design discourse, which is based on fixed strategies and plans (Chase et al., 2008), (Carmona et al., 2010).

The main catalyst of bottom-up place-making is civic engagement and empowerment. Place-making can happen with or without the support of scientists or experts. Everyone is a designer by default, a user of physical space as well as a transformer. In the previous example of the car painting in Eindhoven there was support from the municipality in facilitating the ‘Dutch design week’. This temporary formal design project was inspired from the informal activities of everyday life (e.g. graffiti art

projects). Everyday informal design has a great potential in creating lively, quality spaces with little or no intervention from professionals (figure 13).

Figure 13. Source: futurecapetown.com.

Page 26: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

26

Although place-making has this informal side to it, it also occurs in a more formal and professional way, creating coherence at a larger scale (Chase et al., 2008). This can be seen in the following two successful design projects of large scale place-making. The individual garden plots in Naerum, Denmark, were planned in 1948 by professional planners. The plan gave the occupants of each designated oval-shaped plot the freedom to design municipal grounds (figure 14). Similar examples of allotment gardens are frequent in Denmark and the Netherlands.

An even larger scale example is the Homeruskwartier in Almere, Netherlands. This is a residential area (figure 15 and 16) which is developed and built by its own inhabitants. The local authority drew up the street plan, then makes the plots available at standard commercial cost.

Appropriation and place-making in the researched garden is made by entrepreneurs, with no professional planning background and guidance. This was purposely selected in order to explore what insights can be drawn regarding informal appropriation and place-making relevant for the spatial planning practice. The design results created by the entrepreneurs in the garden are tested through criteria for spatial quality from everyday urbanism related fields of study. Spatial quality Relevant spatial quality criteria are selected from Kevin Lynchs’ (1981) and Jan Gehl’s (2010) planning approaches. These criteria are relevant because they focus on place-making and human scale planning. It is important to specify that place-making and human scale planning are concepts which belong to the umbrella approach of everyday urbanism. The method used for selection was to identify common criteria from the two authors. Kevin Lynch (1981), defined 5 criteria for a successful urban design: vitality, sense, fit, access and control. Jan Gehl (2010) created four criteria for urban design based on human scale in city planning: liveliness, safety, sustainability, health and delightfulness (Gehl, 2010). I identified the following 7 common criteria listed as common for both and illustrated in table 4.

Figure 14. Allotment gardens, Naerum. Source: Landscape architects network facebook page.

Figure 15. Homeruskwartier, Almere. Source: poort.almere.nl. Figure 16. Homeruskwartier, Almere. Source: poort.almere.nl.

Page 27: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

27

Criteria of spatial quality Source

Vitality Kevin Lynch (1981), Jan Gehl (2010)

Accessibility Kevin Lynch (1981)

Efficiency Kevin Lynch (1981)

Safety Kevin Lynch (1981), Jan Gehl (2010)

Sustainability Jan Gehl (2010)

Health Jan Gehl (2010)

Delightfulness Jan Gehl (2010) Table 4. Criteria of spatial quality. Made by the author.

The criteria are briefly introduced in this section (as part of the theoretical framework). The analysis is based on the social practices at the garden, therefore these criteria will not serve for gaining insights or formulating recommendations. They will only illustrate what effects practices can have on the spatial dimension. The criteria are an extension in exploring the guideline of ‘place-making’ introduced from everyday urbanism. They will serve as a ‘checklist’ for analyzing ‘place-making’ based on the opinions of garden members and participant observations in the ‘Boeletuin’ (chapter 3). Conclusion The concepts previous identified in everyday urbanism are restated in table 5 with a brief explanation.

Concept Brief explanation

Appropriation Occupation and transformation of space according to practices (performances)

Place-making Can occur after reenacted appropriation, spatial qualities are met through the enacting of the practice.

Everyday space The urban vernacular, where spatial, temporal and social dimension meet

Everyday time Defined by cyclical time (i.e. seasons), linear time (timetable of chores) and spontaneous moments (moments which disturb the routine)

Tactics Bottom-up (citizen-led) planning and design initiatives

Strategies Top-down planning and design initiatives

Table 5. Concepts of Everyday urbanism. Source: author.

The six concepts converge in three core concepts: appropriation, place-making, spatial and temporal dimension (figure 17).

Page 28: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

28

Concepts

1.Spatial and temporaldimension2.Appropriation3.Place-making

Core conceptsFrom the theoretical framework

From everyday urbanism

Understaning of HOW practices influence the spatial dimension.

Figure 17. Core concepts from theory of Everyday urbanism. Source: author.

Connecting social practice theory with everyday urbanism

So far the social practice theory and everyday urbanism approach have been discussed individually. The intention of the study is to use them together for collecting data, analysis and gaining insights for spatial planning. The framework of the two theories combined is the first attempt in spatial planning research, thus it has brought up some challenges as well as promising insights. The backbone of the framework is a selection of six core concepts from each theory (three from social practice theory and three from everyday urbanism). The core concepts from the social practice theory explain why practices function the way they do, while the core concepts from everyday urbanism illustrate how the spatial dimension is influenced by practices. The combination of the two creates a complementary character (figure 18).

Social practice theory

Practice elements (meanings, materials and competences) &

links

Collaboration and competition

Carriers

Everyday urbanism

Spatial and temporal dimension

Appropriation

Place-making

Complementary

Figure 18. Complementary core concepts. Source: theoretical framework, made by: author.

The two theories have complementary concepts, but they also have contrasting definitions: practices-as-entities vs. everyday practices and carriers vs. complex actors. Although the concept of social practices lies at the heart of both theories, social practices are reflected differently by each theoretical lens (figure 19). The social practice theory (Shove et al., 2012) defines the social practices in two ways: first as an entity consisting of meanings, materials and competences and second as performances. As for individuals, they are defined as human resources, ‘carriers’ of the practice-as-performances. Everyday urbanism defines social practices as a conjunction of people’s habits, spontaneity and desires (Chase et

Page 29: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

29

al., 2008). In contrast to social practice theory, Everyday urbanism views the individuals as complex actors using and shaping the space. They create the vernacular, the everyday life of cities. Figure 19 illustrates the contrasting definitions of concepts.

Social practice theory

Practice-as-entityConceptualized, fixed model of

social practicesContrasting

Everyday urbanism

Everyday practices Complex activities

Complex actors, users and shapers of space

Individuals are viewed as carriers

Figure 19. Contrasting concepts. Source: theoretical framework, made by author.

The identified shared concepts are: practice-as-performances, reenactments and global micro-structures. Figure 20 shows the equivalence of shared concepts from the two theories.

Practices-as-performances=

Everyday practices

Global micro-structures=

Everyday space

Process of repetition and reenactment

=Appropriation and

place-making

Social practice theory Everyday urbanism

Figure 20. Shared concepts of the two theories. Source: theoretical framework, made by author.

This chapter introduced the 6 complementary core concepts, further used as exploratory guidelines for data collection and analysis in this study (fig. 21). They play an important role in understanding why practices manifest the way they do (core guidelines from social practice theory) and how they influence the spatial dimension (core guidelines from Everyday urbanism).

Page 30: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

30

ConceptsFrom the theoretical framework

1.Practice elements & links2.Carriers3.Collaboration/ competition4.Spatial and temporal dimension5. Appropriation6. Place-making

Chapter 2

Core conceptsFrom the theoretical framework

Chapter 2

GuidelinesFor data collection and analysis

Chapter 3 & 4

1.Practice elements & links2.Carriers3.Collaboration/ competition4.Spatial and temporal dimension5. Appropriation6. Place-making

Figure 21. Process of defining analysis guidelines. Source: theoretical framework, made by author.

Approaching the research through the two lenses of social practice theory and everyday urbanism has implications for the chosen methods of analysis. This is elaborated next.

Methodology

The research for this study is conducted within the constructivist paradigm as pointed out by the ‘Worldview of the researcher’ section (chapter 1). In this study the subjectivist epistemology (Denzin & Lincoln, 2005) is chosen because it follows a similar line as the constructivist paradigm. Subjectivist epistemology states that an absolute truth does not exist, yet is created by the interaction of an individual with the world. It is presumed that multiple realities exist which are specific and local. A deep understanding of the social world is facilitated when the researcher takes up the uniqueness of an empirical reality, in a historical and geographical context (Bourdieu, 1998). Human interpretation and the creation of meaning is at the center of constructivism (O’Leary, 2004). This process is necessary in having a deeper understanding of the complex construction of the reality. The role of the researcher in this constructivist paradigm is to study people’s actions, the involved objects and the social background in order to: observe, interpret and attribute meanings (Blumer, 1969). The process is to understand involved actor’s interpretation of a certain situation (Schwandt, 1998). The case study is used as the appropriate research design to study complex structures of reality and actor interpretation. The social phenomenon put under the lens consists of the practices of urban gardening and their effects on the spatial dimension. A social phenomenon is studied by analyzing one or more cases (Kumar, 2011). The case study is useful for a detailed and elaborate research on a small number of social configurations (Numagami, 1998). It enables a holistic approach by creating the opportunity to study the case and its specific context as a whole. Due to time limitations of this research a single case garden was chosen. I made a longitudinal study (Kumar, 2011) of the garden, by regularly visiting the location two times a week during a time span of 2 months.

Page 31: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

31

Case garden The ‘Boeletuin’ is an urban garden in the the Zuidas area, the financial district of Amsterdam. The land of the ‘Boeletuin’ garden is owned by the VU University in Amsterdam, which is located in the vicinity of the area. It is located in a former school garden and is the host for a number of initiatives: a cantina, an area with individual plots, a community permaculture garden, a community research garden and a mushroom business. The owner of the cantina is also the garden caretaker of the entire space. He rents out individual plots and hosts the other initiatives at ‘Boeletuin’. The community permaculture garden and the community research garden are community based gardens. For community based gardening, volunteering is the main participation type. On the other hand, individual gardeners pay a yearly membership fee. Case selection Case selection was done based on the limitations of the research. The main limitations were: time, language, distance to metropolitan areas (at the time of the research I was living in Wageningen, a small city) and the lack of connections with existing urban gardening initiatives. Three main criteria for case selection were set out:

The case will have a large variety of activities, initiatives and participants, which facilitates the exploration (Stake, 2005) of different gardening practices at the same location. Side benefits would be increased validity and optimization of time resources.

The case garden will be set in a metropolitan area.

Most gardeners (or at least key participants) will be able to speak English. I chose the metropolitan area of Amsterdam, well known for its abundance of urban gardening and farming initiatives. In order to identify the appropriate garden case I first searched the internet, only to find there were tens, even hundreds of gardening and farming initiatives throughout the city. Time was clearly a limitation, as I could not study each initiative to find the right one. Therefore I asked for help my thesis supervisor. I presented the purpose of the research, as well as limitations and basic criteria for case selection. He is very familiar with urban garden cases in Amsterdam and suggested the ‘Boeletuin’ garden. I then visited the garden, had a first impression and got to know the basic situation. It fulfilled all the 3 basic criteria and seemed like a very promising future case study. Table 6 illustrates the basic characteristics of the case study and the gardening practices which were studied.

‘Boeletuin’ garden

General surface (source: ruimtelijkeplannen.nl)

Approximately 10.240 m2 (initially it was 14.640 m2, yet because of the building of a parking lot, 4400m2 in the garden in 2015, garden size has been reduced)

Decision makers The land is owned by the VU University. The ‘Boeletuin’ caretaker is responsible for general maintenance of the garden.

Year of establishment 1959 (for more than 40 years it was a school garden called ‘Almatuin’)

Gardening initiatives Garden of the individual plots

Community permaculture garden

Community research garden

Initiators ‘Boeletuin’ garden caretaker

3 entrepreneurs Diverse group of entrepreneurs and researchers

Page 32: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

32

Decision makers** ‘Boeletuin’ garden caretaker

The 3 entrepreneurs. The ‘Boeletuin’ garden caretaker is their host and oversees general maintenance; he can also step in in case of bigger decisions.

The project leader of the group. The ‘Boeletuin’ garden caretaker is their host and oversees maintenance; he can step in in case of bigger decisions.

Maintenance Individual gardeners. The ‘Boeletuin’ garden caretaker oversees that maintenance of individual plots (e.g. weeding) is carried out by gardeners. He himself has general maintenance responsibilities (e.g. laying compost, keeping pathways clear).

The 3 entrepreneurs and volunteers.

The project leader together with the group of entrepreneurs, researchers and volunteers.

Starting year 2013 2015 2015

Table 6. ‘Boeletuin’ garden characteristics. Source: online documentation and participant observations. Made by author.

Methods used for data collection. Multiple methods are used in the study of the case. Triangulation, or multiple methods of data collection and analysis were used in order to strengthen reliability as well as internal validity (Flick, 2002), (Creswell, 2014). Using multiple methods in the context of theory of practice and everyday urbanism is useful, as it highlights activities, sayings and interpretations of the practices made by the gardeners. The data collection and analysis in this study were guided by the 6 core concepts introduced in chapter 2. Further these core concepts are referred to as guidelines. Individuals have the capacity to express coherently their motivations, reasons and to reflect on them (Shatzki, 1996). They are a valuable source for understanding a practice, thus the methods I used to collect primary data are: participant observations, surveys and interviews. Secondary data such as relevant literature and documentation, is used to complement primary data collection. Participant observations Participant observations were made in the form of on-site visits. I made 16 on-site visits of approximately 7 hours each. In order to record the data from participant observations I used field notes and photographs. The process of taking field notes begins from the moment the researcher enters the site (Healey et al., 2015). He is the primary instrument of data collection, by being an active observer and identifying experiences from multiple perspectives. The researcher first takes mental notes and then puts them down in written form (Healey et al., 2015). I had a regular schedule of two visits per week during

Page 33: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

33

my two-month data collection phase. I shared an individual plot with a garden member and volunteered at both community-based gardening practices present in ‘Boeletuin’. Usually the two days of visit (Wednesday and Friday) coincided with the volunteering days at the community research garden and the community permaculture garden and were regular gardening days for people from the individual plots. On these two specific days all gardening initiatives were present. I also made a field visit during the weekend and on a non-volunteering week day (Thursday). Field visits were conducted during the autumn season, from September to the beginning of November 2015. I played the role of both an observer and participant. I was observer when my role as a researcher was known by others (Creswell, 2014). I was complete participant when my role was concealed and unknown to some members. Most of the people knew my role, either from interactions or because they were informed by initiative leaders of the garden, yet there were gardeners with whom I had no contact, or with whom I had very brief encounters. These last ones did not know of my role as a researcher. While recording and writing mental notes and impressions, the researcher has to remain attuned to his biases (Healey et al., 2015). I mention my biases both in the field notes and in the results of the study. Examples of biases I experienced are: effects on emotional and physical state caused by a day of intensive gardening work, effects caused by low temperature, etc. I took part in all gardening activities as if I were a member myself. In time trust was created and my position as an outsider changed. Connections were built, making this method a success. People coming at the garden were familiar with my presence, therefore limiting the Hawthorne effect of any changes in behavior regarding my presence (Kumar, 2011). I acted naturally and blended in easily, adjusting to the local situation well and carried out observations successfully. My behavior was subtle, I did not stand out. Sometimes I carried a notebook or a small digital camera. Most of my field notes were written before or after field visits. Sometimes I would write quick comments or insights during the actual visits, which I considered important and maybe would have otherwise forgotten. The content of the field notes was unstructured. They usually described the experience at the garden, with a focus on the 6 guidelines from the theoretical framework. I tried to achieve a balance between my role as gardener and my role as a researcher. I used the camera to have a detailed photographic overview of all individual plots and community garden initiatives present in the ‘Boeletuin’. This served as valuable data for the analysis of the spatial dimension. Questionnaire The questionnaire has the purpose of collecting general as well as specific data from all gardeners. As in the case of observations, the 6 guidelines developed from core theoretical concepts were used as themes for questioning. The questionnaire consists of: general questions (i.e. age, nationality), more focused questions regarding practices (i.e. frequency of visit) and questions shaped by the 6 guidelines (i.e. meanings, skills, spatial flexibility). The guidelines related questions made up the majority of questions. The questionnaire has varied types of questions: single or multiple choice, grid, scale and text answer. Single choice type was useful for questions like ‘what is the level of highest education finished?’ while multiple choice type was used for questions like ‘where did you get the knowledge and competences which you use in the ‘Boeletuin’ garden?’. Scale and grid questions were intended for testing intensity through questions like ‘how would you rate your gardening skills from 1 to 5? (Where 1 is beginner and 5 is advanced)’. In order to also have some flexibility in the questionnaire and a deeper understanding of

Page 34: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

34

motivations a few open text questions like ‘what has the experience of coming to the ‘Boeletuin’ brought to you so far?’ complemented data collection methods. Methods of distribution and response rate The distribution of questionnaires was made through the internet: e-mails and on-line media. I contacted the key-individuals of the gardening initiatives: the garden caretaker who had the e-mail list of all individual gardeners (170); the project leader of the community research garden, who had contacts of the participants in their project on a Facebook group page (30); the project leaders of the community permaculture garden and active members (10). They distributed the online questionnaire themselves via e-mail or on-line media groups like Facebook. There were 42 respondents out of 210 individuals, therefore a 20% response rate. Limitations like the language (the questionnaire was in English) was a possible factor that affected response rate. Semi-structured interviews Semi-structured interviews are predominantly used in qualitative research (Kumar, 2011) and are an essential tool for qualitative data collection. For planners, semi-structured interviews offer in-depth understanding of stakeholder perceptions (Healey et al., 2015). They are indispensable in researching organizations and initiatives based on communities as well as on public participation (Healey et al., 2015). The flexibility offered by probing questions is very useful when exploring the meaning and interpretations that respondents attribute to a certain topic. This reveals the possibility to understand in depth a subject like gardening practices and how they influence the spatial configuration. All interviews were taken in the familiar surroundings of the garden. I tried to assure a comfortable and pleasant atmosphere throughout the interview. I followed that all questions were answered, yet I left room for informal discussion. The interviews were face-to-face and varied between 20 minutes and one hour. Interview guide The same interview was provided to all respondents. There were some exceptional cases where the interviews had to be adapted, like for example a first-time gardener who had not previously been at the ‘Boeletuin’. In these cases questions had to be adapted to suit the situation of the interviewed person. The interview protocol described by Creswell (2011) was used for all interviews. This includes: a heading, instructions regarding the interview together with an introduction into the researchers’ field and purpose of study, the interview-questions which were started with an ice-breaker, probing questions, space between questions to facilitate recording and a thank-you statement at the end of the interview. The interview questions have the same topics as addressed through the questionnaire. In addition to questionnaires probing questions assured openness to new emerging topics. Audiotaping and written notes were used for data collection. Sampling Purposeful selection is necessary in qualitative research (Creswell, 2014). The selection of interviewed individuals was made to cover a various set of respondents. Criteria of variation was the social background and individual characteristics of respondents (like age or nationality), yet most important were motivations and the level of participation inside the practices. Considering the last criteria, I

Page 35: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

35

interviewed people who were: starters, regular gardeners, very committed gardeners, initiative leaders or members who had stopped taking part in gardening activities at the ‘Boeletuin’. Selection was made after an initial phase of participatory observations. Observations were very useful in identifying different typologies of gardeners and for addressing them in a familiar manner. I also consulted key individuals at the garden (e.g. garden caretaker) in order to help me reach various kinds of practitioners. Beside the key individuals, interviewed gardeners provided me with contacts of other potential interviewees. I stopped looking for respondents when repetitions were happening and the saturation point was reached (Creswell, 2014). Valuable information was gathered regarding specific character of each existing initiative. This information complements the general information about the entire garden from the questionnaire. The conclusions from the interview sample is appropriate for the exploratory character of the case study, yet the conclusions are challenging to relate to the outer scope of the sample. Table 7 gives an overview of the results of data collection.

Visits Interviews Questionnaire respondents

Response rate (questionnaires)

‘Boeletuin’ garden

16 23 42 20%

Table 7. Overview of data collection. Made by author.

The order of data collection methods was established in line with being as natural and coherent as possible. Participant observations were done first and they created trust and connections. Knowledge from participant observation helped in formulating a structure for the questionnaire. The distribution of the questionnaire made the presence of the researcher more exposed to the individuals. It provided extra information for formulating interview questions. Interviews were carried out in the final stage, when a relation of trust and sufficient information was gathered. Table 8 shows a general outline of time distribution of the methods.

September October

Participant observations

Questionnaire

Interviews Table 8. Time table of data collection. Made by author.

The distribution of methods, sources and risks for data collection throughout the chapters 3 to is

illustrated in table 9. The chapters 3 and 4 focus on answering secondary research questions about the

gardening practices at the ‘Boeletuin’ garden. Chapters 5 and 6 contribute at exploring the spatial

planning context.

