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Theories of Personality 8/28/2013 5:32:00 AM
8/28/13
Chapter 1A
I am introverted, agreeable, conscientious, studious, loyal, motivated,caring, devoted, open-minded, stubborn, independent
What is personality?
Origin of personalityo Latin persona (mask)o Typical nature
Technical definition:Psychological qualities that contribute to anindividuals enduring and distinctive patterns of feeling, thinking
and behaving
o Enduing: somewhat consistent across time and situationso Distinctive- different individuals from each other
Issues addressed in the field
Human universals vs. cultural differenceso Ex: basic emotions
Individual differences and uniqueness Investigation based on personality theories
Topics to be covered:
Scientific study of people Personality studied and analyzed through numerous viewpoints
o Psychodynamic, humanistic, trait, biological, behaviorism,personal construct theory, social cognitive theory
9/9/13
What is a theory?
Related assumptions used by scientists for logical deductivereasoning to formulate testable hypothesis
Theories are not hypothesis Tool for gathering and organizing
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Reliable, coherent and parsimonious Leads to hypothesis 1. Organize info
o Keep track of what we know 2. New knowledge
o Help scientists create new knowledge about field 3. New issues to study
o New areas that otherwise would not have been studied(Hypotheses- statements about predicted relationships between variables,
should be clear and testable )
TheoryHypothesisResearchData reshape/build theoryTheory (gives
meaning to data)
Theory (general), Hypothesis (Specific)
Why different theories?
Theory comes fromo Scientific evidenceo Theorists perspective
Psychology of science- scientists personality traits influence theirtheories
Theories as toolkits
No one complete, comprehensive theoryo Each separate theory provides unique insights
Multiple theories not necessarily bado Not question of right vs. wrong
Elements of different theories as different tools to help inunderstanding of personality
o Individual differenceso Human motivationo Development of self-concepto Causes of emotionso Performance in work settings
Five goals of personality theory
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1. Scientific observationo Systematic descriptions of peopleo 3 requirements
Large, diverse sample Objective observations Use of specialized tools
2. Systematic natureo Provide understanding of peopleo Logical, coherent description
3. Testabilityo Testable through objective scientific evidence
4. Comprehensivenesso Significant factors related to human functioning
Behaviors, cognitions, emotions 5. Applications
o Conversion of theoretical ideas to real world applications Clinical, educational, developmental, i/o psychology
Understanding Personality
3 Questions about personalityo 1. What?
Peoples characteristics Organization
o 2. How? Influences on development
o 3. Why? Reasons for behavior
Important aspects of personality
Structureo Building blockso Stable and enduring
Body partso 5 factor model (openness to experience, conscientiousness,
extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism- we all have these 5
to varying degrees)
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o Hierarchical nature Analogous to organizations
Processo Dynamic aspects of personality
Motivation, emotion, actiono Emphasis on different motivational processes
Biology, future, conscious vs. unconscious Growth and development
o Patterns of development common across people Developmental stages Individual differences
o Nature vs. nurture Psychopathology and behavior change
o Change How people change Resistance to change
o Theorists as therapists Systematic lessons from therapy
o Importance of applicability, practicality of theoryRelated issues in personality
1. Internal and external determinantso Internal
Temperament Emotional, behavioral tendencies
Fearfulness Evolutionary psychology
Predisposition toward certain behaviors Human universals
o External Culture
Behaviors, rituals, beliefs Social class
Status, roles, duties, privileges Family
Parents:
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Role models Shape behavior
Peers Varying levels of emphasis on internal vs. external
Freud vs. Skinner Now: both as essential aspects of behavior
2. Consistencyo Consistency vs. inconsistency in behaviorso Time and consistency
3. States of awareness and the unconsciouso Mental activities outside of conscious awareness
Aspects of personality Motivation Emotions
4. Influence of past, present and futureo Agreement regarding influence of present factorso Influence of past on presento Influence of future on present
5. Personality as a scienceo Other sciences mostly reductionisto Should personality be reductionist?
Conclusion
Theories in personalityo What is a theory?o Key functions of theorieso Theories as toolkitso Goals of personality theory
Understanding personalityo Important aspects (personality structure)
Issues to consider5-6 questions based on reading or assign own article to the class but it must
be approved 2 weeks before presentation and include brief summary of
article on how it relates to topic +3 bonus points
Are the questions though provoking?