Chapter 3 Research question

1. What insights for spatial planning can the case study of the gardening practice at ‘Boeletuin’ garden reveal, in relation to the set of guidelines* identified through the theoretical lens of social practice theory and Everyday urbanism? *Identified guidelines are: elements of practices and links; carriers; collaborative/competitive relations; spatial and temporal dimension; appropriation; place-making

Page 36: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

36

Methods Sources Risks

1. Survey 2. Interviews 3. Participatory observations 4. Internet 5. Literature

1. 42 gardeners. 2. 23 gardeners. (general view on

interviews, occasional sorting according to gardening membership)

3. 16 visits at the garden. 4. Web-sites of the municipality

and of initiatives at the garden 5. Gardening, spatial planning and

practice- related literature.

1. Language, availability. 2. Language, time, availability,

distance, subjectivity. 3. Time, distance, weather,

language. 4. – 5. Subjectivity in choice of

literature.

Chapter 4 Research questions

2. What insights for spatial planning do each of the three gardening practices present at the ‘Boeletuin’ garden reveal, in relation to the set of guidelines identified through the theoretical lens of social practice theory and Everyday urbanism?

Methods Sources Risks

1. Interviews, 2. Participatory observations (field notes and photos) 3. Internet 4. Literature

1. 23 gardeners. (Interviews are clearly sorted according to membership to a certain community of practice)

2. 16 visits at the garden. 3. Web-sites of the municipality

and of initiatives at the garden Time, distance, weather, language.

4. Gardening, spatial planning and practice- related literature.

1. Language, time, availability, distance, subjectivity.

2. Time, distance, weather, language.

3. – 4. Subjectivity in choice of

literature.

Chapter 5 Context: Spatial planning practice

Methods Sources Risks

1. Literature 2. Interviews 3. Internet

1. Spatial planning related literature, general and regarding the Netherlands.

2. Interviews with two spatial planners from Amsterdam

3. Web site of the municipality.

1. Time, subjectivity. 2. Language, time,

availability, subjectivity.

3. -

Table 9. Chapter overview and methods of data collection. Source: author.

Data analysis Qualitative analysis is an ongoing, iterative process involving examination and reexamination of the data (Healey et al., 2015). Exploratory and adaptable research has room for development. This type of analysis is well suited for planners because it offers the possibility to adapt and adjust plans. Adaptability to the feedback of various entities and modifying environments is important for the quality of spatial planning (Healey et al., 2015).

Page 37: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

37

Data collected from interviews and field notes was manually coded. Coding is a relatively intuitive and simple process (Healey et al., 2015). Both open codes (which assign broad notions to parts of the data) and focused codes (synthesized information) (Healey et al., 2015) were used in the study. The combination of the two types of codes assures the iterative process of the qualitative research. Codes were derived from the 6 guidelines of the theoretical framework. Additionally, probing questions in the interviews created openness and flexibility in discovering emerging themes. In conclusion, there were predefined aspects of coding (guidelines from theoretical framework), yet also an openness to discovering hidden or unexpected data. Validity Flyvbjerg’s (2006) discussion regarding the 5 misunderstandings of case studies will serve as support for discussing the validity of the case study. Conventional wisdom has affirmed that case studies do not offer enough information for generalization, because they produce subjective knowledge. Yet a case study is a satisfactory and needed method for social science research (Flyvbjerg, 2006). The second misunderstanding discussed by Flyvberg (2006) regarding validity of case studies, directly connects to single-case studies (i.e. garden case):

One cannot generalize from a single case, therefore, the single-case study cannot contribute to scientific development. (Flyvberg, 2006)

Single case studies, so called ‘black swans’, have a core value for research because they are experimental (Flyvberg, 2006). Single case studies are deliberately chosen with certain characteristics, making them more prone to falsification. Thus they are most suited for potential future generalization, i.e. for generalizing results as being applicable in any other similar case. In a context where generalization is overrated as being the only legitimate form of scientific inquiry, single case studies spark up critical reflexivity. In the light of these arguments, Flyvberg (2006) corrects the affirmation regarding the validity of single case studies into the following:

The case study may be central to scientific development via generalization as a supplement or alternative to other methods. But formal generalization is overvalued as a source of scientific development, whereas “the force of example” is underestimated. (Flyvberg, 2006)

Multiple validity strategies were adopted for this qualitative research, as suggested by Creswell (2014). Overall 7 of the 8 proposed validity strategies were used during the research with an aim for content accuracy (see table 10).

Validity strategy Description

Triangulation Multiple methods and data sources

Member checking The review of parts of the final report by involved participants (1 initiator from each of the 3 gardening practices and the spatial planner involved in the Zuidas planning project) and checks for accuracy

Rich and thick descriptions Illustrating results by depicting multiple perspectives

Clarification of the bias of the researcher Described in the first chapter of the paper, in the worldview of the researcher

Spending of prolonged time in the field 16 field visits lasting approximately 7 hours each

Page 38: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

38

Running counter themes i.e. description of aspects in the context of spatial planning practice in Amsterdam and development criteria for the built area where the case garden is situated

Peer debriefing 3 formal and 2 informal meetings with peers during all phases of research and regular meetings/discussions with my thesis supervisor

Table 10. Validity strategies (Creswell, 2014). Made by the author.

Ethical remarks Ethical considerations are relevant because participant observations are an intrusive way of collecting data. Studying people’s daily practices invades the lives of the informants (Creswell, 2014). Methods used for the study reveal sensitive information, therefore care and extra attention is required. Prior to the fieldwork I discussed with key informants the purpose of the research and how it would affect the garden and its members. During work on site I informed the garden members with whom I got into contact about my role as a researcher. The researcher faces the involuntary feeling of ‘opportunistic reasons’ (Fontana & Fray, 2005) during their field study. To create an ethical and fair relation with the informants, they need to balance out the opportunistic factors. In the studied case I identify as opportunistic reasons my sole purpose to obtain information from garden members, thereby taking advantage of them. To eliminate the feeling of being opportunistic I kept confidentiality regarding informal talks. No personal or sensitive information from these sources was used in the research results. I may have occasionally used information from similar discussions, but it was only general information, corroborated by interviews or other sources. I volunteered regularly and this balanced out any personal discomfort regarding thoughts of having an opportunistic agenda. As research results were based on interviews, questionnaires and personal information shared through these methods, participants were always informed of the purpose and the future use of the information. Confidentiality and anonymity were provided for all respondents.

Page 39: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

39

3. The ‘Boeletuin’ Garden: a Diverse Mix of Practices.

Page 40: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

40

Case selection and the basic characteristics of the case garden were introduced in chapter 2. For a deeper comprehension of the ‘Boeletuin’ garden context, the historical, socio-cultural and spatial (physical surroundings) aspects are described in this chapter. The content of this chapter is composed of the case garden context and the results of analysis based on the six guidelines introduced so far. This chapter intends to answer the secondary research question:

What insights for spatial planning can the case study of the gardening practices at ‘Boeletuin’ garden reveal, in relation to the set of six guidelines (elements of practices and links; carriers; collaborative/competitive relations; spatial and temporal dimension; appropriation; place-making) identified from the theoretical lens of social practice theory and everyday urbanism?

Context of the ‘Boeletuin’ garden.

The ‘Boeletuin’ garden is situated in the south area

of Amsterdam (figure 1). It is positioned in the

south axis, the Zuidas area, which is the business

district of the city. Characterized by high density,

mixed use and integrated traffic, Zuidas is

considered the Netherlands’ international financial

district (source: Amsterdam Municipality, 2015).

Further this paper explores the social and spatial

dimensions of the Zuidas area.

Social dimension: historical, cultural and social background. At the beginning of the 20th century, the city of Amsterdam was experiencing a period of growth which revealed the need for urban expansion (source: report of bureau of monuments and archeology, Amsterdam, 2012). As a consequence, the city of Amsterdam annexed in 1921 a vast amount of ground at the periphery. These intentions were stated in the General Extension Plan created by the department of urban development in 1928 (source: report of bureau of monuments and archeology, Amsterdam 2012). One of the areas dedicated for development was the south polder of Amsterdam, called ‘Serbian Binnendijk Buitenveldertbaan’, which includes the present Zuidas area. In the early 90’s ABN Amro created the foundation for the development in the Zuidas. Good accessibility and close proximity to the Amsterdam Zuid station and Schipol airport made it a very suitable area for business development. At the beginning of the 1950’s construction preparations were initiated. In 1961 the VU University and the VU medical center were given permission to build facilities in the area (source: report of bureau of monuments and archeology, Amsterdam 2012). The economic development rate as well as competitive intentions with similar European cities are the main reasons which determined the city council to adopt a master plan for the south axis in 1998. This plan contained development strategies for the business district with the aim to create a good balance between living, working and facilities (source: Amsterdam Municipality, 2015).

Figure 1. Zuidas area and position of ‘Boeletuin’. Source: maps.google.nl, edited by author.

Page 41: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

41

In 1959 the ‘Almatuin’ school garden was created in the central area of Zuidas, situated in the same location as ‘Boeletuin’ today. The garden is located in an area dedicated mainly for sport functions, consisting of several football and sports fields. With a surface of approximately 14.641 m2 (source: Ruimtelijke Plannen Amsterdam, 2015) it served as an educational site for gardening methods and food production. The school gardens gave the area a relative cultural and historical value (source: report of bureau of monuments and archeology, Amsterdam 2012). In 2013 the school gardens were moved to Kalfjeslaan Buitenveldert due to future expansion plans of the VU University campus (source: Amsterdam Municipality, 2015). The pupils wrote a book capturing their positive experiences at the school garden before they were moved. This book is entitled ‘The eternal school garden, seeds of the Zuidas’ (figure 2).

After the school gardens were moved, ‘Almatuin’ still continued under the same name, because of its success and popularity as an urban allotment garden, until 2014. In 2014 the municipality sold the land to the VU University and the name of the garden changed to ‘Boeletuin’. In the garden the same configuration of individual plots was kept (figure 4). The garden configuration developed in the beginning of 2015 into a multifunctional garden hosting two food producing initiatives (cantina and a mushroom business) and two new gardening initiatives (the community permaculture garden and the community research garden).

Figure 4. ‘Boeletuin’ garden. Source: public1.tripolis.com

Figure 2. Book cover of ‘The eternal school garden, seeds of the Zuidas’. Source: groenevrijtag.com

Figure 3. ‘Boeletuin’ garden practices. Source: bing.com, edited by author.

Page 42: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

42

In mid-2017 the VU University plans to extend their campus on the same location as the garden, making the future of ‘Boeletuin’ uncertain. Figure 4 illustrates the individual plots (center of image) and the VU University’s buildings (right top corner). The Zuidas is developing towards a mixed-function area, yet is also keeping the predominance of business and office spaces. Approximately 700 companies have settled in the south axis. Reports from 2015 (source: Amsterdam Municipality, 2015) show that the total office area is 725.000 m2. As for the residential area, since April 2015 the south axis has 1800 residents who occupy 1400 apartments. Because of an increasing demand in housing, 8000 homes are planned to be built in the area of Zuidas (source: Amsterdam Municipality, 2015). Despite mainly young people transiting through the squares and Zuidas train station during workdays, the residential population of Zuidas is ageing (area analysis of the OIS for Zuidas, 2016). More than a quarter of residents are over 65 years old and 10% are over 80 years old. The households with children increased from 12% in 2010 to 14% in 2015. Ethnicity of residents is various: 78% are expats from countries like Britain, United States, Russia, China, Japan and India. Most of them live alone: 63% are living in one-person apartments. The prognosis of OIS for 2015-2025 is that the population in Zuidas will increase by 28% (from 22.900 to 29.100). The age group between 0 and 17 years old will increase from 3100 to 4400.

The planning of functions in the Zuidas area is shifting the focus towards hosting living facilities, due to an increase in residential needs. The shift towards housing and living functions means planning related amenities and facilities. Open green spaces are important amenities for residential neighborhoods. Thus, a garden with cultural value like the ‘Boeletuin’, not only fits, but could also be an essential piece in the municipality’s future plans.

Spatial dimension: soil, flora and fauna in ‘Boeletuin’ garden. The ‘Boeletuin’ garden is situated in between: the VU Unversity campus and the VU Medical Center (the southern edge), the building of the ‘Academical Centre for Dentistry’ (the western edge), the Edge building (northern edge) and the sports fields (the eastern edge). It is interesting to note that the Edge

Figure 4. ‘Boeletuin’ garden. Source: public1.tripolis.com.

Figure 5. Zuidas office building area. Source: bnr.nl.

Page 43: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

43

building is the world’s most sustainable building (source: Ecowatch, 2015; Techtimes, 2015). All sides of the garden, excepting the eastern side with the sports fields, are bordered by car and cycle pathways. The proximity to train station Amsterdam Zuid and major tram and metro lines makes the area highly accessible. Figure 6 illustrates the position of the ‘Boeletuin’ garden on the land-use map provided by the city of Amsterdam. The area of the garden has a social and cultural function. Major functions in the immediate vicinity of the garden are: office related, research, educational, medical and commercial. Living functions are present at a distance of 0,5-1km radius.

Figure 6. Land use map. Source: maps.amsterdam.nl, edited by author.

The area of the garden belongs to zone 1 in the soil quality map (see figure 7). Zone 1 defines areas with non-contaminated soil. The soil in such areas has not been part of an industrial area and has the highest quality in comparison to other typologies of soil identified in zones 2 to 6. Ground in zone 1 may be used freely and does not require soil research. Figure 7. Soil quality map. Source: maps.amsterdam.nl, edited by author.

Page 44: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

44

The garden is shaped in rectangular form, with dimensions of approximately 121m by 121m (source: Ruimtelijke Plannen Amsterdam, 2015). The green space was reduced in 2015 when a parking lot (cca. 4400 m2) was built in the north-east corner. The map in figure 8 shows the garden before the building of the parking. After construction of the parking the garden was left with approximately 10.261 m2. The entire western perimeter and partly the southern, northern and eastern sides are bordered with higher vegetation, trees and shrubs. The interior is dedicated to gardening, and is therefore predominantly planted with edible plants. There are several small buildings inside the perimeter of the garden, which have following functions: commercial, leisure, research, education and storage.

The flora and fauna report of the garden made in 2014 identifies 3 typologies of green space: individual plots, a tree and shrub area and a dense tree and shrub area. The individual plots (see green perimeter in figure 8) have been intensively used and therefore do not harbor protected flora or fauna (flora and fauna report for Mahlerlaan school gardens, 2014). The areas with tree and shrubs (blue ovals in figure 8) host breeding birds and small animals. The dense tree and shrub area in the west perimeter (red oval in figure 8) harbors breeding birds, small mammals and possibly bats (flora and fauna report for Mahlerlaan school gardens, 2014). The fauna present in ‘Boeletuin’ is a relevant element in defining the specific character of the garden. The report suggests the possible existence of several protected bird species. The garden hosts breeding birds (not specified in the report) which require a contiguous nesting cycle, unlike crows and magpies which have sufficient flexibility for nest changing. These types of birds might be affected by the demolition or changes in habitat (flora and fauna report for Mahlerlaan school gardens, 2014). The report also specifies the presence of small amphibians which might be affected in case of changes. The report strongly advises planners to incorporate a code of conduct for these species (i.e. escape routes created) in case of future spatial changes (flora and fauna report for Mahlerlaan school gardens, 2014). Development plans for the ‘Boeletuin’ garden pose a moderately negative impact, as small mammals, amphibians, birds, fish and bats will be disturbed. Reasons for the impact are: limited foraging, the disappearance of vegetation together with habitats for birds, mammals, amphibians and bats (source: Ruimtelijke Plannen Amsterdam, 2015).

The ‘Boeletuin’ has a large surface for a garden situated in a highly urbanized area. The context of mixed-use and accessibility are opportunities for its future development. The soil in this area is uncontaminated and suited for multiple uses (i.e. gardening and leisure). Flora and fauna in the periphery area of bushes and trees is characterized by the diversity of common and potentially protected species. The biggest part of the garden has intensively been used for vegetable gardening. All these different aspects combined increase the value of the garden in an area whose recent planning is directed towards living facilities and offering residents quality amenities, like green spaces.

Figure 8. ‘Boeletuin’ garden map. Source: flora and fauna report 2014.

Page 45: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

45

Results of the six guideline-based analysis.

Prior to introducing the results shaped by the analysis guidelines, detailed information about garden practices and garden members is presented, in order to set the specific cotext regarind users of the garden. This information is then useful for understanding more indepth analysis of meanings people give to gardening and the way they design the garden. There are five practices at the garden. I categorize them in two types: food production practices (cantina and mushroom business) and gardening practices (community permaculture garden, garden of individual plots and community research garden). Only the second type is relevant for the research as they fall into the topic of ‘urban gardening’. Therefore the data collection mainly focuses on the gardening practices. The food production practices were not focused upon due to their commercial character, which was not directly related to products in the garden (figure 9).

Mushroom business

Cantina

Research garden

Garden of individual plots

Community permaculture

garden

Focus of study

Boeletuin garden

Figure 9. Source: participant observations, interviews. Made by author.

Page 46: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

46

The largest surveyed group are individual gardeners. They also make up the most numerous gardening group in ‘Boeletuin’ (source: participant observations, interviews). The other participants were from the community research garden, the community permaculture garden, the cantina and the mushroom business. Figure 10 illustrates exact numbers. The highest percentage of gardeners

are aged 44-54, followed by the younger age group of 25-34. The least represented age group is 18-24 (figure 11, source: author). The gender percentage is 74% female and 26% male. 31% of the participants who answered the survey are of other nationality then Dutch (see figure 12). They become members mainly because of two reasons: the connection to the VU University and the variety of initiatives. The connection to the VU University reflects the overall educational background of the members: the majority has a bachelor degree, followed by the individuals who finished with a master degree (see figure 13). Now that general characteristics of gardening practices and garden

members are introduced, gardening practices are analyzed as social

practices and their effects on the spatial dimension is explored

through the lens of the six guidelines. The results are presented

individually for each guideline.

Guideline 1: practice meanings, competences and materials.

Meanings

Meanings are important in understanding why a practice is

started out. They indicate motivations, dreams and needs of

people enacting the practice. Data from the survey reveals

general characteristics of the meanings of the gardening

practice.

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

<18 18-24 25-34 35-44 44-54 ≥55

Age of survey participants

Figure 11. Source: survey, made by author.

Figure 10. Source: survey, made by author.

Dutch69%

Other31%

Nationalities (survey)

Figure 12. Source: survey, made by author.

Bachelor 55%

Master 29%

Phd 9%

Educational background (survey)

Figure 13. Source: survey, made by author.

9.50%

4.80%

59.50%

11.90%

26.20%

9.50%

Other

Mushroom business

Individual garden plots

Community permaculture…

Research garden

'Boeletuin' Cantina

Membership to initiatives (survey)

Page 47: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

47

Meanings are revealed through the importance level of following activities: gardening, educational, producing/consuming food from the garden, socializing and leisure (figure 14). Gardening activities are

the most important for the survey respondents. Food producing/consuming, social and leisure activities follow closely in importance, while education activities have the lowest scores. The majority of survey respondents are the individual gardeners, mostly interested in gardening only (not social or educative activities). This contributed to making gardening the top choice. In the open question section

of the survey the members were explicitly questioned about the meanings they attribute to their experience at the ‘Boeletuin’. The meanings stated by the respondents fall into the five categories mentioned previously: gardening, education, food, socializing and leisure. Most of the respondents answered with one or two meanings related exclusively to gardening. Yet there were cases when respondents answered with a big conglomerate of meanings such as: gardening, education, food and socializing. The number of meanings the respondents attribute to the practice is influenced by the typology of initiative they are members of. While individual gardeners were focused on gardening and growing food, the community typed based members were highly motivated by the social factor. Besides the five mentioned meanings identified from the survey results, a sixth meaning is introduced from the interview results: nature and environment. The meaning of ‘nature’ is a very broad concept. A representative quotation for the community-based garden members helps in formulating a case-related definition of ‘nature’:

I think that you have to live with nature, we are all part of nature. You cannot deny nature, you have to be part of it and respect it. (BG3)

‘Nature’ as a meaning also comes up in a few of the interviews with individual gardeners:

It is fun, if you see things grow. It gives me a feeling of being closer to nature in the middle of the city. (BG16)

Both in surveys and in interviews respondents invoked recurrently the notion of health. Health could be considered a self-standing meaning but results reveal it as a common denominator for all the meanings. Therefore I chose to define health as the context for all meanings.

Gardening practices have the following meanings: gardening, food, leisure, social, education and nature in the context of health. Distribution of meanings varies based on the type of gardening practice. The community-typed gardeners attribute multiple meanings to the practice, with a focus on social

Figure 14. Source: survey, made by author.

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

120%

Gardening Education Food producefrom garden

Socializing Leisure

Importance of activities (survey)

unimportant of little importance moderately important

important very important highly important

Page 48: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

48

importance. Whereas individual gardeners express only one or two meanings, mostly related to food production and gardening.

Competences

Meanings are linked with competences. The practice needs the proper skill set and knowledge in order to be acted out. In the ‘Boeletuin’ garden the majority of surveyed individuals consider themselves as middle-skilled gardeners. All 5 stages of skills, from total beginner to advanced, are present in the garden (see figure 15). Every gardening initiative is composed from a few highly skilled gardeners and a mix of medium and beginner-level gardeners (source: field notes).

The profile of the initiative reflects the degree of accessibility to skills and knowledge. Professional gardening knowledge in both research and community permaculture garden is explicitly shared during each visit by experienced gardeners with the others (source: field notes). Gardening skills and knowledge in the case of the individual plots are shared more seldom than in the previous case. They are shared mostly by the garden caretaker to all members regularly (bi-weekly) and by members to one another via chance encounters. The skills of garden members are predominantly self-taught (see figure 16). This fact is also confirmed by the interviews, the majority of gardeners ‘learn by doing’ and ‘self-teaching’. Volunteering and workshops are other two methods of gaining skills and knowledge. Only 12% of the surveyed gardeners have professional work experience in gardening. Most Dutch respondents have a background of gardening due to their childhood experience, as illustrated by the statement:

As a child, [together with] my brother and sister, we had our own garden [inside] the garden of my mother and my father. (BG14)

Childhood experiences of garden members with different nationalities is also important in building knowledge. They relate childhood gained knowledge to their homelands, like the following statement illustrates:

Next to my garden there was a forest and the fields. My family always taught me […] with [about] the nature. So I kind of connected with […] nature […] and also taking care of the houses […]. (BG23)

4.80%

38.10%

42.90%

11.90%

2.40%

beginner: 1

2

3

4

advanced: 5

Gardening competences (survey)

Figure 15. Source: survey, made by author.

2.40%

11.90%

66.70%

16.70%

21.40%

23.80%

academical background

professional/work experience

self-tought

volunteering

workshops and other…

Other

Skills-acquirement (survey)

Figure 16. Source: survey, made by author.

Page 49: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

49

Children come in the individual plots, together with parents. They learn about gardening and spend leisure time with the parents (source: interviews, field notes).

Three general insights about gardening skills at ‘Boeletuin’ are highlighted. Firstly, the majority of individuals have a medium skilled level. Secondly, accessibility to gardening knowledge is possible for all practices and is the highest in the community based practices. Thirdly, acquiring initial knowledge and skills is related by many interview respondents with their childhood experiences.

Materials Materials together with meanings and competences create a fully functional practice. The materials at the ‘Boeletuin’ garden satisfy basic gardening needs and are all in good shape (source: field notes). They consist of: garden tools, compost pile, water source, soil, vegetation, furniture, pathways, planting beds and constructions. The condition of materials was a subject of the survey. The garden members expressed a favorable opinion about the materials (fig. 17).

In conclusion the basic gardening materials are both present and in good shape.

The three elements are linked: meanings, competences and materials. Together they build the gardening practice at the ‘Boeletuin’, illustrated in figure 18.

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

120%

Opinions of materials at 'Boeletuin' (survey)

very favourable favorable mostly favourable

unfavorable highly unfavorable not the case

Figure 17. Source: survey, made by author.

Page 50: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

50

Competence: from beginner to

advanced gardening skills

Meaning: food, leisure,

social, gardening,nature, education*

*in context of health

Material: garden tools, compost pile,

water source, soil, vegetation, furniture,

pathways, planting beds and constructions

Figure 18. ‘Boeletuin’ gardening practice. Source: survey, interviews, participatory observations.

Future evolution of practice elements So far results about the existing elements in the ‘Boeleuin’ was presented. Data about future improvement of elements is detailed in this section. Future improvement of elements plays a crucial in strengthening the practice. Sought meanings are challenging to identify from gardeners’ sayings due to their abstract and subjective nature. Nevertheless, I grouped them into four meanings: continuity, visibility, connectivity and social wellbeing. Continuity is vital for the future practice. Gardeners identify the garden (the physical space) with the gardening practices. They wish for ‘Boeletuin’ to keep existing so that their practice can continue:

Do not let the VU build anything or make a huge parking lot on this particular space on [in] the Zuidas, so we can keep on gardening on [in] this beautiful green spot. (Source: survey)

The project that the city hall had and they did it, was to build a parking lot. And I think it was brave what they [garden members] did, they fought for their space. […] It’s important to keep the green because it is part of the land. […] And then you can grow your own vegetables, it is good. (BG15)

People wish for visibility. They want to attract more people to share their experiences with:

We need to work on spreading the word to get more people participating here [community research garden] to make it more productive and spread happiness. (Source: survey)

Connectivity is also sought for:

More […] events so it becomes even more a connecting green space. (Source: survey)

Well-being, a sense of harmony and understanding, is highlighted by the following statement:

Page 51: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

51

Politics of control, power and profit-making threaten the harmony inside the garden between the projects, just as they play out in society outside the garden. (Source: survey)

Improvements of competences and materials are easier to be identified than meanings due to their reference to specific knowledge or objects. The proposed methods for improving competences are: more knowledge of cultivating vegetables, learning of alternative gardening techniques and more information received by email. The proposed improvements for materials are: better tools, more plants and a bigger surface for gardening.

Results about wishes and needs of garden members offer general insights about future development of the three practice elements: meanings, competences and materials. Figure 19 synthesizes the practice development. The illustration shows the potential development of the gardening practices at ‘Boeletuin’.

Meaning: continuityvisibility

connectivity social wellbeing

Material: better toolsmore plants

bigger gardening surface

Competence: cultivating vegetables

alternative gardening techniques practical information

Competence: from beginner to

advanced gardening skills

Meaning: food, leisure,

social, gardening,nature, education*

*in context of health

Material: garden tools, compost pile,

water source, soil, vegetation, furniture,

pathways, planting beds and constructions

Changing links

Existing

Future strengthened

practice

Figure 19. Source: results of survey, interviews, participatory observations. Made by author.

Guideline 2: carriers. This section elaborates how carriers are recruited and what factors influence their commitment. The recruitment methods, illustrated in figure 20, show that the majority (52,4%) is influenced in becoming garden members by other reasons than specifically stated in the survey. The open text part of the survey and the interviews reveal what the ‘other’ methods are, namely: the proximity of the garden to the work place and the pedestrian or cycling transit. When respondents belong to workplaces in the vicinity of the garden (i.e. VU University, VU medical center and Acta Dentistry Center), the information available through colleagues or via the institutions’ email are methods of recruitment. Information signs are another method of attracting new carriers:

I just saw it [the ‘Boeletuin’ garden] when I was walking by from the VU to the VU medical center. […] They had […] a big sign, outside the fence and it said ‘Pizza’! (BG14)

42.90%

4.80%

52.40%

Friends orfamily

Socialmedia

Other

Methods of recruitment

Figure 20. Source: survey, made by author.

Page 52: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

52

Together with vicinity, pedestrian or bicycle transit, is a top recruitment method:

I pass the garden every day on my bike. (Source: survey)

Also listed in ‘other’ methods of recruitment are knowledge of the past role of the ‘Boeletuin’ as a school garden and the membership of other groups sharing common interests of gardening, food and health. A large percentage of carriers (43%) are influenced by friends or family to participate in activities at the ‘Boeletuin’ garden. Recruitment through social media has the lowest score, 4,8% (source: survey).

The carriers’ first reenactments of the practice are critical because they are the link between recruitment and commitment. If carriers have the feeling of being welcomed and their expected needs are satisfied than the link is made, leading to commitment.

I really felt welcome. I can say I am part of the group, this is nice. (BG5)

The new carriers have expectations regarding their future learning experience.

[I would not come anymore] if I cannot find the information that I want to find. (BG12)

Recruitment is followed by engagement in the practice. Interviews with gardeners and participatory observations concludes that a weekly presence of one or two visits (frequency also being dependent of gardening season) is necessary in order to properly maintain the garden plots. The majority of respondents come on a weekly basis at the garden, while 12% of respondents visit the garden 2 times a month or less (figure 21). Motives for decrease in commitment are revealed by reasons for canceling garden visits (figure 22). Bad weather scored the highest percentage. An interesting fact is that weather influences gardening attendance in a dual way: while bad weather is a main reason to cancel a visit, good weather is an important reason for choosing to garden. Good weather is a catalyst for participation in gardening activities as the following garden member shares:

[There is] Not always good weather, so you have to take your chance when the sun is shining. (BG16)

21.40%

35.70%31%

11.90% 0%

more than 2times a week

2 times a weekor less

more than 2times a month

2 times amonth or less

do not comeanymore

Frequency of visit

Figure 21. Source: survey, made by: author.

14.30%

31%

52.40%

19%

Other

Lack of time

Bad weather

Other priorities

Reasons for canceling visits (survey)

Figure 22. Source: survey, made by author.

Page 53: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

53

Lack of time and other priorities are important reasons for canceling visits. The priorities which influence time use are work and family. Because gardening is a voluntary practice it is put behind the income-producing activities. Commitment is also influenced by social wellbeing, harmonious relations with other practice members. Tensions between co-existing practices affects the level of participation of the involved carriers.

But also the ambience of the garden [influenced my decreased visits]. There were some problems […] and I do not like to go there anymore. […] I was standing in between the two [individuals]. (BG14)

Carriers at ‘Boeletuin’ are mainly recruited because they are in the vicinity of the garden (i.e. work institution and transit) or find out about the garden from family, friends and groups with similar interests. Social media is the least present method of recruitment. Gardeners in ‘Boeletuin’ are very committed to the practice. The carriers’ attendance is highly influenced by weather. Amongst the reasons for decreased commitment, carriers mention priority activities (work or spending time with the family) and social tension at the garden place.

Guideline 3: relations of collaboration and competition. Collaborative relations are defined by strong supportive interactions between practices. The level of plasticity or rigidity inside a practice is a good indicator for the practices’ openness to interaction (i.e. knowledge and material exchange). To understand better the openness to interaction, the specific profile of each garden initiative is briefly indicated: the community permaculture garden reflects a fast growing societal permaculture movement, the community research garden reflects an innovative culture of holistic gardening and the garden of individual plots reflects the Dutch tradition of allotment gardens. The organizational structure of community-based practices is more open to interaction, while the individual gardening practice is more rigid (resistant to knowledge transfer).

[Community permaculture garden] people are very friendly, open to explaining, including people in the gardening practice. They use circular crops. They use different ideas from permaculture background. (Source: field notes) People from plots tend to their spots. They great friendly, yet keep to their own plots and own space.

(Source: field notes)

Interaction is the starting point for knowledge flow. It is important in facilitating collaborative processes. In some interactions knowledge is also accompanied by flow of materials. For example the community permaculture garden occasionally exchanges products with the mushroom business:

We have talks we have exchanges. She gives us mushrooms we are giving her things from our garden. (BG3)

Knowledge exchanges flow more easily between gardening practices which share meanings and competences. The community permaculture garden and community research garden share permaculture techniques therefore they exchange gardening knowledge. Individual gardeners are in some cases interested of alternative gardening techniques (i.e. permaculture). Parents with children and more experienced gardeners from the individual plots are attracted to interact with members of

Page 54: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

54

community permaculture garden (source: field notes). On the other hand different gardening techniques are also a reason for individual gardeners used with the traditional gardening practice to set boundaries in knowledge flow and interaction level.

[The community permaculture garden] is a complete different organization. I don’t have contact with them. Last year when we had our course [dedicated for individual gardeners], we were shown around and they [permaculture gardeners] have a special method of gardening, which I thought was very interesting, but, no, we didn’t use these methods. (BG21)

Interaction level for most practices is either rare (2 times a month or less), or not the case (see figure 23).

Most interaction was signaled with individual gardeners, followed by interactions with individuals from cantina (food production practice) and the community research garden. Participatory observations and interviews brought

complementary information, corroborating a strong interaction individual gardeners and the food production practice of the cantina

there is.

Found out from Nathan [garden caretaker and owner of the cantina] that people [from the individual plots] came on Saturday. Nathan had contact with some [individual gardeners]. (Source: field notes) Sometimes I drink some beer by [with] Nathan. (BG6)

The strong connection between individual plots and the cantina is also explained by the fact that the garden caretaker, who also is the owner of the cantina, rents out the individual plots. Overall communication, knowledge exchange and material exchange is occasional between the 3 gardening practices (individual garden plots, community permaculture garden and community research garden). Occasional interactions are not enough to create collaborative relations. The identified relations between the gardening practices are loose. Gardening practices are grouped in bundles, defined by co-location. Loose relations are important because they have the potential to become stronger over time. Exploration of potential collaborative relations offers insights about supportive relations between practices. Further exploration of competitive relations creates a complete picture of relations at the ‘Boeletuin’ garden. Competitive relations in the garden are created by power-struggles, spatial boundaries and ownership. Tense relations exist with practices outside the garden, i.e. the urban development practice which has taken up garden space to build the parking and the VU University which intends to use the entire garden

Figure 23. Source: survey, made by author.

0.00%

20.00%

40.00%

60.00%

80.00%

100.00%

120.00%

Individualgarden plots

Communitypermaculture

garden

Researchgarden

Cantina'Boeletuin'

MushroomBusiness

Interaction of practices

>2 times a week ≤2 times a week > 2 times a month

≤2 times a month not the case

Page 55: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

55

space for campus extensions. Tensions also exist in-between practices in the garden. Ownership and spatial boundaries lead to power struggles between initiative leaders which affect them and the involved garden members. This is the case between the cantina practice and the community research garden:

Contact with Linda [project leader of community research garden] could be a reason for choosing to stop. […] There is no communication between us. (BG1) They [cantina owners] wanted us to have only the area where the dome is […] and what was left for research and education was tiny. […] I would like the negativity to disappear [between us]. (BG21)

Mushroom business

Cantina

Research garden

Garden of individual plots

Community permaculture

garden

Boeletuin garden

Bundle of practices

Figure 24. Source: participant observations, interviews and survey. Made by author.

Figure 24 illustrates the synthesis of identified relationships. The three gardening practices: community research garden, garden of individual plots and community permaculture garden, have loose relations, characteristic to bundles of practices. Strong collaborative relations are present between cantina and garden of individual plots, and cantina and mushroom business (defined by a business collaboration for food products). Competitive relation are present between the cantina and the community research garden.

The 3 guidelines from the social practice theory explored so far offer insights about the gardening practices. In order to link them with spatial planning, guidelines from everyday urbanism are necessary. The spatial and temporal dimensions, appropriation and place-making can structure further results. They reveal insights about how the practices affect the physical space and how design decisions are made.

Page 56: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

56

Only results from all guidelines together illustrate a holistic set of insights for the spatial planning practice. Guideline 4: spatial and temporal dimension. Everyday space is handled in two ways for design in the case of the ‘Boeletuin’ garden: municipal strategies and tactical actions of garden members. In the past ‘Boeletuin’ had an exact spatial function specified by municipal plans. The garden was as a successful school garden (under the name, ‘Almatuin’), which still remains in the memory of many of the local, urban inhabitants. Various political decisions and ownership changes led to the functional modification of the garden. It is currently in a transitory state. The garden is currently earmarked for transformation into a building area (mid 2017) and its continued existence is uncertain. This competitive tension with the urban development context attracted the second type of design actions: the tactical. Citizen led initiatives found an opportunity to perform their practices due to the transitional period of the garden space. Initiatives were very adaptable and expressed strong identities through specific design: the cantina introduces leisure and meeting opportunities; the community permaculture garden has a circular crop-system for increased, all-year round yield; the community research garden has a holistic design promoting a healthy lifestyle; the individual gardening plots offer the opportunity to spend individual time specific to the Dutch culture and the mushroom business brings in an alternative design of a business-place inside a garden. Although building plans are scheduled for mid-2017, there were plans to close down the garden in 2015. When facing potential dissolution, initiatives used protests to keep ground. They also found support from related organizations. One of the garden members recalls the protest event:

Last year I was also involved in the campaign to continue the garden, with others. […] The garden was supposed to be closed in October and a group of gardeners started a campaign and the main aim was to get the VU University agree upon continuing as long as they were not building. (BG21)

Time is important not only for tactical campaigns, but also for the rhythm of gardening. Gardening seasons and habits define the cyclical time for gardeners. For some gardening practices, like the permaculture related ones in the community permaculture garden and in the community research garden, this cycle had to be kept going, as harvest is continuously expected. For many individual gardeners though, traditional, agricultural time cycles were adopted, kept to the 4 seasons, summer and autumn being the most productive.

You can harvest in April, beginning of May, some spinach. So in the beginning there is taking care, making everything ready, to seed and to plant. […] The practices depend on the time of year. (BG12)

Gardening cycles are intertwined with daily schedules of gardeners (i.e. lunch breaks, after work hours etc.). The third typology of time, the spontaneous, disconnected moments happen at the ‘Boeletuin’. Many such moments, (i.e. spontaneous dialogue of by-passers with gardeners) took place during my visits at the garden, for example:

Young people (10-12) passed by and started talking to Yolanda (from community permaculture garden) through the fence.

Page 57: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

57

YP: What’s that there? Yolanda: There where? YP: There, under the rug… Yolanda: Compost pile! YP: Oh, we thought it was a dead cow. Hahaha! (Source: field notes)

Both ways of handling space to influence the design are present in the ‘Boeletuin’: strategies and tactics. Both the municipality in the past and citizen-led initiatives in the present shaped the garden. The gardens future is uncertain because of development plans of the VU University on the land of the garden. Because of its transitory functional statute a lot of flexibility and freedom exists for tactics-led design. Guidelines 5 (appropriation) and 6 (place-making) elaborate the way people shape the garden to suit their gardening practices. Guideline 5: appropriation. Appropriation is possible when there is spatial flexibility and people are guided by self-organizing principles. If there are too many rules, regulations and predefined functions this creates rigidity and hinders possible appropriation process. Gardeners find the ‘Boeletuin’ a very flexible place, in contrast with the bigger scale of the area of Zuidas (see figure 25). The self-organizing character of initiative leaders in the garden plays a crucial role in the appropriation process. When asked about the capacity of the space to suit her needs, the co-owner of the cantina and co-caretaker of the ‘Boeletuin’, shares the following:

Yes [the physical space easily adapts to our needs]. If it [adapting physical space to our own needs] is not easy, I will make it easy, because we create our own space. (BG2)

Flexibility and adaptability stand at the core of spatial appropriation. The ability to host 5 different initiatives in the same space is a clear sign of adaptability. The garden also has the potential of adapting as a whole. It hosted broad events, like a symposium highlighting the value of urban green spaces. The organizer of the symposium shares:

I organized […] a symposium that promotes the importance of a green oasis for a healthy city. It was in the whole garden. […] (BG21)

0.00%

20.00%

40.00%

60.00%

80.00%

100.00%

120.00%

Boeletuin garden Zuidas area Amsterdammetropolitan area

Opinions about flexibility

highly unflexible unflexiblemostly flexible flexiblevery flexible

Figure 25. Source: survey, made by author.

Page 58: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

58

Guideline 6: place-making. After reenacted appropriation place-making occurs through continuous design. Garden members reenacted the practice in the ‘space’ of the garden and now it has become a ‘place’ rooted in their collective memory. They identify the practice with the place of ‘Boeletuin’ (as shown in results from guideline 1: practice elements). In order to grasp effects of citizen-led place-making on urban life, criteria for urban quality of life will be individually checked. Sources for results are the opinions of garden members and participant observations. Criteria for urban quality of life Following criteria for urban quality of life are reviewed: vitality, accessibility, efficiency, safety, sustainability, health and delightfulness (see figure 26). ‘Delightfulness’ is the top spatial quality attributed to the garden (source: survey). It is highlighted in my participations:

I started to notice the beauty of the garden. Birds were bathing in puddles, picking vegetables and fruit. Colored flowers were making the place playful and joyful. The high trees were offering protection and sense of peace. I enjoyed being part of the garden. (Source: field notes)

The delightfulness of the garden is mainly attributed by gardeners to the context and presence of the trees, as following statement reveals:

And a lot of trees have disappeared as well. It was more beautiful then. It was greener and secluded. (BG21)

‘Vitality’ is a spatial quality of the garden. On-site observations regarding flows of people confirms that it is a vital place and the participation of people depends on: function, time and weather. The densest flows of people, consisting of employees of neighboring institutions are directed to the cantina (source: field notes). This is due to its commercial function. Flows are more concentrated during breakfast, lunch and dinner time, ranging between 10 and 100 people. The density of gardener flows is lower. Sun-shining week days bring in flows of 10-15 gardeners, frequently during lunch break and after work. These people are mostly the individual gardeners, which also come on weekends. The community research garden and the community permaculture garden have regular gardening sessions (once or twice a week), usually attended by 1-5 people. Occasional workshops attract about 15 people. The two community-based gardening practices have specific time tables for volunteer meetings. Gardening season has a definite role in garden vitality. As temperatures drop, towards the end of October, it gets very uncomfortable to be outside and less gardeners come. In this only the regular individuals from the community permaculture garden and the community research garden come (source: field notes).