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Do you demonstrate that you understand the reading? How well the group facilitates class discussion- ask interesting
follow up questions
How well prepared the group is?9/11/13
Theory and Research
Theory without researcho Speculation
Research without theoryo Aimless fact gathering
LOTS data
Life history or life recordo School records (test scores, report cards), Court records
Observed datao Information from observers (teachers, parents, friends),
Questionnaires
Tests and experimentso Intelligence tests, Standardized tests, Experimental
manipulation (disgust makes judgment harsher, mood makesproblem solving better, rejection and aggression)
Ayduk, Gyurak & Luerssen Influence of rejection sensitivity (anticipate
rejection) on participants after rejection
Anxious about rejection Ambiguous situations- more likely to see
rejection
Participants told they were involved in studyabout partner selection on dating websites
Wrote short bio sketches Were told bio sketches would be sent to
member of opposite sex
Waited at computer to see if otherparticipant selected them
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Control condition Technical difficulties Internet access cut off- no one rejected or
liked you
Rejected condition Email from Beth (actually experimenter)
regarding rejection
Then- asked helped set up for second stage ofexperiment for Beth
Beth hates spicy food Participant left alone with hot sauce
Rejectionincreased aggression (hot sauceplaced on Beths food) only in high RS participants
High rejection sensitivitymore aggressionafter rejection
Self-reporto Questionnaireso Advantages
Convenient Sometimes only way to get at topic
Self-monitoring scale Limitations
Response distortion Social desirability/ faking
Self-knowledge Match.com article
Context Time of day Order of questions
Wording Retrieval
Schwarzo How you phrase questions with scales
can shape the answers
Attempts to get around limitations Situational judgment tests
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Conditional tests (eye for an eye meaning) More than one method
Implicit measures Diary methods
Fixed vs. flexible measures Fixed
Same measures given to all participants Advantages
o Simpleo Objective
Limitationso Irrelevant to someo Not sufficient for some
Nomothetic approacho Scientific lawso Fixed personality variables
Flexible Unstructured personality tests Idiographic approach
o Tailored to individual participantso Unique individual
Assessment type and data Guided by theory Unit of analysis
Theory needed to collect, interpret dataConclusion
Theory and Researcho LOTS data
Types Limitations Fixed vs. flexible measures
9/16/13
Goals of research
Reliabilityo Internal consistency
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o Replicability, stability Test- retest (youll get the same scores if you take it
twice)
o Factors affecting reliability Test takers (age...) Aspects of test (wording...)
Validityo Are you accurately describing/ measuring the psychological
phenomenon you are interested in?