0%20%40%60%80%

100%120%

Opinions about spatial quality criteria

very favorable favorable

mostly favorable unfavorable

highly unfavorable

Figure 26. Source: survey, made by author.

Page 59: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

59

‘Health’ is achieved through physical activities (i.e. gardening) and the consummation of harvested food

(i.e. vegetables, fruits, herbs). Both physical activities and nutrition are important in a healthy life style.

Health is also attained by garden members through peace-of-mind, relaxation and a sense of connection

with the flora and fauna present at the garden. Two garden members have shared in interviews that it

has helped them also with more severe psychological ailments (e.g. depression). Health benefits also

manifest slightly in the highly urbanized area nearby the garden through the presence of vegetation

(especially trees) which increase the air quality.

‘Sustainability’ and ‘efficiency’ are other two qualities. These two aspects are related to the use of

resources at the garden and its effect on the environment. The handling of three resources is viewed

when overviewing sustainability: water, vegetation and soil. Rainwater collected in the ditch surrounding

the perimeter of the garden is used for watering, biological seeds are used by all the gardeners from the

community-typed initiatives and some individual gardeners use biological seeds (source: field notes,

interviews). No chemical fertilizers are used in the garden (source field notes, interviews). Composting

as well as animal manure is a favored techniques for fertilizing the soil.

‘Accessibility’ is a quality of the garden because it is located in the vicinity of the ‘Zuidas’ train stations

and other types of public transportation (metro and tram station). Each individual gardener, as well as

the regular members of the community research garden and the community permaculture garden have

unlimited access to the garden (also at night time and during weekends). For non-members the garden

is accessible only on weekdays during daytime. It is also easy accessible by bicycle. Accessibility is

reduced slightly on a temporary manner because there are a few building sites in the vicinity interfering

with bicycle passage. The position of the garden defines accessibility and has effects on safety level.

‘Safety’ is ensured because of its position in a highly urbanized area: in the immediate vicinity of sports

fields, research institutions, work spaces and living neighborhoods. Two other reasons contributing to

safety are: the higher vegetation surrounding the garden and the fact that the garden stays inaccessible

at night. The garden is locked at night or during weekends for other people than garden members, who

have the key.

Both strategic and tactical design lead to the spatial configuration of the garden today. In the present

time tactical decisions of garden members define the design process and are supported (for an uncertain

period of time) by the municipality, VU University and organizations with mutual interests. The

appropriation process was successful because of the high degree of flexibility that the space offers to

meet the needs of the gardening practices. Reenacted appropriation led to successful place-making.

Successful place-making is illustrated by the fact that all criteria for urban spatial quality are met.

Conclusion

The six guidelines used for data collection and analysis play an important role in having a comprehensive

understanding of the gardening practices at the ‘Boeletuin’ garden. The social practice based analysis

reveals two types of insights: on-site opportunities (i.e. skills of people, materials) and successful

Page 60: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

60

processes (i.e. recruitment, commitment). These insights are relevant for spatial planning because they

show why and how practices create quality urban places. The everyday urbanism based analysis reveals

insights about how the gardening practices influence the physical space they are operated in: the ways

space is designed, the appropriation process and the place-making. These insights are valuable to spatial

planning because they reveal knowledge about how practices transform urban space into an urban place.

Insights are synthesized in the two tables below: table 1 contains insights from the perspective of social

practice theory and table 2 contains findings and insights from the perspective of everyday urbanism

approach. The insights are attributed to each guideline and categorized in opportunities and risks.

Guidelines for analysis (social practice theory)

Findings Insights for spatial planning

Opportunities (+) Risks (-)

Practice elements and links

Meanings and motivations

+Community-typed practices show integration of all 6 meanings, with a focus on the social.

- Too many meanings can create confusion for new members regarding the aim of the practice.

+Individual gardeners focus on gardening and food production, leading to relatively high food production and use.

- Restrained scope of meanings can lead to loss of motivation due to monotony.

+Wished for meanings: continuity, visibility, connectivity and social well being

- Commitment of gardeners will be affected if their wished meanings are not manifested

Competences + High accessibility to knowledge in community-based practices attracts carriers.

- If knowledge flow is lower (as in the case of individual plots) this can affect the participation of members because of disappointing gardening experiences

+ Self-taught skills, particularly to self-organizing initiatives, are valuable sources for on-site design and planning.

- If there is not enough freedom for self-organization this might affect involvement level of garden members

+ Professional gardeners are passing on knowledge + Professional gardeners are valuable sources for on-site design, planning and maintenance.

- If there are not enough rewards for the professional gardeners they will eventually give up the practice.

+ Childhood is a good moment to acquire gardening skills + Families come at individual plots for leisure and showing children how to garden.

-Lack of child-related educational activities in the garden affects recruitment of ‘young’ carriers

Page 61: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

61

Materials +Existence of basic gardening materials

-Gardeners wish for better quality tools and more plants. If this need is not taken into consideration it will affect participation.

+Existence of basic gardening utilities (i.e. compost place, water source, place for tools)

-Gardeners wish for more gardening space and if this need is not satisfied it may affect participation

Carriers Recruitment +People working, studying and living in the vicinity are easily recruited.

-Predominance of highly educated Dutch gardeners can hinder integration of people of different educational backgrounds or minorities living in the area due to cultural difference.

+People passing by (cycling or walking) are attracted to the garden.

+Use of social media as a recruitment method could have a great impact in recruitment.

-A lack of social media presence may hinder recruitment of people using this method to find gardening practices in the local area

+Use of attractive information signs (i.e. sign for pizza) for people who are unfamiliar with the place attracts new carriers

-If the purpose and activities available at the garden are not clear to by-passers they may not stop to visit the garden. They may not even know it is open to their participation at all.

Commitment +Good weather (i.e. sunny) increases attendance of gardeners.

-When the weather is bad (i.e. rain or low temperature) gardeners cancel visits

+Funding of gardening activities would increase commitment

-Due to (paid) work priorities commitment decreases

-Social tensions at the garden result in the decrease of commitment

Collaborative/competitive relations

Collaboration + Loose relations of interaction (i.e. knowledge, material flow) between garden practices have the potential to evolve into collaborative relations.

- If existing relations are not nurtured and developed they might disappear.

+Community-typed gardening practices are open to collaboration.

- Individual gardening practice is not very open to collaboration with other

Page 62: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

62

practices, which might lead to their isolation.

Competition - Leads to aesthetical degradation (reduction of quality green space for parking lot).

- Creates stress and affects the well-being and practices of gardeners.

Table 1. Insights from the analysis based on the guidelines from social practice theory. Made by the author.

Guidelines for analysis (Everyday urbanism)

Findings Insights for spatial planning

Opportunities Risks

Spatial and temporal dimension

Strategic processes (top-down design)

+Initial function as a school garden was successful in creating a place which still exists in the memory of urban inhabitants. Continuity is created which strengthens the present practice.

Tactical processes (bottom-up design)

+Design and maintenance is made by entrepreneurs, therefore reducing costs which would otherwise be attributed for maintaining an open green space.

-Because the VU University owns the land of the garden they have different visions for development, overruling present successful design results.

+Support of municipality and VU University by offering the land to be taken care of by the different initiatives

- Development plans of the VU regarding building in the area of the garden threat the existence of the ‘Boeletuin’

Appropriation Initial design-process

+Spatial flexibility allowed five different practices (2 food producing and 3 gardening practices) to thrive in the same garden, hereby creating a quality multi-functional space

- Spatial tensions regarding ownership might appear, as each initiative has a different vision for practice development.

Place-making Reenacted design process

+The garden has become ‘a place’ and meets criteria for spatial quality (table 3).

Page 63: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

63

Table 2. Insights from the analysis based on everyday urbanism guidelines. Made by the author.

Criteria for spatial quality Opinions of gardeners

Vitality Favorable

Accessibility Favorable

Efficiency Favorable

Safety Favorable

Sustainability Favorable

Health Favorable

Delightfulness highly favorable Table 3. Source: survey and participant observations, made by author.

The gardening practices in ‘Boeletuin’ created spatial quality through place-making. The highly educated

background of gardeners, the self though competences, the proximity to the garden, the meanings that

fitted the space mainly led to place-making. A very important spatial factor that also contributed to place-

making is the functional continuity of the garden: for over 50 years it has been an urban garden where

people learn how to grow vegetables. The people carrying out the practice in ‘Boeletuin’ are mainly highly

educated people, some of them are professional gardeners and the majority are self-thought,

experienced people with a medium level of competences. The fact that many of the gardeners work or

live nearby the garden contributes greatly to their regular participation and maintenance of the garden.

The fit between this specific group of carriers with health-related motivations and the large-surfaced

allotment garden in their vicinity created the perfect socio-spatial match between practices and space.

The uncertain functional future of the garden gave carriers the freedom to design it according to their

personal meanings and motivations. This flexibility gave birth to various initiatives in the garden. The

presence of both community-based and individual gardening practices creates variety in activities and

functions, defining the ‘Boeletuin’ as a vital gardening spot. Table 4 illustrates specific characteristics of

the gardening practices in ‘Boeletuin’ which led to spatial quality.

Specific characteristics of the practices How spatial quality was created

Highly educated carriers Can self-organize and take ownership of the place.

Carriers have self-gained skills for designing and building

With low budget materials; majority of materials are found on site.

Majority of carriers work and live in the vicinity Gardeners maintain the garden weekly (except winter season).

Meanings in the context of health Connected with the spatial characteristics of a food producing garden space and benefits of spending time in nature (various flora and fauna).

Differences in meanings/organizational preferences Various designs in the same garden

Volunteer based Design and maintenance is realized through individual labor.

Table 4. Made by author.

Page 64: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

64

The gardening practices in ‘Boeletuin’ are set in Zuidas, an area shifting towards hosting more living

facilities, and contributing profoundly to the urban quality of life. People can come and enjoy leisure

time, grow food and learn about different types of gardening techniques (from traditional gardening to

alternative methods like permaculture). This changing context benefits greatly from a practice which

emerged from citizen-led initiatives.

Not only do the gardening practices bring a benefit to the area but also the garden space itself. It is host

to high and medium vegetation and various fauna and flora. These are the spatial characteristics that

attracted the practices and have a high value for people working and living in the area.

The gardening practices and the garden space of the ‘Boeletuin’ are highly important for the spatial

quality of the area, yet at the same time they are highly vulnerable. Practices in ‘Boeletuin’ are vulnerable

because they are volunteer based and the garden space because it is under the ownership of the V.U.

University which has development plans for the area. Because practices are already rooted in this place,

the loss of the place would create a big challenge for the continuation of any of the practices. Labor (i.e.

building, planting, weeding, soil preparation) and time resources (weekly visits) were put into place-

making, therefore reorganizing and finding a new space to continue would be detrimental to the practice.

Destroying the garden space will create a great distress for all the people involved in activities at the

garden (e.g. case when the parking lot was built).

This paradoxical situation of a high quality urban place under threat of disappearance could be avoided

if insights from a practice-based analysis contribute to spatial planning. The analysis of the ’Boeletuin’

has offered these insights based on the 6 guidelines and also connected the socio-spatial factors which

led to place-making in the garden. Further each gardening practice will be closely analyzed, because they

have different characters. General statements revealed so far are very useful, but not enough in order to

fully dive into the effect that each initiative has on the spatial dimension. Specific results for each practice

offer further insights for spatial planning.

Page 65: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

65

4. Garden Sub-Cases at the ‘Boeletuin’: Different Meanings, Different Designs.

Page 66: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

66

This chapter explores findings from each of the 3 gardening practices at the ‘Boeletuin’ separately. It focuses on findings that answer the following secondary research question:

What insights for spatial planning do each of the three gardening practices present at the ‘Boeletuin’

garden reveal, in relation to the set of six guidelines identified through the theoretical lens of social

practice theory and everyday urbanism?

This chapter examines each initiative as a sub-case of the main case, the ‘Boeletuin’ garden in order to

understand how their gardening practice shapes the space they operate in. Insights from the findings are

valuable for spatial planning because they show why some citizen-led gardening practices are more

successful at becoming established and acquiring carriers. Insights also illustrate how the gardening

practices overcame challenges in the process of design and appropriation.

Each of the gardening practices has a different organizational structure. These structures can be more

rigid or more flexible to innovation. The organizational structure of the gardening practice plays and

important role in appropriation and place-making. Insights about results of appropriation for each

organizational structure is insightful for spatial planning because it shows why some of the gardening

practices may have had a harder time than others in the process of place-making.

Findings from the analysis of each of the three gardening practices: community permaculture garden,

garden of the individual plots and community research garden are structured in two categories:

gardening practice, spatial design and the effects of practice relations on the spatial design. The first

category contains findings from the social practice related guidelines and the second the findings from

everyday urbanism related guidelines. In this way results of the two categories can be easily connected.

The connections illustrate insights for spatial planning, because, as previously elaborated in chapter 3,

gardening practices create quality urban space.

Page 67: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

67

Figure 1. ‘Zuidmoes’ garden in ‘Boeletuin’. Source: author.

Community permaculture garden: ‘Zuidmoes’

Size: 700 m2 Location: south area of the ‘Boeletuin’ garden (see green area in figure 2) Initiators: 3 entrepreneurs with the support of the ‘Voedsel’ bank, the municipality and other organizations Values: community, food, gardening, sustainability Design: circular

Page 68: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

68

The community permaculture garden ‘Zuidmoes’ is intended for people who are enthusiastic about growing their own food, eating healthy and organic, spending time outside and discovering the benefits of collective gardening (source: Vrijwilligers Amsterdam Centrale, 2015). To garden in the ‘Zuidmoes’ volunteers do not need to have previous vegetable growing experience. Gardeners learn from each other and teach each other. Community gardening is beneficial, because the work takes less time and pressure if done together. The yield of vegetable products is much higher in community gardens (source: Vrijwilligers Amsterdam Centrale, 2015). The garden offers a cozy atmosphere and a fast

exchange of gardening knowledge. ‘Zuidmoes’ is a recycling garden, with no waste production, because everything that comes from the garden is reused. Gardeners grow the popular vegetables, like zucchinis or lettuce, but less known varieties of plants like: edible flowers, less known vegetables and perennials (source: nmtzuid.nl). The gardeners aim to extend the harvest season as long as possible and also using a varied range of vegetable types (source: vca.nu). Results Gardening practice at ‘Zuidmoes’. The gardening practice at the community permaculture garden ‘Zuidmoes’ was initiated by three of the garden members. They are the decision makers and project leaders. One of the initiators shares that her main motivation to start this project was to do alleviate the deterioration of urban green spaces:

Some years ago I liked the idea to do something with the green outside my home. Because where I used to live it was very nice, with trees and shrubs. But ever since I came, they started to disappear, the trees the shrubs. I am living next to the football fields and it used to be grass and now it is plastic. […] We, me and some neighbors, call it ‘shameful green’ what developed around us. I want to do something with the green. (BG9)

The project also has the purpose to create accessibility for people with low income to healthy food. The three project leaders share meanings of food, social interaction and nature. Interviews reveal these common meanings:

Figure 2. Source: bing.com, edited by author.

Page 69: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

69

It always makes me happy. I like to be outside to do things. […] You will never know what will work, what not, what will survive until next year. […] Very often Yolanda is here and Henry and you. The social content, that is also very important. (BG7) I think that you have to live with nature, we are all part of nature. You cannot deny nature, you have to be part of it and respect it. Main thing here (at Zuidmoes) is getting experience: farming, city farming at a scale like this. We have 700 m2. [It is] Good to work with others and share experience. (BG3)

Permaculture is one of the main inspiration for the project leaders. Permaculture is a system of design for agricultural and social purposes based on using features observed in natural ecosystems (source: Wikipedia, 2015). It offered knowledge and a skill-set that was in sync with the meanings described previously. Two of the project leaders studied permaculture.

I did a permaculture design course, also workshops about soil. Studied on my own, collecting different data, plants. (BG3) I did 2 years of permaculture courses, so that gave me knowledge. And just doing and talking with other people, looking and whatever. A lot of it is just doing. Before having gardens for 4 years I knew nothing, I just started. (BG9)

The third project leader comes with a skill set that was anchored in gardening and agriculture. She also has intuitive knowledge regarding the aesthetical design of the garden.

[I gained knowledge] when I worked at the farm. Learned a lot from the people there. I started 12 years ago. I just started helping there and I learned a lot. […] I look at the aesthetics more than the other two. That’s what I do most. (BG7)

All three have self-taught skills and find that the experience gained through practicing gardening is very valuable in attaining gardening competences. Their skills complement each other and create a valuable set of gardening competences.

Funding from the municipality and affiliate organizations made it possible for the three project leaders to start up the gardening practice. Materials and funds are intended for basic gardening needs and are mainly provided by the municipality. Here we see the three elements of meanings, skills and materials being linked up, such that the practice can be enacted. Figure 3 illustrates the specific linkage of the gardening practice in the community permaculture garden ‘Zuidmoes’. The gardening practice of the ‘Zuidmoes’ started in April 2015 and is still in progress six months later, at the time of the research.

Page 70: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

70

Figure 3. Source: interviews and participatory observations, made by author.

For the gardening practice to develop it needs fellow gardeners to carry out activities. Reasons for volunteers to participate in the ‘Zuirmoes’ gardening practice are: group acceptance and knowledge or material rewards. The main reason for volunteers to keep coming is acceptance, feeling welcomed in the group. The ‘Zuidmoes’ group has this quality (source: participatory observations, interviews). As following field notes, and statements reveal. Zuidmoes people are very friendly, open to explaining, including people in the gardening practice. (Source: field

notes) It is useful. I really felt welcome. I can say I am part of the group, this is nice. (BG5)

Besides the actual experience of doing activities together, one of the project leaders offers garden tours. This is a good recruitment method because interested people find out more about the purpose and activities of the ‘Zuidmoes’.

Meaning*: 1. Food

2. Social & nature3. Leisure & education

*In the context of health.

Material: Gardening tools,

recycled furniture, compost heaps,

vegetation, seeds from on-site

and outside

Competence: Gardening and agricultural

knowledge;Permaculture knowledge;

Sustainable and recyclable systems

(f.e. compost)

Figure 4. Source: Zuidmoes facebook page.

Page 71: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

71

We put a sign up- guided tour Friday at 5 o clock. Made many tours on spontaneous manner. I see they are interested so I invite them to tell them about our garden, plans. (BG3)

Recruitment and commitment of carriers is influenced by rewards like: gardening knowledge and garden grown products and seeds.

[I come] to relax, to learn, socialize and sometimes I get vegetables, which is very nice. (BG5) [I will not come anymore]If I cannot find the information that I want to find. (BG12)

For a few members accessibility to an alternative gardening system and community group is a reason to keep coming:

[Here I] have different types of relations, because they are not my colleagues, they are not my friends. Having different types of social relations gives you another view about society, about life. […] My father had a garden and it was very straight. No weeds, it was a bit boring. There are not many animals like butterflies and other insects and birds. With variation more animals come. (BG8)

Openness to innovation proposed by members is a characteristic of the practices’ organizational structure. ‘Zuidmoes’ has a balanced organizational structure. They have a core structure and keep gardening values and habits, yet are also open to reasoned suggestions from volunteers.

They [project leaders] already had a garden plan. Already planted things for winter. It’s like this in most gardens: when they made a plan, they don’t change it. […] They would be open to try it [individual ideas] if there is still space. In the new season I can probably bring new ideas. (BG5) It [the garden] was already there when I came here. I came here this summer. And I think it is ok. […] They ask me a lot of times if I have ideas. But I don’t have ideas! (laughs) (BG8)

The core structure held by the project leaders creates the rhythm of gardening and assures consistency and reliability. The visits have a loose and consistent schedule. Gardening time is alternated with breaks dedicated to social interaction and relaxation, creating a harmonious balanced experience.

Went to garden with the ‘Zuidmoes’. Always a lot to learn from them. They share a lot of knowledge. Did weeding, sowing. […] The two regulars and a volunteer were there. Also had a small tea-break with tea made from the aromatic plants from the garden. (Source: field notes)

The balanced organizational structure is very valuable in retaining commitment, and therefore plays a defining role in the continuation of the gardening practice.