o Problems with pervious methods E.g. phrenology
Different parts of brain responsible for differentfunctions, characteristics
Some parts underdeveloped, while otherdeveloped
Validity and Reliabilityo Must be reliable to be valido Both necessary aspects of sound measures
Personality measurement nowo Recent examples
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) Extraversion- Introversion Intuition- Sensing Thinking- Feeling Judging- Perceiving
NEO Personality Inventory Openness to experience Conscientiousness Extraversion Agreeableness Neuroticism
Ethical behavioro APAs Ethical Principles
Treatment of participants Informed consent Confidentiality
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Interpretation, presentation of resultso Institutional Review Board
Risks/ benefits3 Approaches to research
Case studies and clinical researcho In-depth analysis of each case
Focus on: Structures Processes
o More common in clinical psychologyo Matthew- dependent personality disordero Advantages
More in-depth May be only way to study certain psychological
variables
Takes individuals into accounto Limitations
Not always generalizable No definite causal explanation High level of subjectivity Verbal reports not always accurate
Correlational researcho Relationships among variables
Positive vs. negativeo Use of personality measures
How certain variables are correlated E.g. tendency to experience positive emotions and
life expectancy
o Correlation coefficient Degree to which variables related -1 to 1
o Advantages No need for manipulation More info about variables that are impossible or
unethical to manipulate
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Childhood abuse and adult aggressiono Limitations
Ambiguous interpretation of cause and effect Correlation does not equal causation
o Questionnaires Advantages
Large sample sizes can be studied relatively easy Reliability, validity
Limitations Narrow range of info Self-report not always accurate Response style
Acquiescence (more likely to check true) Social desirability
Experimental studieso Participants assigned randomly to conditionso Variables manipulated
Alcohol consumption Rejection
o Causal effects Random assignment Effect of manipulation
o Advantages More info regarding cause-effect
o Limitations Artificiality of lab setting Applicability of finding to real world settings Extraneous influences
Demand characteristics Experimenter expectancy
Some things cannot be studied in a lab9/18/13
Freud: Early history
Born 1856 raised in Vienna
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7 siblings, 2 step-siblingso Mothers favorite
So felt like a conqueror and had confidence 1873: University of Vienna med student
o Met Josef Breuer Josef met Anna O
1880: Symptoms after fathers death Headaches Paralysis of certain body parts Multiple personalities Visual disturbances Difficulties with speech Hallucinations Inability to drink
o Woman with dog at a party (led tofear of drinking)
Treatmento Hypnosiso Talking seemed to reduce symptomso Catharsis method
Release of pent-up emotions Ultimately recovered True identity
o Bertha Pappenheimo Feminist, social worker
Implications of catharsis for Freud Mind as energy system
o Release of energy Energy of mental content that people are
not aware of
o Different parts of mind unconscious Catalyst for psychoanalysis Disagreement between Breuer and Freud
Freud- role of sexual interpretation Considered cornerstone case for psychoanalysis Beginning of use of talking treatment
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o 1885: Went to France to study with Jean-Martin Charcot Charcot known for :
Hypnosis Hysteria treatment Studies regarding traumatic paralysis
Hysteria and genitals Freuds subsequent theory regarding sexual issues and
neurosis
o 1897: Father dies leading to depression Self-analysis
o 1900: The Interpretation of Dreams (Book)o Late 1900s: Gains recognitiono 1939: Dies in London
Freuds view of the person
Architecture of mental life Biological, mechanistic point of view
o Mind and body are connectedo Energy system
Active nature of mental contentso Instinctual driveso Forces on mind
Limited amount of energyo Energy used for one purposeless available for others
Energy doesnt simply disappear Desire for state of balance, calmness
o Tension from bodily needsbehaviorbalance/calmness E.g. no foodhungersearch for foodsatiation
o Goal of all behavior Common view in this time: tabula rasa Freuds view
o Sex, aggression innateo Pleasure principle
Society to restrain natural tendencies Taboos Social norms
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Freuds Personality theory
Reliance on case study evidenceo No labs, no testso Importance of details
Structure of the mindo 2 models of the mind
Levels of consciousness Conscious
Aware of at any moment Preconscious
Not currently conscious of but can be ifasked to be
Unconscious Drives, urges, instincts, not in awareness Still motivate behaviors, thoughts Anxiety- provoking
Influence on unconscious on conscious Freudian slip
Manifest content (dreams) Storyline
Latent content Unconscious ideas, emotions, instinct High levels of symbolism Unconscious wishes
3 Reasons we dream Wish fulfillment Release of tension Sleep protection
Functional systems Id
Oldest, most primitive Present in everyone
o Stays same over time Pleasure principle
o Release of tension/anxiety
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o Non-moral Drive energy
o Life instincts+ death instincts Completely unconscious
Ego Reality principle
o Rationalo Mediator between id and external
world
3 masterso Desires of IDo Constraints of external environmento Morals on superego
Changes over time Superego
Changes over timeo Life experiences, parents, culture
Moral compasso Ideals, ethical standardso Control over behavior
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Development of thinking
Primary vs. secondaryo How the mind processes information
Primary process- language of unconscious Unconscious Illogical No distinction between reality, fantasy Young children Dreams
Secondary process- language of conscious Conscious Logical Developed after primary process, with ego
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Personality process
Motivationo Instincts, drives
Energy Questions to be addressed
o Basic human instinctual drives Life and death instincts
Part of id Energy driving human lives Life instinct (eros)
Preserve self Reproduce Libido Primarily sexual in motivation
Death instinct (thanatos) Death Self-destruction Aggression Search for calmness
Expression of instincts Blocked Modified expression Expressed directly
Object of gratification Change Displacement
Anxiety in psychodynamic theoryo Painful emotional experience
Information regarding potential threat Signal of danger to ego Previous trauma Conflict between ids desires and threat of punishment
o Defense mechanisms Protections from anxiety
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Repression- avoiding anxiety by not allowingpainful or dangerous thoughts to become
conscious
Isolation of affect/ Intellectualization- Avoidingpainful feelings by focusing only on ideas,separate emotions from thoughts
Projection- Attributing own unacceptableimpulses, motives, desires to others
Undoing- Person tries to make up forunacceptable desires or acts through magical
ritualistic behavior
Displacement- Feelings toward dangerous objectswitched onto safer substitute
Reaction formation- Express opposite ofunacceptable impulse
Sublimation- Expression of impulse or desire insocially acceptable manner, funneling energy into
higher order goal
Growth and Development
All people develop in stageso Significant events and development of personality styles
Influence on personalityo Development of instinct
Erogenous zones through development Psychosexual stages
Oral (infancy)- oral pleasuresoral fixation Anal (2-3 yrs)- pleasure from excretion,
retention of fecesanal fixation; first
conflict between individual (pleasure
principle)and society
Phallic (4-5 yrs)- pleasure from genitals,castration anxiety in boys, penis envy in
girls, oedipal complex/ electra complex
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Latency (6-puberty)- sex drive dormant,repression of desires, energy funneled to
other pursuits
Genital (puberty-adult)- refocus on genitals,normal heterosexual relationship, energyfocused on opposite sex
Maturity- never fully conceptualized,ultimately psychologically healthy person
(rare)
o Erikson- personality develops throughout life, personalitydetermined by psychosocial development
Trust vs. mistrust (1 yr) (Oral)- Trust, optimism ormistrust, pessimism
Autonomy vs. shame and doubt (2-2 yrs) (Anal)- Selfcontrol, can make choices or rigid, doubtful, self
conscious
Initiative vs. guilt (4-5 yrs) (Phallic)- happy withaccomplishments, purpose or guilt about goal-directed
behaviors
Industry vs. Inferiority (6- adolescence) (Latency)-productivity, pride in completed work vs. cannot work
Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence) (Genital)-Confidence in consistent personality or unsure of self,
no consistent standards
Intimacy vs. Isolation (early adolescence)- sharing ofthoughts, feelings work or avoid intimacy, superficial
relationships
Generativity vs. stagnation (adulthood)- can loseoneself in work, relationships or loss of interest in work,
relationships
Integrity vs. Despair- order and meaning, content withself or fear of death, bitterness
o Marcia Identity achievement- exploration then sense of
identity, high functioning, independent thought and
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resistance to group pressure, intimacy in relationships,
moral reasoning
Identity moratorium- identity crisis, can be highfunctioning, struggle with who they are
Identity foreclosure- commitment to identity withoutexploration, rigidity, conforming, conventional, reject
deviation from norm
Identity diffusion- no strong sense of identity, self-esteem very sensitive, problems with intimacy
Cultural differences
Self and groupo Individualist
The self should be independent of the groupo Collectivist
The self should be dependent on the group Self- concept
o Individualist Self-concept primarily defined by internal attributes
o Collectivist Self- concept primarily defined by social roles and
relationships
Socializationo Individualistic
People socialized to be unique, to validate internalattributes
o Collectivists People socialized to belong occupy their proper place
Self- esteemo Individualistic
Based on ability to engage in self- expression andability to validate internal attributes
o Collectivists Based on ability to adjust to the group, restrain his or
her own desires, and maintain social harmony
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Assessment in psychoanalysis
Should be:o Valido Efficient
Problem with assessment in psychoanalysiso Unconscious contento Clients hesitationo Free association
Projective testso Ambiguous itemso Clients interpretationo Personality, unconscious content revealed in indirect ways
Rorschach Testo Symmetrical inkblots on papero Shown to hospital patientso 10 cards selected
Based on responses from different psychiatric groupso Patients asked:
Interpretation of inkblot Reasons
o Interpretation Response formation Match to inkblot Content
Interpretation based on content details Behavior during session Hypothesis formed
Thematic Apperception Testo Cards with ambiguous sceneso Patient creates storyo Unconscious content thought to be exposed in story
Sentence Completion testso I regret...