Figure 5. Source: Zuidmoes facebook page.

Page 72: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

72

Although ‘Zuidmoes’ possesses these qualities, they have had fewer recruited volunteers than expected.

Participants at volunteer days range from 1 to 5 gardeners. This has also had effects on the spatial

appropriation, the project leaders have reduced the surface of the occupied space in order to better

handle it with the amount of people regularly coming.

Spatial design: appropriation and place-making The gardening practice at ‘Zuidmoes’ develops together with the spatial design. The tactical decisions of the initiators made it possible to gain a garden in the first place, a spatial context for acting out the practice:

We heard that ‘schooltuinen’ (school gardens) would stop. It is general knowledge. […] We knew it would come for free so we had an idea to do a social project with the ‘voedsel bank’ (food bank). […] We went to Zuidas and we asked if we would get a place here. (BG9)

The initial garden design was a result of the collaboration between the project leaders:

Henry and me, we had (laughs)…, we designed the most wonderful layout patterns for a garden and in the end we realized it was a bit too much for us to do that. So then we decided to grade it down and use the circles. Which is perfectly fine, we can handle that, it is easy and beautiful. […] Besides we did not know that this piece (shows margin of parking lot) would be useless to plant. (BG9)

The design process reveals a high level of adaptability and flexibility to spatial and temporal factors. The project leaders first elaborated a complex design, then ultimately chose a simpler one, which proved to be a positive decision regarding resources, time and space. The competing practice of the urban real estate was a decisive factor in the final design. The parking lot created unexpected spatial changes, which are incorporated in their design.

The garden design is composed of the circular crop system illustrated in figure 4. The circular design assures a 6 year crop-rotation in order to provide maximized yield in every year. After 6 years crops in different sectors are back in the initial position and the cycle starts again, assuring continuity. Meanings are embedded in the spatial design: food, social, nature. The meaning of food is illustrated in the physical arrangement of the garden. The circular crops are structured in sectors, each with specific vegetable families. Vegetable families are positioned one next to each other in

order to positively influence each other. The circular crops change yearly through the rotational system

Figure 6. Source: Zuidmoes facebook page.

Page 73: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

73

and assure that the soil gains different types of needed nutrients. Perennial edible and herb plants are planted in the center and at the borders of the circular crops. The social meaning and the intention to create a community is highlighted also through the circular shape of the garden, which made it easy to see and talk to each other. Circular pathways delimitating the vegetable beds facilitated communal work and face to face interaction. Two small places for relaxation and social interaction are also part of the ‘Zuidmoes’ garden. One of the places is used for working breaks, sharing tea and having something to eat. The other place is used on summer days for longer periods of relaxation. In the ‘Zuidmoes’ the meaning of nature, connects with values attributed to sustainability, recycling and care for fauna and flora. The project leaders use their permaculture competences which are rooted in patterns of natural ecosystems. This is illustrated in typologies of plants and associations, as well as recycling and composting. ‘Zuidmoes’ has two composting places and are intending to build a third.

We try to make a lot of composting. […] Compost or making organic matter into the soil makes sure that the soil will start living again, with organisms and worms. […] A lot of things we eat are the first year plants and they need lose ground because they have subtle, sensitive roots. (BG9)

The spatial appropriation in the case of the ‘Zuidmoes’ gardening practice proves to be successful because the gardeners managed to express their meanings in the physical configuration of the garden. Through continuous appropriation during a longer time span, a relation with the space through the gardening practice can create place-making.

We started here, this garden, the first year. Within 5 years this whole garden is under control. But not now! Now you see me running behind the facts. […] [In 5 years] every plant will be more all less in the spot where it wants to be. […] It is not finished. It is what it is. It was easy to do what I wanted because I am not picky. (BG9)

‘Zuidmoes’ gardening practice is successful in appropriation and holds a great potential to create quality place-making if the continuity of this practice is assured at the ‘Boeletuin’. Effects of collaborative and competitive relations on spatial design.

Relations of the community permaculture garden ‘Zuidmoes’ with other practices present in the ‘Boeletuin’ garden are loose and defined by co-existence. There are exchanges of knowledge and materials defined by proximity and by past common affiliations. One of the project leaders of ‘Zuidmoes’ is very active in strengthening collaborative relations with the other gardening and food producing practices at ‘Boeletuin’. He frequently visits them and initiates social contact. These visits are efficient because they have a continuity. During the visits, gardening knowledge is exchanged and occasionally materials:

I try to be in contact with as many people as possible here. With Andrea [owner of mushroom business] we have talks and we have exchanges. Like mushrooms and we are giving her things from our garden. Linda and David [project leaders of community research garden] I already know from last year. I also know some individual gardeners. (BG3)

Page 74: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

74

[While at the community research garden] Henry from ‘Zuidmoes’ visited us shortly. We all talked

about what vegetable-seeds could be sown in winter. (Source: field notes)

The potential of such interactions is very valuable, as they contribute to developing the presently loose relations into denser relations of collaboration. The loose but positive interactions of ‘Zuidmoes’ with the other practices at ‘Boeletuin’ contributes to practice acceptance amongst the others and creates a situation of well-being for carriers. However, these collaborative interactions do not reveal any sizable effects on the spatial design. Competitive relations, on the other hand, have a very visible effect on the garden size of the ‘Zuidmoes’ garden. The high tension with the urban built environment led to design alteration and reduction of planting space of the ‘Zuidmoes’. The concrete foundation of the parking lot at the border of the garden contains debris which make the soil unusable for vegetable gardening purposes. Another factor in reducing the size of ‘Zuidmoes’ garden was the high demand for individual plots and the lower number of signed up volunteers:

Last year we had much bigger size, almost triple. Also with the place where now some of the individual plots are. It was too big, we did not have enough people joining. Also […] [there were] people working on individual plots with too little space. Now, with 700 m2 we have enough space. (BG3)

Gardening practices at ‘Zuidmoes’ successfully appropriate the garden space. A unique composition of skills of the three project leaders creates a balanced organizational structure based on consistent core values and a scope for innovation. This structure facilitates a moderate recruitment and high commitment. Recruitment and commitment are based on feeling welcomed in the group and the rewards of gaining knowledge and garden-products. The carriers embed top meanings (food, social and nature) of the gardening practice through corresponding skills (permaculture, agricultural, aesthetical) into the garden design. Through the design successful appropriation is achieved. The appropriation process of the garden space is influenced by relations with other practices. Adaptability of design in face of challenges created by competitive relations strengthens the practice. Loose collaborative relations create acceptance with neighboring practice and assures the well-being of carriers.

Page 75: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

75

Garden of the individual plots

Size: 1530 m2 Location: Central area and east (see green area in figure 8) Initiators: entrepreneur (garden caretaker) in collaboration with VU University Values: leisure, food Design: 180 rectangular plots of 8,5 m2

Figure 7. Individual plot at ‘Boeletuin’. Source: author.

Page 76: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

76

Former school garden plots have been repurposed into individual plots. They offer the opportunity to garden and enjoy time outside, while having the satisfaction of self-grown vegetables, herbs and flowers. Many gardeners come to ‘Boeletuin’ because it is a rare possibility for them and their families to have a plot in a big sized garden situated in a highly urbanized city. Accessibility is offered during the entire week, weekends included. Specific gardening activities like hoeing, sowing, planting can be done at the garden of the individual plots. Tools, seeds and seedlings are provided. Individual plots have the size of 8,5 m2 and the rental during a one-year season costs 60 € (source: Boeletuin website, 2015). Compost, manure, water source and a toilet are provided for individual gardeners. The garden caretaker is

responsible for the general maintenance of the plots, but each gardener has to take care of their own plot and keep it clean. Results Gardening practice at the garden of individual plots in ‘Boeletuin’ Individual gardening is strongly rooted in the Dutch culture. The top meanings shared by gardeners of the individual plots are: leisure and food. Social, nature and education are also mentioned as meanings, but by fewer gardeners. The majority of the gardeners are individuals who work in the near vicinity of the garden. Meanings of leisure, taking a relaxing break from work are important to them:

It is relaxing. Because you sit the whole time in a building and it is nice to go outside. Now I’ve got a headache and it helps to get outside. (BG22)

Gardening with the purpose of leisure is very important for some garden members, especially for the elderly who have lost family members:

My wife died in 2013. I am alone, what must I do with my time?! I want to have this piece of land for myself. (BG6)

Gardeners with experience and a higher level of gardening competences combine meanings of leisure with producing food:

And as we say, [if you have a garden] you don’t need a psychiatrist; […]. [I came] to harvest. I came specifically today for this cauliflower. (BG12)

Figure 8. Source: bing.com, edited by author.

Page 77: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

77

For other gardeners gardening is an opportunity for social contact with close friends. Spatial proximity is a defining reason for choosing the ‘Boeletuin’ as a meeting place:

Here I started last year with a friend whom I met during my studies. […] We said that once we would have together a vegetable plot. So when she found it here she told me that the two of us should have a small plot here. Because she lives 15 minutes that way and I live 15 minutes away on that way, we didn’t see much of each other. (BG21)

Another meaning gardening has is education and accessibility to healthy food, especially for the gardeners who have children.

It’s a good thing for our kid to find out from where the food comes from. And it is some leisure. It is a good thing that it is on our way to school and back, so we stop by briefly and have some lunch here. We come during the week and in weekends. (BG17)

Gardening with the meaning of ‘nature’, flora and fauna is mentioned by a few individual gardeners. As the following interview illustrates, there is a shift in leisure activities from those specific to commercial urban areas to leisure activities of relaxation and being outdoors:

For me, it’s a way to be more outside without going shopping or spending money on whatever. So I can do something. Because in the city, the only reason you go outside is to go somewhere or to buy something, or to do your groceries, or whatever. And now I can be outside on my own in nature and close to home. (BG16)

The meanings and motivations link up with various competences. Skill-sets range from experienced gardeners with agricultural backgrounds to beginners:

My father is agriculturer [farmer]. Turnip, cauliflower, potatoes, flowers, seeds. So I have a background. (BG12) I think I started kind of chaotic. I started with the ‘moestuintjes’ [small vegetable gardens] from ‘Albert Heijn’ [supermarket]. […] I would plant them here in the ground, in my own individual plot. But then half of the things were not growing at all. […][Then] I had weeds and I didn’t know what was vegetable or weed. (BG14)

The two elements: meanings and competences link up with the materials at the garden and create the gardening practice of the individual plots (see figure 9). The majority of materials are provided by the caretaker of the garden, and some are brought by gardeners. Provided materials are: basic gardening tools, watering cans, a compost place, water source, plants and toilet facilities. Gardeners also bring low cost decorative or functional gardening objects.

Page 78: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

78

Figure 9. Source: interviews and participatory observations, made by author.

The gardening practice at the individual plots is carried out by a high number of gardeners: cca. 170 people. They represent the majority of the garden members at ‘Boeletuin’. Reasons for gardeners’ to participate come at ‘Boeletuin’ are: proximity (VU University and medical center or the Acta, located in the vicinity of the garden) and passing by, learning about the garden from family or friends, or from colleagues and work environment. These reasons show how recruitment of gardeners is facilitated.

Successful recruitment is followed by repeated visits which show commitment. For the individual gardeners commitment is stimulated by accessibility to leisure, relaxation and simultaneously gain gardening knowledge and products. Gardeners learn from each other: [An individual gardener] Told me about her plot-neighbor […] who is skilled at gardening and offered her good advice. (Source: field notes) The garden space creates a good opportunity for beginners to learn from ‘old hands’. It is also a space

where experienced gardeners share knowledge:

Besides gardening I talk to people. I like to know what other people do. And it’s nice because, for instance there is a Chinese girl from Shanghai […] She does not know not much about gardens, so I can tell her ‘this is this’ and ‘you should do that’. (BG12)

Meaning*: 1. Leisure2. Food

3. Social, education & nature

*In the context of health.

Material: Gardening tools,

furniture, water source, bathrooms,

decorative and functional objects compost heap,

vegetation, seeds

Competence: Gardening and agricultural

knowledge

Figure 10. Source: author.

Page 79: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

79

The degree to which knowledge exchanges happen define the organizational structure of the gardening practice. In the case of the garden of individual plots, it has a more rigid structure, where participants are not inclined to change or innovate. Most of the gardeners tend to their personal space, using traditional gardening techniques and have minimal contact to the other gardening practices at ‘Boeletuin’. An exception is one of the experienced individual gardeners. He is a retired man who regularly connects with gardeners inside his practice and with the other gardening and food production practices at ‘Boeletuin’. He is a key carrier in strengthening the individual gardening practice and developing collaborative relations with other practices:

To the people that are usually here I go and talk to them, because there is a very old lady, she likes to talk, there [also] is the Chinese student. People come to visit, Foreigners like to visit. […] I take them to the flowers. I talk to these people from Zuidmoes, I know them very well. We interact, we give information to each other. […] I know Andreea (owner of the mushroom business) also. (BG12)

The way individual gardeners carry out the gardening practice shapes the physical space of the garden. The next part describes the process of appropriation and place-making for the gardening practice of the individual gardeners. Spatial design. Appropriation and place-making. Each gardener has the freedom to design his plot as he pleases. Nevertheless all plots have the same size: 8, 5m2. This is the original surface of the childrens’ school plots. Many gardeners have challenges with the small size (source: survey, interviews):

Maybe I wanted more space to garden, […]. Because people are bigger than children. Sometimes it is difficult. (BG14)

Although gardeners wish for bigger plots, some individual plots are not well maintained. Lack of maintenance was generally defined as an overgrown plot, i.e. full of weeds. Photos show that roughly 25 % of the identified plots are not regularly maintained. The rest, 75 % of the individual plots, are valuable in formulating insights about how gardeners appropriate them and about the process of place-making. The majority of plots are planted in rows, with various species of vegetables and flowers. Many individual gardeners choose to put signs in their plots, either with their names or for identifying plants. Some also use sticks to mark the limits of their garden. Gardeners brought in low-cost decorative and functional items: glass boxes for seedlings, wooden or metal structures for climbing plants, plastic or metal nets, insect hotels and decorative sculptures. Decorative objects range from flags and sculptures of animals, too clogs, the Dutch wooden shoes (see figure 11). Objects like the clogs and the Dutch flags reflect the cultural background of the majority of individual gardeners. The aesthetical aspect of the garden of the individual plots is unitary because the appropriation process is similar. This aspect is characteristic to their spatial appropriation.

Figure 11. Source: author.

Page 80: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

80

Appropriation yields valuable insights when connected to meanings gardeners expressed, because it illustrates the motivations for design choices and rule out premature conclusions about the garden. Meanings are embedded by the gardeners in the design. The top meaning in case of individual gardening is leisure, and this meaning is historically rooted in the Dutch culture of allotment gardens (Wildschut, 2012). Most individual plots are not very organized, not focused on maximizing food production and not highly maintained. They have a high degree of playfulness and randomness (see figure 12). This could prematurely be perceived as low interest, yet when connected to the identified meaning of leisure, proves to be highly efficient in understanding why the plots have this design. Presence of chairs and improvised benches or tables also support the meaning of leisure. For some gardeners the meaning of food production plays an important role. In those cases the meaning is reflected in spatial design: garden beds are very organized, clean and usually stretch over a bigger area.

But that [a single individual plot] is not enough for me, because I like not just 2 rows of radishes […]! I want more […].Overall I have 14-15 small ones, at least 50 sq m. (BG12)

By choosing to partner up in plots which are one next to each other the meaning of social contact is embedded in the spatial design. This is the case for individuals who enjoy gardening as a social activity, together with friends or individuals with common interests.

We said that once we would have together a vegetable plot. So when she found out it started here she told me that the two of us should have a small plot here. […] Each of us could have 2 plots, so that was fine. Because one plot is really, a bit too small. So as long as we can continue with 2 plots, 4 altogether, it is fine. (BG21) And then I had a garden and I wanted to have my own vegetable garden. […] And we started a whole corridor with the ‘yoop’ researchers. That are all people involved in obesity research, related to vegetable consumption. So we started a ‘yoop’ tuin (garden). (BG14)

In other cases individual plots were reorganized for facilitating access to children, therefore illustrating the meaning of education in the spatial appropriation process.

At first I divided into squares with little pathways. But then I said no, it’s not sufficient enough, so I flattened it out and took a long path in the middle. It is easier for him (the child), he can reach. (BG17)

Decorative and functional objects related to animals and insects can be a clue to gardeners’ interest and value for fauna. An insect house was set over a lavender bush in one of the plots, while many others had decorative bird sculptures. These elements of spatial appropriation connect to the meaning of nature (flora and fauna).

Figure 12. Individual plots in ‘Boeletuin’ garden. Source: author.

Page 81: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

81

Place-making is described by interviewees, as in the case of the community permaculture garden ‘Zuidmoes’, as a time requiring process, characterized by consistency. One of the individual gardeners’ who had reduced the frequency of their visits to the garden shares:

I did not […] visit the garden [so often] to make it my own and do experimental things. It is not something you plan in the beginning, you need time to design your garden and to see how things are growing. (BG14)

For other, more committed gardeners, the process of place-making is present. A high commitment, illustrated through the time dedicated for reenactment is highly connected to a successful process of place-making and also in assuring the continuity and survival of a practice.

[I come at the garden] at least 3 times a week, sometimes 4 times, sometimes 5, it depends. […] And now I can go on holiday because the season is almost over. In mid-season it is difficult to go away. I sometimes plan my holidays according to gardening period. (BG12)

Place-making is more present for some gardeners than for others and is dependent on their commitment. Spatial design of the individual plots is defined by the gardeners but also by the relations with other practices. The next part illustrates the effects of these relations on the garden space. Effects of collaborative and competitive relations on spatial design.

The garden of the individual plots has a collaborative relation with the practice of the cantina. They share knowledge as well as materials. All facilities are available for individual gardeners, including toilets. An average of bi-weekly, irregular emails with gardening knowledge are being sent by the garden caretaker and owner of the cantina. He can also be reached for any discussion concerning gardening and maintenance by the individual gardeners. Collaborative relations helps both practices thrive. Individual gardeners frequently visit the cantina for lunch or something to drink, while the cantina offers accessibility to leisure and facilities. Activities influence each other and inspire carriers to take them up. I experienced this during my gardening experience:

Started observing people using the place for leisure. Young people were laughing, socializing. An older lady sitting and relaxing, enjoying the sun. Realized the importance of leisure in the garden. [Next day I] went to the individual plot and picked up some sage and lemon verbena. Made a tea. Was actually influenced by observing people experiencing leisure, so I wanted too! (Source: field notes)

The cantina also brings in many people from neighboring practices, like those working in close by buildings (source: field notes). Therefore it can contribute to strengthening the gardening practices by recruiting new carriers. The relations with the other gardening practices are very loose. This is the effect of a more rigid organizational structure characteristic to the practice. It is difficult for innovative knowledge to penetrate the practice, because it has the tradition of being an individual practice with minimal social interactions with ‘outsiders’. This is the reason why relations with neighboring gardening practices at ‘Boeletuin’ are not collaborative, yet they have the potential to develop. Key participants, such as the experienced individual gardener who keeps in contact with the other gardening practices at ‘Boeletuin’, are very valuable in the development of collaborative relations. In that particular case, he regularly exchanges knowledge with the gardeners at the ‘Zuidmoes’ community permaculture garden. Children

Page 82: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

82

are also valuable in strengthening collaborative relations: some families of individual gardeners show their children the alternative gardening methods used by the ‘Zuidmoes’. Collaborative and loose interactive relations strengthen the practice of the individual gardeners and have minimal impact on the design. On the other hand competitive relations negatively impact the spatial design. Competitive relations with the urban real estate practice affected the individual gardening practice. The area in which the parking lot is built takes up more than one third of the previous individual plots. All interviewed individual gardeners mention this spatial change as a very negative effect on social and aesthetical quality the garden offers.

The first season [I had more interactions with gardeners], because they were all around me, there were many gardeners there (points towards her plot which is directly attached to the parking lot area). Now there’s nobody. This is a pity, but… (BG22)

I owned a plot. It was on the area of the parking lot, so now it disappeared. […] I regret the parking is here. In an area there were bushes, but it was taken. (BG4)

The spatial appropriation by this individual gardening practice has been successfully made. Main meanings of leisure and food production are embedded in the spatial design. The design illustrates traditional agricultural techniques used in the Dutch allotment gardens. Repeated appropriation over the course of a few years has resulted in place-making in the plots of the more committed gardeners. The spatial design is also influenced by relations and exchanges with other practices. Knowledge exchanges with the other gardening practices at ‘Boeletuin’ are rare because of its more rigid organizational structure. The few key individuals who make regular contact are valuable for the potential development of collaborative relations. While the loose interactions do not have a great effect on the spatial design, the competitive relations have caused the decrease of gardening space and negatively impacted the gardening practice.