Word completion testo CH_ _R
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Draw a person test Evaluation
o Are these tests valid? Multiple outcomes Different scoring procedures, testing systems Test scope Long term research, scholars suggest no
o Are these tests reliable? Interrater reliability
Psychoanalysis and psychopathology
Freud: Neuroses found in everyone Personality types
o Influence on developmental stageso Psychopathology based on fixations from developmento Stages of psychosexual development
Too little, too much gratification Seeking similar satisfaction later in life
o 3 types: Oral
Narcissistic View of others related to what they might provide Envious, jealous Quick to anger Depressed Always asking for something Success= I get
Anal Struggle with power Anal triad
Cleanliness Stinginess Obstinacy (stubborn)
Seek power, control Concern with duty, responsible Avoid waste, loss of control
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Conflict between submitting and rebelling Success= I control
Phallic Gender differences
Meno Hyper masculineo Excessively demonstrates masculinity
Convince others that he has notbeen castrated
o Competitiveo Success= I am a man
Womeno Overly feminineo Seductive, flirtatious but deny
sexuality
o Naveo Idealization of partners, love
o Conflict and defense Fixation at developmental stages Problem
Want gratification Past trauma Conflict
Anxiety Defense mechanisms
Successful: anxiety reduced Less successful: pathological symptoms
Repressed impulse being expressedo Therapeutic process
Psychopathology: fixation, conflict, anxiety Freuds therapeutic process
Free association Dream interpretation
Patient must gain insight regarding wishes, anxiety Transference
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Attitudes, conflicts towards parental figuresdirected toward therapist
Oral patients: concern with feeding andreceiving
Anal patients: control Phallic patients: competition Transferences encouraged
Patient on couch Frequent appointments Therapist as blank screen
Transference neurosis Play out old conflicts
o Understand nature of conflictso Gain satisfaction that was previously
denied
Freedom to gratify desires in more healthymanner
Deal with conflicts in safe environment Corrective emotional experience from:
Less intense conflict Analyst does not behave like parents Patients more mature (ego more developed)
9/30/13
Evolution of psychoanalysis
Freud devoted entire life to psychoanalysis Had numerous disciples Authoritarian nature
o Cut off those who strayed from his ideas Alfred Adler
1870: Born in Vienna Sickly child
Desire to prove doctor wrong 1895: Medical degree from University of Vienna
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Read Interpretation of Dreams and went intopsychiatry
First to break from Freud Libido as more general life force Influence of inferiority complex and
compensation
o Inherent inferiority of infants/obstacles from environment
Emphasis on social factors Role of conscious planning for the future
Presented ideas to Vienna Psychoanalytic society Hostile response Left with 8 members
Individual psychology Society for individual psychology
Emphasis on social urges, conscious thoughts Compared to Freuds focus on sexual
instincts, unconscious
Striving for future (rather than result of past) Feelings of inferioritycompensation Will to power
Striving for superiorityo Neurotic formo Healthy from
Carl Jung 1875: Born in Switzerland Religious and troubled family In childhood, noticed Personality 1 and 2
1: school boy 2: man in touch with past
1900: Medical degree 1906: Published article gets Freuds attention
Very close to Freud: crown prince ofpsychoanalysis
1909: Deterioration begins 1913: Psychology of the Unconscious
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Resigns as president of APA Disagreement with Freud:
Libido as life energyo Jungs vs. Freuds reason for breakup
(Jung was going through oedipalcomplex)
Emphasis on reasons for current behavioro Instinctual urges vs. meaning in life
Evolutionary foundations of mind Unconscious
Collective unconsciouso Experience from past generationso Universalo Shared by everyoneo Archetypes
Across cultures E.g. mother archetypes
Opposing forces in humans Face (private self) vs. mask (persona) Masculine (animus) vs. feminine (anima)
o Man rejecting feminineo Woman rejecting masculine
The self= most important archetype Fundamental goal of people: find unity
Introversion vs. extraversion Introvert: inward orientation
o Hesitant, reflective Extravert: outward orientation
o Active, adventuresome Additional theories
Mid 1900s: Motivational forces and personality Role on interpersonal interactions
Freud: Biological urgespersonality structures
social relationships
Interpersonal psychodynamic theorists
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Social relationshipspersonality structures Karen Horney
Cultural influences on individual development Culture and gender identity European vs. American culture 1922: Presentation at psychoanalytic
congress in Berlin
o Womb envy Explanation for consistent
discrimination against women
Feelings on inferiority Basic anxiety
Influence of social factors Feeling of being lonely, helpless in hostile
world
Coping with basic anxiety in neurotic form Move toward
o Want to be accepted, approved ofo Dependento Unselfish, undemanding
Moving againsto Assumption that world is hostileo Struggle against otherso Deny need for others
Moving awayo Detachment, including emotional
detachment
Object Relations theory Developmental processes before oedipal period Object= person
Drive toward object that can reduce tension E.g. object= mother
Influence of early relationships on: Self Relationship with others
Focus on development of mental models
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Attachment theory John Bowlby
Influence of separation from parents Attachment Behavior System (ABS)
o Present from birtho Motivation
Formation of mental representationso Selfo Parents
Mary Ainsworth Strange situation Role in interpersonal relationship
o Secure Feel comfortable in relationships From secure attachment to
caregiver
o Anxious Want to be close to others, but
others do not reciprocate
Seek approval From insecure attachment to
caregivero Avoidant
Little to no desire to for closerelationships with others
Wish to remain independent From insecure attachment to
caregiver
Relationship Rating Fromo Viability
Acceptance Respect Trust
o Intimacy Confiding
o Understanding
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o Passion Fascination Exclusiveness Sexual intimacy
o Care Giving Assistance
o Global satisfaction Success Enjoyment Reciprocity Esteem
o Commitment Time 1
o Avoidant men- lowest levels of: Commitment, satisfaction, trust,
acceptance, intimacy, caring,
commitment
o Women with avoidant men- lessnegative ratings
o Anxious and avoidant women Less satisfaction, intimacy and
caring
o Men with anxious partner More conflict, less commitment,
less satisfaction and intimacy
o Thus: men and women both lesssatisfied when a woman is anxious
Time 2o Stability
Anxious men- lowest Time 3
o Stability Anxious women- highest
Highest stabilityo Avoidant men
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o Anxious women Expectations for romantic partner based on
attachment style
o Problems with Avoidant- avoidant Anxious- anxious
Lowest stability for:o Anxious meno Avoidant women
Not set in stoneo Timeo Relationships
Limitations of studying relying on self-reportPsychodynamic theory: evaluation
5 criteriao 1. Basis in scientific observations
No objective data Freud and free- association Limitations
Lack of diversity in patients Subjectivity
Suggestion in therapyo 2. Systematic
Logical, interconnected nature of theory Connection of process and structure
Id, ego, superego (structure) Gratification of instincts (process)
o 3. Testability Impossible to prove wrong
Can explain any outcomeo 4. Comprehensive
Extremely comprehensive Issues addressed
Mind Relationship between individual and society
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Dreams Sexuality Development Therapies
o 5. Applications Therapy for clients who need change
Other therapies also beneficial No emphasis on underlying drives
TEST #1
10/9/13
Carl Rogers
4thof 6 children Close to mother Religious household
o Early focus on moral, ethical issueso Hard work
Studied agriculture, seminary, then clinical psychology 1931: PhD from Columbia View of the individual
o Subjectivity of experience Perceptions of reality Phenomenal field
Subjective construction Make up reality
Influenced by Outer world Inner world
Subjective needs, goals, beliefso Authenticity vs. alienation
Psychological distress from psychological detachment Approval vs. adhering to ones own values Path to alienation Instincts as wisdom
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Society vs. adhering to ones own values Well adjusted individual
o Human nature Fundamentally positive
Desire for growth Destructive, evil behaviors result of:
Fear Defensiveness
Freedom= positivityo Phenomenological perspective
Emphasis on conscious, subjective experiences How does individual experience the world?