Page 83: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

83

Figure 13. ‘The Green Living Lab’ at Boeletuin. Source: ‘The Green Living Lab’ facebook page.

Community research garden ‘The Green Living Lab’

Size: cca. 800m2 Location: north-west corner of the ‘Boeletuin’ garden (see green area in figure 14) Initiators: diverse group of entrepreneurs and researchers, with the support of VU University and other organizations. Decision-maker is the project leader, one of the entrepreneurs. Values: nature, research, social, sustainability in the context of healthy urban living Design: organic shapes, flexible facilities (host different functions).

Page 84: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

84

The community research garden ‘The Green Living Lab’ strongly promotes the existence of green spaces in urban areas. This support is based on the notion that the lack of diverse green spaces in Amsterdam inhabitants causes them to lose touch with natural green environments (source: registration form AmSIA, 2015). It intends to carry on the educational legacy of the ‘Almatuin’, the former school garden, while also introducing modern facilities for human interaction, such as the geodesic dome. The community research garden is a testing ground for scientists, students, businesses, artists as well as other actors involved in sustainable urban planning and sustainable design (source: registration form AmSIA 2015). The main aim of the project is healthy urban living,

promoting healthy living in the city and the effects of green spaces on health and behavior. Important goals are creating accessibility to and disseminating academic research on these topics. Urban inhabitants as well as the business community of the Zuidas area are the targeted groups. The project plans to achieve these aims by creating a hub which connects entrepreneurs, students and scientists at the same location. (source: registration form AmSIA, 2015):

We are creating a beautiful space in nature to rest, learn, research, work and play and everyone is welcome. (Source: The Green Living Lab facebook page, 2015)

Results Gardening practice at the community research garden ‘Green Living Lab’ The gardening practice at the community research garden has an innovative and holistic approach. In order to study the various activities of the practice, the notion of ‘gardening’ is referred to in broad terms to include activities of building, research and education as well as food growing, processing and cooking. Top meanings for the garden members are: nature, research & education and social. The meaning of ‘nature’ is common to most of the team members. From data gathered through interviews the broad notion of nature is described as biota (flora and fauna), sustainable cyclical processes and also has a dimension regarding the envisioning of life and spirituality.

We are in a strange situation here, because in 10-15 years we are like in a concrete village, the whole Zuidas, no tree left anymore. Only concrete here. […]. I find it important that we live in harmony with nature, not against it. […] And I work here, so it’s the area I come to every day. (BG18) I think it is very good how that [community research garden project] brings this together in such a small spot in between of all these big buildings, [it shows] what nature can be for people. It (nature)

Figure 14. Source: bing.com, edited by author.

Page 85: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

85

brings really you to yourself. Being in the city a lot, being in touch all the time with other people, maybe it is not […] makes you a bit disconnected from yourself. (BG11)

Meanings of food and leisure are also valuable for the practice, because they contribute together with the earlier mentioned top meanings to a healthy lifestyle, but there is a difference in the importance these meanings have in regards to the previous practices illustrated. For example nature is one of the top meanings for the members of ‘The Green Living Lab’, while for the individual gardeners food production through gardening is amongst the most highly valued meanings. The diverse meanings connect to diverse skill sets: specialized knowledge of gardening, carpentry, designing and building sustainable systems of composting and energy production (wormhotels and biomeiler) and research. The project leader has a background set that supports her in managing the different skill sets available for best results:

My background is a head-hunter. […] So that has taught me a lot. […] What I can do is find the right skills to be able to make a project happen. (BG21)

The project organizers have different skill sets, making up a complementary configuration of knowledge and competencies: carpentry, research and gardening.

I am a carpenter, artist and I am involved here mostly because there was an outdoor kitchen needed so I was asked to design one and build it. And then I was hearing more of the other parts of the HGLL so little by little if it is possible I would help. (BG11) I am a researcher from the VU University. […] In ‘Boeletuin’ I was involved because I do research there. (BG14) I am a gardener. […] I used to be an artist and I had a career change […]. Growing food, edible gardens is not just as a hobby. Right now I am doing a lot of community gardens organization, volunteer coordination, planning gardens, taking workshops with people who want to learn how to grow food. (BG18)

The specific skill set and knowledge source which gathers all meanings shared by team members is that of permaculture. As shared by the project leader it was a great source of influence in the planning and design of the project:

Permaculture is a big inspiration. I studied it a few years ago in the Netherlands and then did a course with Patrick Whitefield in Spain at the beginning of last year […] So, I want to bring that into this project, not just trough gardening but how we do it, how we do everything. (BG21)

While the linkage of meanings and skills has been successful in the project, linking with materials has been challenging. The starting point for the project was when the VU University, the owner of the ground granted the Green Living Lab project the location free of charge (source: registration form AmSIA 2015). The team received some funding for materials, yet part of the costs were paid for by the project leader and project partners personally. Getting materials and building utilities has been a difficult process because most of the team members work voluntarily (source: interview). Although demanding, it had the positive effect of making relations between members stronger.

Page 86: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

86

It is not always easy to put into practice. It costs money. And that is the biggest challenge that we have. […]They [the team] are working for not than [almost] no money. So what is it that these people are showing up for? They are coming here because they want to create something beautiful and that gives me inspiration to keep going as well. (BG21)

The team uses various materials and they built different types of utilities. In doing this they achieve their vision (composed of meanings) sometimes through the use of low-cost or free recycled materials and in other occasion modern innovative materials. Basic gardening materials and utilities are present: tool shed, tools, compost heap, gardening beds, water source (source: field notes and photos). Extensive project plans involve having a modern research dome, a biomeiler, an outdoor kitchen and other facilities. The outdoor kitchen and the dome were set up during the 2-month study period. Because basic facilities were still being built during my study, conclusions regarding the practice are that the link with the materials is not fully formed but under development. The specific configuration of elements making up the practice of the ‘Green Living Lab’ initiative is illustrated in figure 15. It shows the various skills sets and materials necessary in order to express meanings which are innovative and change the traditional understanding of the functions attributed to a garden space.

Figure 15. Practice elements at ‘The Green Living Lab’. Source: interviews, participant observations. Made by author.

The gardening practice at ‘The Green Living Lab’ is self-organized. The continuation of the practice is dependent on the participation of volunteers. Volunteer days take place once a week and led by a professional gardener. She has a background in community work and project planning (source: interview). During the 2 month period of the research there were 4 meetings with volunteers and one workshop. There were 2 to 5 volunteers at the meetings I took part in. During the second month of research, because of the on-site building volunteer gardening sessions had to be interrupted.

Meaning*: 1. Nature

2. Research/education3. Social, food & leisure

*In the context of health.

Material: Gardening tools,

recycled materials,wooden and glass buildings,

stove compost heap,

vegetation, seeds.

Competence: Gardening knowledge;

Permaculture knowledge;Sustainable and

recyclable systems (f.e. Compost, biomeiler);

Carpenting;Project management;

Volunteer and community management;

Scientific, research.

Page 87: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

87

Motivations for people to come are: feeling welcome in the group, knowledge rewards and taking up ownership of tasks. As one of the volunteers mentions:

There are infinite things you can learn from there [‘Green Living Lab’ garden] connected to nature and gardening. And last but not least the people. […] I need people that are open minded and free and funny to collaborate with. And those people [members of ‘Green Living Lab’] are one of the best examples. (BG23)

Taking ownership for tasks is encouraged by the team of organizers and welcomed by volunteers who discover a passion in doing specific activities (i.e. willow weaving):

I helped with the willow structures, I have been following very closely […] the artist who came with this idea and he knew how to do it, so I really was attentive […]. And since then, general I have been taking care of the willow. (BG23)

Taking responsibilities benevolently shows a very high commitment to the practice. Volunteers who make this choice are very valuable in a voluntary practice where man-power is highly valued. Carriers with different social backgrounds and of different nationalities have an interest in the practice performed in the ‘Green Living Lab’.

Green living lab is having volunteer-day from 3:00, run by Karen from City Plot. There were 6 people, two of them are volunteers. A girl from France and an older man. The girl from France is living in Amsterdam, doing an internship. The older man has an interest in nature, growing plants and alternative medicine. (Source: field notes) Went to HGLL, people were moving sand. 2 volunteers. Two girls. One is a Dutch girl (28 years) the other is her friend visiting from Germany. They both are interested in nature-supportive activities. (Source: field notes)

One of the reason why so many diverse participants come is the high degree of innovation and participation in the design process. The innovation points out to the fact that the organizational structure of the gardening practice has a high degree of plasticity. The process of innovative co-creation is highlighted in the following statement and participant observations:

There is a fixed idea about how it is set up. But that is implementing the flexibility. The whole idea about behind how this place is built is that it is a co-creation, […] of course you have to have a guideline. […] So there is place for flexibility and play. (BG11) Had a discussion with Linda about the design for the tree area. Keep it more natural or design it for people-accessibility? I suggested the more natural choice. (Source: field notes)

The high degree of plasticity and scope for innovation also brought some challenges and the need to define an organizational core, as the project leader shares:

But I have learned, one day we were making the willow structures and I went off to get some food for the volunteers. And I came back and they were digging the foundations in the wrong place […] And from that moment I realized you need to have someone steering that [the process]. (BG21)

Page 88: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

88

Spatial design. Appropriation and place-making. Because of the magnitude of the project and challenges regarding materials, the process of appropriation was only in an incipient phase after 9 months of development. All basic facilities were present or nearly finished at the time the study was made. The design embeds meanings expressed by carriers. The meaning of nature is illustrated in the organic shapes (i.e. willow structure, fence from branches, geodesic dome), choice of materials and integration of pre-existent vegetation. Figure 16 illustrates the willow structure in the background. The choice of materials also reflects the meaning of nature: the kitchen is built only from recycled material gathered by the carpenter. The already existing trees and shrubs at the edge of the space were not altered in any way. This area is valued by members and highlighted in many interviews as being of great esthetic quality:

What is nice is the wildlife area. Within the garden there is a wildlife corridor. So it feels natural. (BG18) Now it is beautiful. I feel we have brought the natural balance back to the garden. […] The actual space itself, look: there’s Rickys (grey heron) here, the birds are here, the chickens are here, it’s just so special. (BG21)

The presence of trees is very important to project organizers and for some it is a motivation to be part of the research project:

A lot people know it but it is not proven.. […] I hope here that she [the researcher] finds answers about how it works, the psychology of human behavior in green environments. […] I think trees, they live longer, their pace is slower, it is not in a rush. (BG18)

The research meaning is highly visible in the design. It is embedded in the geodesic glass dome, which indicates its function of an innovative outdoors laboratory intended for classes, workshops and research (see figure 17). It is the most costly utility build at the community research garden and the central architectural piece: This structure is reflective of the project itself:

integration with nature and the bridge to the architectural world, which is really focused on building sustainable. (BG21)

Figure 16. Source: 'The Green Living Lab' facebook group page.

Figure 17. Source: 'The Green Living Lab' facebook page.

Page 89: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

89

The meaning of growing food and having a healthy diet is illustrated by the presence of the garden beds, the outdoor kitchen and the glass dome (which also serves as a green house). Facilities also reveal the social meaning, because they are intended for getting people with similar affiliations together (source: interviews and field notes).

Many meanings meet in the same space and the team found a solution to meet all of them through flexible design. The flexibility of the design is reflected by the fact that facilities meet more purposes and they are able to shift functions.

The flexibility is characteristic to a successful appropriation process. The process of appropriation is successful for the community research garden, but because the project is in an incipient phase it is difficult to draw insights regarding ‘place-making’. Following statement illustrates this:

Still a lot of work needs to be done until you can experience the physical space. It is hard to answer now when it is still a construction site. When it is all done and everything is in place then it will be bloody amazing! (BG18)

Influence of collaborative and competitive relations on the spatial dimension. Relations with gardening practices in the ‘Boeletuin’ garden are loose, defined by co-existence and therefore falling in the category of ‘bundles’. At the time when the research was made team members were focused on setting up the project in the ‘Green Living Lab’ garden and this gave little time to interact with others. A few team members connect often with neighboring practitioners. They share past affiliations or common interests. One of them is the professional gardener leading the workshops and volunteer days at ‘Green Living Lab’:

[I have contact with people] from Boeletuin and the permaculture garden (Zuidmoes). I do not meet a lot of people, but I do talk to some people from the Boeletuin, from the individual gardens and then I know Henry. Because Yolanda (from ‘Zuidmoes’) has come to one of my workshops, Henry (from ‘Zuidmoes’) has come to one of my workshops. So we know each other and we share a lot of knowledge. […] That is what we are passionate about, it is our shared interest. With the individual gardeners, there was this Japanese lady and we were talking about food and cooking. (BG18)

Figure 18. Outdoor kitchen used for workshops. Source: 'The Green Living Lab' facebook page.

Figure 19. Outdoor kitchen. Source: 'The Green Living Lab' facebook page.

Page 90: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

90

Carriers like her contribute to strengthening connections, creating the opportunity for collaborative complexes between gardening practices.

Competitive relations have influenced the spatial design of the ‘Green Living Lab’. Before the project started, the area was administrated by the garden caretaker and owner of the cantina. Once the project began there were tensions between the two practices. The work that the project could carry out was limited in the beginning and it took negotiations over a period of 9 months in order to realize the set out plans.

We are creating all of it ourselves. And that is all the facilities. The VU have given us this area [in Oct 2014], but it took me a year negotiating [with the caretaker] to get as much space as we have. What was left for research and education was tiny. (BG21) We had a big fight about space for the ‘Green Living Lab’ with (the garden caretaker) […]. […] I think now it is ok. (BG14)

Restrictions and tensions also help create solutions. Because there were design limitations regarding planting trees, the team planted the willow structure, which is considered more of a shrub and envelopes research dome. Administrative tensions regarding water and waste management as well as accessibility to toilets also led to the team finding solutions on their own. An agreement with the Acta building, which is situated across the street from the garden, provides accessibility to toilet facilities. Therefore tense relations between practices in the garden can have a double effect – on one hand stagnation but on the other, as in the case of the community research garden where the organizing structure is based on innovation, the development of positive creative solutions.

The competitive relation with the practice of urban real estate is a high threat to the existence of initiatives like the ‘Green Living Lab’ and small scale innovative bottom up gardening practices. The building of the parking lot affected the aesthetical quality of the garden by reducing existing high vegetation:

Now it’s like a scar in the garden this car park. It was all surrounded by trees, you really felt protected. (BG18)

The spatial appropriation in the case of the community research garden has been successfully made. All the meanings of the gardening practice are embedded in the innovative design and for the embedding various skills are necessary: carpentry, gardening, permaculture etc. The innovative designs comes as a result of the organizational structure which is characterized by high plasticity. The high plasticity leads to creative solutions but also to the need of a clear decision maker. The innovative gardening practice has key carriers: volunteers who take on benevolent ownership for certain tasks and more experienced members who have regular interactions with other gardening practices. They are valuable in strengthening the practice from the inside and also creating tight collaborative relations with neighboring practices.

Conclusion

Whereas previous chapter presented gardening practices at ‘Boeletuin’ garden collectively, this chapter explored each gardening practice individually: community permaculture gardening, individual gardening

Page 91: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

91

and community research gardening. Because each of the three gardening practices, i.e. the subcases within the ‘Boeletuin’ garden previously described, have different character, valuable insights can be drawn regarding specific opportunities and challenges. All practices have similar values and meanings, though their relative level of importance for the garden members varies and these differences are embedded in the different design. For the community research garden ‘The Green Living Lab’ education is one of the top meanings, highlighted through the central architectural piece, the geodesic dome. For the individual gardeners education is not of such high importance, therefore slightly visible in the design: some parents design garden beds so that their children can easily access them and learn how to grow vegetables. The design is created by garden members through spatial appropriation. The difficulty of embedding meanings into design through spatial appropriation is dependent of how deeply meanings are rooted in the social collective. When meanings have a history, like for example the meanings of individual gardening, which is a cultural Dutch tradition, spatial appropriation is very easy and with a high rate of recruitment and commitment. In cases of newer meanings with some acceptance in the social collective, like the meanings of permaculture community gardening, the appropriation is easy, but the practice is vulnerable because recruitment is more challenging than in the case of the individual gardening. Few people volunteer in the ‘Zuidmoes’ garden. The most challenging appropriation is in the case of the community community research garden, where meanings are both diverse and innovative. They express a paradigm change, challenging current interpretations of the role of green space in the urban surrounding. Although there are different degrees of difficulty, appropriation succeeded for all gardening practices. Repeated appropriation throughout time can lead to place-making (creating quality urban places). Gardeners state that making a place ‘your own’ is a process that takes time and comes after having the sense of ‘taking care’ of the place. Place-making has mainly occurred only for the garden of the individual plots. The individual gardening practice has been established for 3 years, while the other two were established during the current year (2015). Place-making is in the incipient phase for the community research garden and the community permaculture garden. Besides appropriation by the gardeners, the design is influenced by collaborative and competitive relations between practices. Collaborative relations are not present between the gardening practices, they are in an incipient stage: occasional social-based, knowledge- or material-related interactions. The interactions happen mostly between the community-typed gardening practices because they are more flexible to knowledge exchange. For the garden of the individual plots, which have a more rigid organizational structure, exchanges are done primarily in the interior, in-between individual gardeners and less with the exterior, with people from the community community research garden or the community permaculture garden. At the opposite, the competitive relations lead to the stagnation of development and potential disappearance (i.e. real estate development which reduced the garden space for car parking) of gardening practices, but can also under certain situations spark creative solutions (i.e. tensions between the community community research garden and ‘Boeletuin’ cantina which resulted in more autonomy for the community community research garden). Insights for spatial planning from the analysis of the three gardening practices at the ‘Boeletuin’ garden are illustrated in Table 1 as opportunities (+) and risks (-). The three gardening practices offer complementary opportunities, yet they do not have strong collaborative relations, which is a risk in their development. The risk is that some carriers look for the complementary knowledge or materials offered

Page 92: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

92

by the very practice, which is next to them, yet do not know it because there are too few interactions. This may lead to losses in mutual recruitment or commitment because the members may search to satisfy their needs elsewhere. This lack of collaboration can be traced to the fact that the two community-based gardening practices are relatively new to the garden (1 year). The development of collaborative relations might need time, yet this insight can be used in spatial planning in order to facilitate strengthening and development of the practices in the direction of a more intense collaboration.

Guidelines from social practice theory and Everyday urbanism

Insights for spatial planning from the 3 different gardening practices

Community permaculture garden ‘Zuidmoes’

Garden of the individual plots

Community community research garden ‘The Green Living Lab’

Meanings, skills & materials

+ New meanings for gardening (permaculture), raises awareness amongst urban inhabitants of: sustainable food production, social relations and nature (biota) preservation. + Advanced gardening skills are passed on to volunteers.

+ Preserves meanings of the Dutch gardening culture. - Higher degree of rigidity to innovation.

+ Highly innovative meanings bring awareness about sustainable food production, social relations and nature preservation to entrepreneurs, large businesses and students. +Advanced skills and research knowledge (from researchers and professionals) is passed on through volunteer meetings and workshops. - Too volatile.

+ Use of recycled or low-cost materials for gardening is sustainable for the environment.

Carriers - Reduced number of carriers threatens the continuation of the practice.

+ Committed carriers assure the continuation of the practice and can create affiliate gardening practices of their own.

+ Attracts a large number of Dutch carriers and families with children.

+ Varied recruitment (different nationalities, backgrounds) which creates cultural and value exchanges. +Carriers who benevolently take up ownership for design and maintenance tasks strengthen the practice and can create affiliate gardening practices of their own.

Page 93: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

93

Collaborative/competitive relations

-Lack of collaboration between gardening practices may cause decrease in commitment of gardeners. + Existing actor(s) which make regular interactions with members of other gardening practices at ‘Boeletuin’ are valuable for creating collaborative connections.

Spatial and temporal dimension

+Tactical volunteer meetings: once a week which assures maintenance of the garden and can lead to place-making.

+Tactical regular visits to the garden: lunch breaks, weekend, after work which has created place-making and improves the life style of close-by inhabitants.

+Tactical volunteer meeting: once a week assures maintenance of the garden and can lead to place-making. +Monthly workshops (food, gardening, research etc.) increases knowledge and awareness.

Appropriation + Successful, organic, clear process which serves as a good example spatial planning design of community permaculture gardens.

+ Successful, simple process which serves as a good example for the spatial planning design of individual gardens.

+ Successful, but highlights the challenges of innovative and complex design. It serves as a good example spatial planning design of innovative garden projects. - Lack of support

amongst conventional practices because of innovative meanings and design can jeopardize appropriation.

Place-making -Needs more time to develop, but time is an uncertain resource because of the vulnerable future of the garden.

+Is successful, and varies according to commitment (time dedication) of carriers.

Needs more time to develop, but time is an uncertain resource because of the vulnerable future of the garden.

Table 1. Insights yielded by analysis.Made by the author.

Page 94: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

94

Page 95: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

95

5. Context of the Spatial Planning Practice

Page 96: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

96

Findings from the previous two chapters are based on the analysis guided by the guidelines from the social practice theory and everyday urbanism. This chapter positions the findings presented in the previous 2 chapters in the spatial planning context set out by everyday urbanism. This explores methods for introducing practice-based insights into the spatial planning practice. To ground the insights in this context this chapter focuses on two perspectives: spatial planning design and the role of the spatial planner.

Spatial planning practice in everyday urbanism.

Everyday urbanism is an approach, a way of doing research and can be implemented in the design phase.

The design phase is defined by observing the appropriation of space, noticing and encouraging civic

engagement and orienting towards loose, flexible open space. The principle of loose and flexible space

comes in support of the changeability of practices.

There are three steps in designing in everyday urbanism. The first is to observe the present context. The

second is the use of democratic, inclusive design approaches to shape the present context. Third is that

applying the design has to address the everyday concerns and needs of involved people. The design starts

after accepting and understanding how the daily life takes place. The design is carefully woven together

through observation of specific situations and conditions of the place. Communities should utilize the

designers and not the other way around. The present situation of the communities is the actual start for

the envisioning of the future. The design process has to be focused on decorating the specific familiar

environments for the particular clients. The clients are ordinary individuals or communities. Everyday

urbanism raises awareness on the underprivileged, softer voices represented by these communities.

.

Communities like those in the ‘Boeletuin’ need support in

having their needs met and heard. Although they have created

a familiar, quality place through their daily practices, the

continuation of the garden space and hereby of their

gardening practices is threatened by urban development

projects. An

everyday

urbanism based

design can offer

support with: first observe existing needs and then

facilitate their manifestation. The need for continuity,

visibility and connectivity (mentioned in conclusions of

chapter 3) can be incorporated in bringing in props that

raise awareness about the active gardening practices

existence and also connects them one to each other: for

example information signs of similar design and content

structure can be set at the main entrance point (map of all

gardening and food production practices, see figure 1),

tactical points on the garden perimeter (i.e. boards on the

garden fence facing main streets, see figure 2) as well as

Figure 1. Source: pinterest.com.

Figure 2. Source: pxhdwsm.com.

Page 97: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

97

inside the garden at the entrance of each initiative. These props are needed because at present there is

no information sign about all practices in ‘Boeletuin’ which shows where they are, what they do and how

one can participate. Also each initiative has a different type of information sign, and some have none. A

similar design of all the information signs would create connectivity between gardening practices. The

message will raise awareness and create more visibility in the range of by passers, or people working and

living in the vicinity. Although it is a minor design intervention this will show clearly the wish for

continuation and express the voices of the gardeners: they are there, and they are doing something

worthwhile.

The example of the information signs shows how simple and efficient design can be through tactical small

scale interventions guided by insights from practice-observations. Everyday urbanism encourages pilot

tests, use of low-budget or recycled materials. This way the design can continuously be adapted to the

needs of the people. If at some point people wish to make a transition to more durable design, this is

always an option, yet is best taken after initial experience of making tests, putting the design out there

for others to react too and get feedback. Tactical design led by citizen is a decisive part of spatial

appropriation, yet so is the strategic, professional planning. The two must work together in order for

urban quality of life to thrive and be kept.

The professional planning scene has a lot of knowledge to gain from citizen-led spatial appropriation and

place-making, like in the case of the ‘Boeletuin’ garden. This case is valuable for spatial planning, because

people successfully created a familiar, quality urban place, without professional planning advice. This

does not imply that they do not need support. Because each gardening practice at ‘Boeletuin’ is focused

mostly on their own development, the spatial planning practice can offer support by creating an integral

design based on the observation of each gardening practices. For example the practice-based analysis

determined that although each gardening practice has its specific values to offer, complementary one to

another, there are no strong collaborative relations between them. This is a risk, as in time it can lead to

isolation and reduction of carriers. Spatial planning support can come in the form of creating focus groups

to increase collaboration as well as mutual discussions about design needs and directions. Facilitating

mutual design solutions and decisions will strengthen the gardening practices and gardening

communities. An example for mutual decisions would be a session for designing the information signs:

more needs would be met at once, creating props for more visibility and connectivity, and collaboration

in a collective activity.

Citizen-led projects which maintain quality places play an important role for the spatial planning practice. The spatial planning practice is the interface between the political scene and the urban inhabitants. The political agenda is highly influential in spatial planning decision-making, yet design solutions inspired from the urban everyday are essential in creating urban quality of life, therefor the planner has the responsibility to adapt them one to another. The zoning plans in Amsterdam developed by the spatial planning department allows constant overview and regulations for existing and proposed land-use, while the lease-holds through which municipality is the owner of the grounds allows high influence on decisions for the built environment:

The city of Amsterdam is [completely covered by] […] zoning plans. [This also includes the area of Zuidas.] The municipality [city of Amsterdam] owns 80% of the grounds, so [this makes] spatial planning very powerful. (SP2)

Page 98: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

98

In order for the spatial planning practice to reach decisions rooted in the everyday life and needs of citizen it must not move place-related practices because this will negatively impact already created quality urban places. Visions and plans must be adapted to existent quality urban places and not the other way around. This is the turning point in decision-making where everyday urbanism based design can offer solutions not only for strengthening existing place-making practices like urban gardening but also for the spatial planning practice to support with minimal effort the manifestation of quality urban places.

The role of the spatial planner in everyday urbanism.

Through urban design spatial planners can at its best create a physical framework for a multitude of activities and at the most questionable, they can produce narrow, inactive places as an abstract transportation of results from diagrams. Professional design decisions rooted in everyday life are the responsibility of the spatial planner in everyday urbanism. He or she takes on many roles in order to accomplish this responsibility. The role of spatial planners and designers are described in everyday urbanism by Chase et al. (2008) as the following: to integrate nature into the city, to shape and enact ordinance based design policies, facilitate public debates, serve as advocates for disadvantaged and disgruntled and facilitate the appropriation of buildings and open space. Planners also entail the negotiation between social, economic, political and aesthetic powers of the city (Chase et al., 2008). As illustrated in table 1 basic roles of the planner are to be a facilitator of ‘wish lists’ of communities, to be a researcher which observes, analyses and learns from everyday practices, an advisor which supports people in thinking of things they have not thought of and a designer who supports the concretizing of wishes and ideas into prototypes and forms.

Role of spatial planner Elaboration

Facilitator Collects the wishes and needs of communities

Strategist Puts forward critical ideas for neighborhoods to respond to (either accept, transform or deny)

Researcher Observes, analyses and builds evidence on everyday practice and experience

Advisor Supports in thinking of aspects and options involved parties have not thought of

Designer Shapes ideas and whishes into prototypes, forms, materials and designs

Table 1. Source: everyday urbanism (Chase et al. 2008). Made by author.

In the case of the ‘Boeletuin’ garden, each project leader planned his own project out, a planning strategy for the entire garden was not present. So each designed their own area, no spatial planner was present in managing the project development. Although results have shown so far that the effects of the citizen-led gardening practices on the urban quality of life are positive, there is still the need for the spatial planner. Already existing tensions, competitive relations between gardening practices as well as with the building development are risks for the gardening practices at ‘Boeletuin’. The spatial planner has the capacity to find mutual solutions taking into consideration the needs of all gardening practices involved, as well as connecting them to municipality plans for urban gardens and resources allocated for carrying out these plans. For this the planner can play different roles.

Page 99: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

99

Taking on different roles is useful in a situation where there are more initiatives at the same garden, like

in the case of ‘Boeletuin’. For example the roles of facilitator and advisor are very important in finding

mutual solutions that benefit the entire garden, and meet the needs of each of the initiatives. Taking

these roles means to have a broader and more objective perspective with the goal to benefit all involved

parties. This can reduce tensions between practices inside ‘Boeletuin’ garden and also with other

competing exterior practices (i.e. urban built environment).

Unfortunately many current results and design typologies deny the human voices which are at the center of everyday life. Often urban planners create designs reduced to single purpose monuments of power, instead of reconciling intellectual abstraction of urban design and the formalism of architecture with the multiple forces of the everyday city. It is not desirable to create a city that is well-designed and is aesthetically appealing, yet is not used (source: interview). The past planning decisions, illustrated in the beginning of chapter 3 when presenting the Zuidas area, lead to mono-functionality in the area. The past and more recent predominance of office and business related functions has had negative effects on the livelihood of the area. However, this situation is changing, as for the past 5 years it has become more and more of a mixed use area. Zuidas is a successful, but is still a predominantly mono functional central business district (source: interview). At the present the area is developing towards a mixed use area with offices, housing and amenities.

[A few years ago] in the weekend [or at night time] it was [basically] empty here, but now it is changing. (SP2)

Spatial planners are trying to adapt to ever changing socio-, economic- and political landscapes which is a very challenging task. They have the difficult task of reconciling small scale needs of inhabitants and large scale political needs and agendas and integrate them into well-designed cities. As a designer, if the spatial planner begins with everyday reality and defines it as beautiful, existing

situations become opportunities and a starting point, rather than an impediment. The planner in

everyday urbanism is in continuous dialogue with the city and its dwellers and identifies the meanings

and narratives of individuals and groups. Meanings should then be used for designing arrangements and

objects. When planners facilitate city designs that accepts new, old, present and even simulated, all these

facets of the city create the spectacular within the framework of everyday situations. Through high

inclusiveness city design implodes time in order to achieve urban vitality. The recognition of architecture

and built environment is important for the urban planner. These are the context of everyday life.

Architecture can create quality, through housing, open spaces, nature, education etc. The materials,

structures, lighting of the built environment can engage dialogue with the everyday life and also should

communicate and provide spaces expressing local meanings.

In order for spatial planners to facilitate quality urban life their focus must encompass not only roles of facilitator (collector of wishes and needs of communities), strategist (putting up ideas for stakeholders to respond to) and designer (shaping ideas and whishes into forms) but also the one of the researcher. Introducing more the role of the researcher, which observes everyday practices and how people use and design the space where they are caring out their practices, is a starting point in designing quality urban places and supporting the continuity and development of already existing ones. Because during my study I mainly took on the role of the researcher, I believe my experience is useful in having a more in depth comprehension of why it brings insightful information for spatial planning.

Page 100: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

100

Personal experience at ‘Boeletuin’: role of the researcher.

While conducting the analysis at the ‘Boeletuin’ garden I took on the role of the researcher: I explored,

observed and built up evidence based on everyday (gardening) practices and their effect on the spatial

dimension. In contrast with the past projects I had in academic as well as work experience, where I would

spend less time on analysis and much more on design, the experience I had at ‘Boeletuin’ was very

insightful. This experience was insightful because in the past I would spend a lot of time figuring out how

to make things work in favor of my design, while using the perspective of the social practice theory and

everyday urbanism allowed me to see why things were already working out well in the garden and attain

place-related insights which could be useful for improvement.

After 2 months of analysis of practices, I knew how things were ‘working’ in the garden. I knew what skills

there were, what materials there were available, the wishes and capabilities of people. This was very

useful in the sense that I understood that the place was ‘designing’ itself and that it had a certain rhythm.

Most probably I would have not noticed the existing potential if I had not focused on the existing

gardening practices. Not knowing exactly what risks and opportunities the practices yield, makes design

processes take up a lot of time and resources, overshadowing existent on-site skills and materials by

professional, but distant, decision-making.

Therefore, I consider that by studying everyday (gardening) practices the corresponding design will fit

the profile of the place better, ensuring long lasting spatial quality, minimal maintenance from the

municipality and the support of local actors. This type of planning and design has financial benefits,

reducing costs of creating quality urban places and by assuring their continuity.

Conclusion

The spatial planning context plays a critical role in supporting practices which create quality urban places

or have the potential too. Times have changed and people create their own practices abundantly, which

means the spatial planning practice cannot and does not need any more to design and program new

spaces as intensively as they did in the past. The spatial planning practice needs to focus on existing

practices that already create urban quality of life and support them on their path. One example of such

practices are the urban gardening practices, as in the case of the ‘Boeletuin’.

Currently there is a high accessibility to elements making up gardening practices. People discover

motivating meanings, easily acquire mostly self-taught skills and use low-budget recycled materials. This

is why it is easy for citizens to give birth to long lasting gardening practices. And with this accessibility

and easiness they appropriate plots of land and turn them into quality urban places. The freedom of

using land has been the critical prerequisite for the gardening practices, tolerated in some cases and in

others offered by the political and spatial planning scene. The benefits have come back to the political

and spatial planning scene because people are voluntarily putting up their own resources (time, man-

power and in some cases financial resources) in creating lively, delightful places - therefore participating

intentionally or unintentionally in the spatial planning practice.

The high implication of citizen-led gardening practices does not mean that the spatial planning practice

has lost its power in planning urban land use, through vision plans and zoning plans. It means it will

contribute to reducing the invested municipal resources and at the same time contribute to the urban

Page 101: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

101

quality of life, if the spatial planning practice introduces ‘place-making’ gardening practices (my study

focused on gardening practices, but other everyday practices may create place-making ) in their plans.

The spatial planning practice benefits not only by supporting ‘place-making’ practices but also by applying

knowledge gained from the analysis of success cases to further plan and design new spaces.

The role of the spatial planner must adapt as practices evolve. A spatial planning practice based on support of existing practices require a planner who is capable to identify the place-making practices which exist in the city. Because many practices are citizen-led, the planner must use his abilities as a researcher to observe what the specific elements are making up those ‘place-making’ practices. On-site visits and discussions with involved people are useful tools in emerging him or her in the urban everyday life. This might seem like a time consuming way of gathering data, yet it is the foundation for meeting the needs of the gardening practice, which means maximal autonomy of the place, with the lowest input of resources from the planner or the municipality. The spatial planner plays many roles, and he or she has to intuitively juggle with them: observing thriving ‘place-making’ practices, supporting them in design and advising them to make practice-strengthening choices. This does not mean that his or her responsibilities disappear as employees of the municipality, like creating strategies or visions, it means that the planner, by promoting ‘place-making’ practices, becomes a clear and direct interface between the needs of the urban inhabitants and the political decision-making scene.

Page 102: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

102

6. Recommendations

Page 103: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

103

Chapter 3 and 4 provided insights for spatial planning from a practice-based analysis. Chapter 5 put these insights in the context of the spatial planning practice and discusses the role of the spatial planner. In doing this I have shown how the insights serve spatial planning. I have also provided design examples (based on a few insights from the analysis) of how the spatial planner can support in his or her turn gardening practices at ‘Boeletuin’. This chapter focuses on recommendations of how the spatial planner can support the urban gardening practices in general, as well as how he or she can offer support to the ‘Boeletuin’ case based on all insights gathered from the case analysis. As insights from the analysis were very numerous I selected those which reunited more needs into one and which I considered most relevant. Before presenting specific recommendations which correspond to insights I will begin with general recommendations formulated and induced from the characteristics of the ‘Boeletuin’ garden. These characteristics are insightful for the spatial planning practice because if identified, encouraged or recreated in another urban area, they can contribute to strengthening gardening practices which positively impact the urban quality of life.

General recommendations for the spatial planning of urban gardening

Five general recommendations for spatial planning of urban gardening will be further elaborated:

Identifying green spaces in the vicinity of highly educated people with interest in health.

Identifying green spaces with a history, with a continuity in place-making.

Supporting collaborative relations between gardening practices.

Creating a reward system for voluntary gardening practices which create spatial quality.

Identifying various organizational structures of gardening practices and supporting them according to their specific structure.

Highly educated carriers have the capacity to self-organize and take ownership of an area. They appropriate green space to increase their quality of life and to meet meanings in the context of health. If these carriers live or work in the vicinity of the green space than this can assure their regular participation and contribute to ‘place-making’, the creation of quality urban places. Therefore a recommendation is to identify areas where highly educated people live or work (i.e. universities, schools, educational facilities or working facilities connected to health) and see what is happening in the urban green spaces in their vicinity. If people have appropriated these green spaces the recommendation is to further support them and learn from these cases. The knowledge can be applied in cases where criteria of spatial quality are unfavorable (i.e. lack of vitality). Green spaces like the ‘Boeletuin’ with a history of being an urban garden, are highly valuable in the process of place-making. As shown in the study, the process of place-making does not occur ‘overnight’ it takes at least a few years for an area to become a ‘place’ an hereby create urban quality of live. Therefore, by identifying green spaces within an established function (e.g. parks, allotment gardens) an overview of spatial resources is made. The carriers appropriate space differently, and have different organizational preferences. Spatial quality in urban gardening cases like ‘Boeletuin’ are created through the capability of an area to support the manifestation of various needs through various design. The appropriation may cause tensions if there

Page 104: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

104

are various interests at stake. The recommendation is to identify what the relations are between cohabiting spatial users and facilitate collaborative interactions between them. Citizen-led urban gardening practices are mostly volunteer based, and are highly valuable because they offer design and maintenance of places through benevolent individual labor. Transplanting place-related practices is a commonly used method in spatial planning. This is highly detrimental to the specific social context (communities and involved actors) because it abruptly ends the synergy with the place and causes a loss of previously freely offered time and effort. It is also detrimental for the urban quality of life, because recreating the positive effects of the removed practice on the urban environment will take a high input of financial and time resources with no guarantee of success, as it is still dependent on the people’s wish to appropriate the place and make it part of their everyday practices. Therefore, the recommendation is to protect and reward successful practices, because although they voluntarily create quality places, they are also vulnerable for the very same reason. The rewards of volunteer based work can come in the form of knowledge improvement, skill trainings, and gardening materials. If the practice shows that it has ambitious, innovative and realizable plans which can further improve the urban quality of life (e.g. the case of the community research garden in ‘Boeletuin’ which built a geodesic dome for research) this should be evaluated and supported financially. The garden of ‘Boeletuin’ hosts three gardening practices, each with its own organizational structure: the highly innovative gardening practice (community research garden), the more rigid individual gardening practice and the gardening practice with both a rigid core and an openness to innovation (community permaculture garden). The lessons learned from each can support the planner in the identification of risks and opportunities specific to different organizational structures and therefore to contribute with recommendations. In the case of highly innovative gardening practice the tendency is to give it complete freedom of expression, yet this can create confusion in decision-making. Therefore the recommendation is to have a definite core, a person or a group of persons which are the decision makers. This core is crucial, in order to create a supporting structure for the fast changing innovative character. Because decisions need to be taken quickly this in this fast changing context, it is a suggestion to have one person taking the decisions. The pressure might be too much to handle for one person and decisions might seem undemocratic at times, so according to the situation it could be convenient to have 2 or 3 leaders with equal responsibilities. In the second situation, that of a rigid gardening practice, such as the individual gardeners, the recommendation is to facilitate knowledge exchanges both within the practice and with the exterior. The third situation with a balanced organizational structure, is an example of a practice without many challenges in its development. The presence of a small number of project leaders equally sharing responsibilities is a recommendation in this case where fast decisions (e.g. highly innovative gardening practice) are not needed.

Specific recommendation for the spatial planning of the ‘Boeletuin’ garden

The insights from the analysis illustrated risks and opportunities for the future development of the garden. When formulating the recommendations I focused on the risks and offered design solutions inspired by tactical methods from everyday urbanism and considered possible ways actors and implicated parties can implement them. Recommendations are grouped in design and garden management. Main design recommendation will be further elaborated, while table 1 briefly enumerates all recommendations, design and management-related.

Page 105: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

105

Main recommendations keep in mind covering multiple needs and hereby alleviating identified risks. They are mostly based on low-cost pilot projects, which are highly responsive to the feedback of participants. The three main design recommendations are the following:

Creating a system of information boards with similar design.

Use of unmaintained garden plots and underused garden space for educative projects for children and collaborative test projects in which all gardening practices participate together.