o Humanistic Person as whole Self-perceptions Potential for growth
o Structure The self
Part of phenomenological experience Conscious
Organized pattern that is pervasive Idea of me or I Actual self vs. ideal self
o Measuring self-concept Two methods used
Q- Sort Technique Set of cards with personality characteristics
on each
o Has high aspiration level for selfo Expresses hostile feelings directlyo Values own independence and
autonomy
Cards sortedo 7-Most descriptive of _me/idea
self__
o 1-Least descriptive of ___
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Forced distribution Semantic Differential
Rate concepts on each polar oppositeadjective scale (bad-good, clean-dirty,
beautiful-ugly, strong-weak, active-passive,cruel-kind)
o My selfo My ideal selfo Fathero My college
o Personality Process Self-actualization
Fundamental motivational principle Simplicity to complexity Dependence to independence
Self consistency and Congruence Maintain consistent notion of self
Value system Organization of values, behaviors Consistency of behaviors Congruence vs. incongruence
o Congruence Self and experience Values and behaviors
o Incongruence Untrue to self Distress Anxiety Defensive processes
Denial Distortion-I am a bad
student self-concept and
good grade
Need for positive regard Desire to be accepted and respected by others
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Own values, own actualization vs. othersacceptance
Detachment Alienation
In childhood Unconditional love Conditions of worth
o Natural tendencies vs. parentspositive regard
o Denying aspects of selfo Growth and Development
Is the child free to self-actualize? Self actualization process throughout the life Developmental factors
Parent-child relationships Unconditional positive regard Acceptant, democratic attitudes
Internal psychological structures Congruence vs. incongruence and defense
Healthy development Unconditional acceptance
o Self-esteem Self-evaluation Influencing factors
Parental: Acceptance, affection, interest, warmth,
permissiveness and punishment, style
(democratic vs. dictatorial)
Rogers view of the cliento Power of client
Capable agent (rather than dependent patient)o Inborn drive toward health, growtho No differentiation between pathology typeso Pathological functioning
Discrepancy between self and experiences Defense against incongruent experiences
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Distress from ideal self vs. actual self discrepancyo Healthy functioning
Congruence between self and experience Incorporate experiences into self-concept
o Psychological change Main focus psychotherapy Conditions necessary for change
1. Reflection of feeling Therapist as a mirror
2. Client-centered therapy Actively understanding client
3.Therapeutic climate Nature of relationship, interactions between
therapist and client
o Conditions 1. Genuineness
Comfortable relationshipbetween therapist and
client
2. Unconditional positive regard Caring, respect for client
3. Empathic understanding Active listening,
understanding
o Efficacy of client-centered therapy Distress from incongruence, feelings of inadequacy Evidence for therapeutic change from Rogers methods
1. Reflection of felling 2. Client-centered therapy 3. Therapeutic change
Types of changes Decrease in defensiveness More congruent self More positive feelings toward others
Human potential movement
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Emphasis on self-growth Self-actualization Maslow
o Focus of positive factorso Individuals fundamentally good
Desire for goodo Psychopathology
Frustration Stifling of potential
o Improvement from freedom to express oneselfo Motivation
Biological vs. psychological needs (physiological, safety,love/belongingness. Esteem, actualization)
Higher level motivational processeso Focus on self-actualizing individuals
Einstein, Mother Teresa, Nelson Mandela Common characteristics
Acceptance of self, others Care for self, others Intimate relationships Resist conformity Remain realistic
Positive psychology movement
Other schools of thoughto Overemphasis on psychopathology, problems with human