Tactical design projects in the parking lot which is neighboring the garden. The design recommendation for the information boards was given as example in chapter 5, so I will not insist on it. Its purpose is to inform by-passers or new people about what each initiative is doing, and how and when they can participate if they wish. This offers more visibility and eliminates any confusion about the mission of each gardening practice and their spatial position in the garden. The common design of the information boards creates connectivity, showing that they share and care for the same place. For more visibility information boards are not enough, therefore media coverage and a stronger presence on social media is highly recommended. The use of unmaintained garden plots or unused garden space may be very useful to alleviate multiple risks (lack of children related projects, lack of collaboration between projects and low degree of participation of minorities). Introducing educative garden plots for children and for gardening-related workshops will attract young carriers. They acquire skills rapidly and have a high potential to become committed carriers in the future. The educational workshops can be held by specializes gardening organizations or by experienced on-site actors (i.e. the garden caretaker). ‘Green education’ funds from the municipality may be a source of sustaining these activities. Using unmaintained plots or unused garden space would also allow for collaborative pilot projects where all gardening initiatives can take part. An example of a fun project is a ‘salad wall’ (see figure 1). This project needs minimal space, can be done with low-cost materials and is an opportunity for gardeners from different initiatives to socialize and create salad mixes together. The organizational support of the initiative leaders and the garden caretaker is crucial for any type of collaborative project. To support and welcome more international gardeners a gardening plot can be used to plant native vegetables and herbs. This can be highlighted by an information board illustrating flags of the countries of each participant. Food related events can further deepen the welcoming feeling for internationals: i.e. a Chinese cooking day, where the Chinese gardeners can bring in friends and family and cook together with other gardener’s traditional recipes. For the realization

Figure 1. ‘Salad wall’. Source: tampabay.com.

Figure 2. Country-specific foods. Source: ihbristol.com.

Page 106: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

106

and preparation of the pilot projects the involvement of the garden initiative leaders and the garden caretaker is highly recommended. The design recommendations proposed so far concern the space inside the garden. The following addresses the relation with the exterior. Because there is a high tension between the gardening practices and the fast expansion of the urban built environment, the following recommendations contributes to the tensions’ alleviation through two tactical projects: positioning soil-bags with plants on the free places in the parking lot (without disturbing the proper functioning of the parking lot) and creating monthly or yearly ‘Park-ing days’ on weekends (when the parking lot is nearly or totally empty). Moveable soil bags with plants or young trees will contribute to the aesthetical quality of the parking lot, and also to the awareness that the gardeners deeply care for every part of the garden, even if it is now covered in concrete and used for another purpose. Figure 3 illustrates a bigger scale project in Berlin of mobile urban agriculture, which can serve as inspiration for a smaller scale and smaller impact project in the parking lot. The second recommendation is to create ‘Park(ing) days’ monthly or weekly. The ‘Park(ing) day’ is an international project described in chapter two when everyday urbanism was introduced as theoretical framework. This is a citizen-led initiative which takes up free parking spaces to create micro-utopias: small scale creative spaces. This type of tactical project can be tested in the parking lot at the ‘Boeletuin’ garden. The permission from the VU University is necessary because it is a private parking lot, used by VU employees. Other cases of employees using parking space from the company they work in for a ‘park(ing) day’ (i.e. BNMC employees in Buffalo, U.S.) are successful so this is a good indicator for the feasibility of such projects (see figure 5). For organizing and preparing the tactical design projects the involvement of the initiative leaders, motivated gardeners and the garden caretaker is needed.

Figure 3. Mobile urban agriculture in Berlin. Source: inhabitat.com

Figure 4. Park(ing) day. Source: freeassociationdesign.wordpress.com

Page 107: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

107

The three main design recommendations should be complemented by garden management recommendations, like having monthly meetings in-between initiative leaders, or creating collaborative connections with the neighboring companies, in order to be efficient. All recommendations (design and management) are developed from the insights of the analysis and enumerated in the table below.

Risk Recommendation

Design Management Who? How?

Lack of clarity. Information signs with clear message answering what?, who?, when and why?

The gardeners, from recycled, low-cost materials, with the support of VU University and affiliate organizations.

Lack of continuity. Raising awareness about the success of the garden through media coverage.

All gardening project initiators and the garden caretaker.

Low degree of visibility.

Information signs Media coverage, public events at the site of the garden.

A web-site with updated activities of all initiatives at the garden.

The gardeners, with the support of VU University, affiliate organizations and municipality.

Lack of connectivity and collaboration.

Similar design in garden signs.

Mutual pilot test projects: i.e. a shared garden bed between individual gardeners and the community gardens.

Monthly meetings between all initiative leaders to discuss challenges and opportunities.

Common entertaining events: cooking food together with vegetables from all initiatives.

The gardeners, with the support of VU University and affiliate organizations.

Figure 5. BNMC parking space during ‘park(ing) day’ in Buffalo, U.S. Source: buffalorising.com.

Page 108: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

108

Low knowledge flow, especially in the case of individual gardeners.

Organizing gardening workshops for individual gardeners.

Informing the individual gardeners when there are workshops at the neighboring gardening practices (i.e. forwarded via email by the caretaker).

The garden caretaker.

Not enough support of volunteer professional gardeners.

A reward system based on knowledge acquirement opportunities and gardening materials

The municipality and affiliate funding organizations.

Lack of children-related educative events.

Educative garden patches (i.e. use of the 25% of individual plots which are not maintained).

Children gardening workshops.

Organizations in Amsterdam which specialize in gardening education of children, (or initiative leaders at ‘Boeletuin’ or the garden caretaker). Funded by the municipality.

Low participation of minorities.

Pilot test: a shared garden bed where gardeners of different nationalities each put native vegetables. A sign can let people know of the different nationalities taking part in the design of the shared garden bed.

Events dedicated to international vegetable growing and food: the internationals already present at the garden can invite friends and family for social events promoting for example Chinese cooking.

Gardeners with the organizational support of the garden caretaker and initiative leaders.

Vulnerable commitment of fulltime working people.

Collaboration with the neighboring companies and the VU University to have a monthly ‘gardening hour’ for the workers. This will bring positive media attention to the companies.

Gardeners and workers with the support of the companies and the VU University.

High tension with the expansion of the built urban environment (i.e. the parking lot).

Pilot test (tactical, temporary design): putting soil filled bags with plants or small trees in the free space of the parking lot (mobile gardening).

Gardeners and initiative leaders, with the help of affiliate organizations and VU University.

Page 109: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

109

Creating a ‘Park(ing)’ day (temporary social meeting spot) in the parking lot area, on weekends when there are few or no cars.

Table 1. Risks and recommendations. Made by author.

Recommendations for the spatial planner

It is recommended that the spatial planner is involved in all the phases discussed throughout the study: from analysis to design. The purpose is for him or her to be at service of the people, therefore to offer them what they need with minimal use of resources and maximal yield in results. The planner has to be present during the analysis phase, it is crucial for him or her to have a deep understanding of the characteristics of the practice and its relationship to the urban space. For design and management advice it is highly recommended that the planner supports people in finding solutions themselves. For example the analysis of this study showed that there is a lack of collaboration between the gardening practices. The planner can contribute in further finding out if a collaboration is wished, and if so, support the facilitation of meetings. He or she may be present at the first meetings, and contribute with his objective support as an advisor aiming at the wellbeing of the entire garden and bringing up subjects of mutual interest to all involved parties. The aim is that the planners’ presence gets less and less needed wile people become more and more autonomous. The planners’ participation is no longer needed when people are able to create mutual solutions by themselves. His or her presence may be requested by the involved parties on certain occasions (i.e. proposal of new projects, new needs that arise, tensions). As for participation in planning out and creating design he can further share his expertize with the people and encourage pilot tests and projects with a gradual intensity of resource use. If pilot projects are successful than it is wise to make choices for more ambitious and durable designs. The spatial planner is the interface between the urban citizens and the political scene. Therefore it is highly recommended for him or her to have an overview of the ‘place-making’ practices and lobby their success to the political scene. He or she formulates vision plans and zoning plans based on these practices and further molds the plans to fit political agendas. This may carry too many responsibilities in one role, therefore it is a recommendation to have a different position for the planner who gathers data from the everyday urban context and small scale projects, from the planner who is dealing with larger scale projects and creates zoning plans. Both positions are equally important, as the first informs the second what must appear in the vision and zoning plans.

Page 110: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

110

7. Conclusion

Page 111: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

111

The final chapter concludes the study by reconnecting to the initial research design: the problem statement, the purpose of the research and research questions. The problem statement which guided the research is two-folds: the societal issue of unsustainable food practices amongst urban inhabitants; and the research gap of using social-practice based analysis and design in spatial planning. This paper has contributed to the research gap by exploring what insights can be gained by using guidelines from the social practice theory and everyday urbanism in analyzing a case. In some minor degree a contribution to the societal issue was also achieved, as during my research I supported by voluntary work, offering occasionally design advice, by planting and doing other gardening shores an urban gardening practice which promotes sustainable food production and urban citizens’ awareness on this subject. It is hoped that this study will be useful for future research that intends to support spatial planning by finding solutions based on existing urban gardening practices. Spatial planners have traditionally focused on the aesthetic and the physical functionality of their designs. Offering less attention to the social context when dealing with social priority issues (e.g. climate change, food safety and public green spaces) may create planned urban spaces which are underused and undervalued. Still there are such cases (e.g. the situation of the Zuidas area as a predominantly mono-functional business area). Climate change, food safety, green public space and public health are issues which broadly fall under the umbrella of sustainable food planning, a rapidly growing domain of spatial planning research. Gardening practices, like those in ‘Boeletuin’ garden raise awareness about these issues and influence the everyday life of garden members. In the same time citizen-led gardening practices have created a quality urban place and therefore hold key insights for spatial planning. Gardeners benevolently offer time and labor resources to design and maintain the urban garden. This not only has positive effects for their own personal quality of life (contributing to health and wellbeing) but also the spatial quality of the urban area itself and reduces resource inputs for design and maintenance that may normally be borne by the municipality. Although this study was focused on gardening practices, a similar conclusion applies to any everyday practice with beneficial effects on urban quality of life. Insights from an analysis of everyday practices play a valuable role in implementing a corresponding design, which fit the profile of the place better, ensuring long lasting spatial quality, minimal maintenance from the municipality and the support of local actors. The purpose of the study – to explore gardening practices in the case garden ‘Boeletuin’, in Amsterdam, in order to gain valuable insights for spatial planning – has been achieved. Insights from the lens of social practice theory (meanings, competences and materials, carriers, collaborative and competitive relations) and everyday urbanism (spatial and temporal dimension, the process of appropriation and place-making in the garden) gathered from the analysis in chapter 3 and 4 answer the main research question. These insights are useful for the spatial planning practice because they identify risks and opportunities for planning, designing and maintaining quality urban space based on existing gardening practices. This is valuable to spatial planning also because the positive results are created with minimal resource input. Chapter 5 roots the insights in the context of spatial planning practice and what it means for the design process and the role of the planner. This is needed to have a full understanding of the effects that a practice-base analysis further has on decision-making in the planning scene. Chapter 6 elaborates recommendations, which are developed from the insights gained in chapter 3 and 4. They propose design and management solutions based on minimal input of resources, with the aim of strengthening the gardening practices and further support them in creating an urban quality place. This study has been challenging because the chosen research question is very broad, but the guideline structure has supported me in having a focus and yielding valuable insights. This gives optimistic incentives for studies with more specific research questions and future descriptive or explanatory

Page 112: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

112

researches on the same theme. The study also offers the opportunity for the spatial planning practice and for the spatial planners to adopt some of the analysis methods proposed in this study and test their efficiency. The overarching aim of this study was to raise awareness in the current spatial planning context about the high potential of applying practice-based analysis and design in spatial planning (i.e. in small scale projects as well as creating vision plans and zoning plans). Because citizen-led practices in the urban context are developing rapidly and are gaining more and more autonomy by proving their positive effect on the urban environment, the spatial planning practice and the role of the spatial planner is changing with them. This paper offers insights about how spatial planners can identify, benefit from and support practices which create quality urban places.

Page 113: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

113

References Amin, A. & Thrift, N. (2007). Cultural-Economy and Cities. Progress in Human Geography. 31(2), 143-161 Albrechts, L. (2004). Strategic (spatial) planning reexamined.Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design. 31, 743-758. Allmendinger, P. (2009). Planning Theory. 2nd ed. London: Palgrave Macmillan. 1-270. Blumer, H. (1969). Symbolic Interactionism: Perspective and Method. Berkley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press. 208.

Bourdieu, P. (1998). Practical Reason: On the Theory of Action. Great Britain: Stanford University Press. 153.

Burke, T. (1996). Lifebuoy Men, Lux Women: Commodification, consumption and cleanliness in modern Zimbabwe. London: Leicester University Press.

Brown, J. S. & Duguid, P. (2001). Knowledge and Organization: A Social-Practice Perspective. Organization Science. 12 (2), 198-213.

Carmona, M., Heath, T., Oc, T., Tiesdell, S. (2010). Public Places, Urban Spaces. Elsevier. 1-394. Chase J.L. et al. (2008). Everyday urbanism. New York: Monacelli Press. 1-224. Coenena,L., Benneworthc, P., Truffer, B.. (2012). Toward a spatial perspective on sustainability transitions. Research Policy. 41, 968–979 Cohen, N. & Ilieva R. (2015). Transitioning the food system: A strategic practice management approach for cities. Environmental Innovation and Societal Transitions. 1, 1-19. Creswell, J. W. (2014). Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Methods Approaches. 4th ed. Lincoln: Sage Publications. 1-304. Cullingworth, J. (1972). Town and Country Planning in Britain. 4th ed. London: Methuen. Crossley, N. (2008). Pretty Connected: The Social Network of the Early UK Punk Movement. Theory, Culture and Society. 89-116

Denzin, N. K. & Lincoln, Y. S. (2005). The SAGE Handbook of Qualitative Research. 3rd ed. America: Sage Publications, Inc. 1232.

Faludi, A., & Van der Valk, A. (1994). Rule and order. Dutch planning doctrine in the 20th century. GeoJournal Library. 28.

Flick, U. (2002). An Introduction to Qualitative Research. 2nd ed. London: Sage Publications, Inc. 310.

Flyvbjerg, B. (2006). Five Misunderstandings about Case-Study Research. Qualitative Inquiry. 12 (2), 219-245.

Page 114: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

114

Fontana, A & Fray J. H. (2008). Collecting and interpreting qualitative materials. 3rd ed. London: Sage.

Gehl, J. (2010). Cities for People. Island Press. 288.

Griffith, G. & Holden, J. (2004). The Way We Live Now: Daily Life in the 21st Century. Accessed 28.07.11 at http://bbcdailylife.com/. Graham, S. & Marvin S. (2001). Splintering Urbanism: networked infrastructures, technological mobilities and the urban condition. London: Routledge. Hajer, M., Jantine Grijzen, van 't Klooster, S. (2010). Strong stories How the Dutch are reinventing spatial planning. Rotterdam: 010 Publishers.

Hajer, M. & Zonneveld, W. (2000). Spatial Planning in the Network Society-Rethinking the Principles of Planning in the Netherlands. European Planning Studies. 8 (3), 337-355.

Hargreaves, T. (2011). Practice-ing behaviour change: Applying social practice theory to pro-environmental behaviour change. Journal of Consumer Culture. 11 (1), 79–99. Healey, P., Silva E. A., Harris N., Van den Broeck, P. (2015). The Routledge Handbook of Planning Research Methods. New York: Routledge. 1-529. Jacobs, J. (1961). The Death and Life of Great American Cities. New York: Random House. 458. Lynch, K. (1981). A Theory of Good City Form. Cambridge: MIT Press. Knorr Cetina, K. (2005). Complex Global Microstructures. Theory, Culture and Society. 14(4), 1-30. Kumar, R. (2011). Research Methodology a step-by-step guide for beginners. 3rd ed. London: Sage. 415. Lave, J. & Wenger E. (1991). Situated Learning: Legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge University Press. Lefebvre, H. (1947). Critique of Everyday Life. Paris: Grasset. 283. Lawhon, M. & Murphy, J. T. (2011). Socio-technical regimes and sustainability transitions: Insights from political ecology. Progress in Human Geography. 36 (3), 354–378. Lydon, M. & Garcia, A. (2015). Tactical Urbanism. Island Press. 260.

Numagami, T. (1998). The infeasibility of invariant laws in management studies: a reflective dialogue in defense of case studies. Organization Science. 1 (9), 1-15.

O'Leary, Z. (2004). The Essential Guide to Doing Research. London: Sage Publications, Inc. 226. Priemus, H. (2010). Social Housing as a Transitional Tenure? Reflections on the Netherlands' New Housing Memorandum 2000 2010.Housing Studies. 16 (2), 243-256. Schatzki, T. R. (1996). Social Practices: A Wittgensteinian Approach to Human Activity and the Social. New York: Cambridge University Press. 242.

Page 115: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

115

Schwandt, T. A. (1998). Scandinavian perspectives on the evaluator's role in informing social policy. San Francisco, California: Jossey-Bass Publishers. 93. Shove, E., Pantzar, M., Watson M. (2012). The Dynamics of Social Practice. Everyday Life and how it changes. London: Sage Publications. 1-191.

Stake, R. E. (1995). The art of case study research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. 192.

Reckwitz, A. (2002). Toward a theory of social practices: a development in culturalist theorizing. European Journal of Social Theory. 243-263 Reynolds, R. (2014). On guerilla gardening- A handbook for Gardening without Boundaries. London, New Delhi, New York, Sydney : Bloomsbery. 157. Wenger, E. & Snyder W. (2000). Communities of Practice: The Organizational Frontier. Harvard Business Review. 78, 139-145. Wenger, E. (1999). Communities of Practice: Learning, meaning and identity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Wirth, L. (1938). Urbanism as a Way of Life. The American Journal of Sociology. 44 (1), 1-24. du Toit, J. L. & Mouton, J. (2013). A typology of designs for social research in the built environment. (1), 1-22. Urry, J. (2007). Mobilities. Cambridge: Polity Press. Wildschut, N. (2012). Het Algemeen Verbond van Volkstuindersvereniging. 1-68.

Yin, R.K. (2009). Case study research. Design and methods. 4th ed. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage. 1-219.

Internet I am expat, 2015. Retrieved from: http://www.iamexpat.nl/read-and-discuss/expat-page/news/amsterdam-and-rotterdam-among-worlds-most-sustainable-cities-2015 Area analysis report made by OIS for Zuidas, 2016. Retrieved February 2016 from: http://www.ois.amsterdam.nl/assets/pdfs/2016_gebiedsanalyse_11.pdf Amsterdam Municipality, 2015. Retrieved December 2015 from: www.amsterdam.nl/zuidas. Amsterdam Municipality, 2015. Retrieved December 2015 from: www.amsterdam.nl/zuidas/zuidas/facts-figures/ Ruimtelijkeplannen Amsterdam, 2015. Retrieved December 2015 from: http://www.ruimtelijkeplannen.amsterdam.nl Bureau of monuments and archeology report about Zuidas, 2012. Retrieved December 2015 from: http://ftp.ruimtelijkeplannen.amsterdam.nl/DRO/plannen/NL.IMRO.0363.K1302BPGST-/NL.IMRO.0363.K1302BPGST-OW01/b_NL.IMRO.0363.K1302BPGST-OW01_tb16.pdf

Page 116: Thesis ICM

Msc thesis | Ioana-Cristina Musat Supervisor: prof. dr. Arnold van der Valk

116

Flora and fauna report for Mahlerlaan school gardens, 2014. Retrieved in December 2015 from: http://ftp.ruimtelijkeplannen.amsterdam.nl/DRO/plannen/NL.IMRO.0363.K1302BPGST-/NL.IMRO.0363.K1302BPGST-OW01/b_NL.IMRO.0363.K1302BPGST-OW01_tb13.pdf Ecowatch, 2015. Retrieved February 2016 from: http://ecowatch.com/2015/06/08/worlds-most-sustainable-office-building/ Techtimes, 2015. Retrieved February 2016 from: http://www.techtimes.com/articles/119616/20151228/here-are-the-best-green-buildings-around-the-world-today.htm Vrijwilligers Amsterdam Centrale, 2015. Retrieved February 2016 from: http://www.vca.nu/groen-vrijwilligerswerk/. Wikipedia, 2015. Retrieved February 2016 from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permaculture. Boeletuin website, 2015. Retrieved February 2016 from: http://www.boeletuin.nl/. The Green Living Lab facebook page, 2015. Retrieved December 2015 from: https://www.facebook.com/hetgroenelevenlab/?fref=ts Zuidas Vision Document, 2009. Retrieved December 2015 from: https://www.amsterdam.nl/zuidas/english/documents/documenten-basis/basis-documenten/zuidas-vision/ Zuidas Vision Documnt, 2015. Retrieved March 2016 from: file:///C:/Users/lenovo/Downloads/building_blocks_vision_zuidas_2015%20(1).pdf Hello Zuidas. Retrieved March 2016 from: http://www.hellozuidas.com/ Green Business Club Zuidas. Retrieved March 2016 from: http://www.greenbusinessclub.nl/nl/zuidas