condition
E.g. Freudo Classification of human strengths
Criteria used Enduring Beneficial across numerous domains Encouraged by parents, society as a whole
Seligman and Peterson Six categories of qualities
Wisdom, Courage, Love, Justice,Temperance, Transcendence
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Importance of listing qualities Different focus of positive psychology
Shimai Et Al
Kindness, love, humor, gratitude, open-mindedness, fairnessEvaluation of humanistic theories
5 criteriao Scientific observation
Objectivity in data collection Objective methods
Q sort Limitations
Explicit measures Lack of diversity
o Systematic nature Integrated propositions regarding individual personality
Parent-child interactions Types of self-concept Psychological distress vs. well-bring
Limitation Not enough information in theory
o Testability Certain elements testable, while others now Testable elements
Actual self vs. ideal self Q sort
Conditions of therapeutic change Limitations
No evidence of universal nature of selfactualization motive
No clear construct No objective assessment tool
o Comprehensiveness Not enough info regarding the influence of:
Evolution, emptions, biological impulses, genetics
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o Applications Importance of client-therapist relationships
Techniques for building relationships Client as person
Capable of improving selves10/15/13
Overview: Freud, Rogers Vs. Trait Theorists
Freudo No objective collectiono Case studies
Rogerso More focused on measuremento Still no way of measuring some key concepts
Trait theoristso Emphasis on measuremento Approach personality much like a physical science
Trait Concept
Personality traito Colloquial useo Definition: consistent patterns in how people
Behave, feel, thinko Connotations of traits
Consistency Across roles, time
Distinctiveness View of personality
o Focus on measurement Reliable and valid
o Theory based on collected data (not speculation) Contrast to Freud and Rogers
o Purpose of trait constructs Description
Describe typical behavior
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Basic descriptive facts Taxonomy
Personality scheme Aid in classification based on traits
Prediction Predict everyday behavior Important applications
E.g. selection for jobo Myers-Briggs typeo OCEAN
Explanation Scientific understanding of causes
NOT the same as prediction Not pursued by all trait theorists
Includes: Traits explaining behavior Figuring out possible biological factors
o Shared assumptions across theories People have predispositions to behave in certain ways There exists a relationship between having a certain
trait and trait-related behaviors
Direct relationship Extraverted behaviors related to higher
levels of extraversion
Contrast to psychoanalysis Behavior, personality in hierarchy
Trait theorists
Allport, Cattell, Eysencko Allport
Youngest of 4 children Protestant upbringing
Strict Purity of thoughts, behaviors
1919: Graduated from Harvard
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Emphasis on healthy, organized parts of humanbehavior
Criticism of psychoanalysis Too much focus on unconscious
Traits as building blocks of personality Three properties of traits
Frequency Intensity Range of situations
Personality structure Focus on traits as units
Consistent, stable tendencies Separate from temporary states, activities
Types of traits Cardinal traits
o Extremely influential in every behavioro Rare
Central traitso More limited in influenceo More common
Secondary dispositionso Least generalized, least consistent
(across situations)
Influence of situation Traits not expressed in all situations
o E.g. extraversion at party vs. first dayat job
o Trait: general tendencies across manysitautions
Limitations to Allports theory Not enough research conducted
Trait idea No research on influence of heredity
No model to explain psychological processes behindbehavior
Motivation for trait-related behaviors
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Problem with use of case studies, idiographicmethods
Traits: factor analysis
How do we know that certain behaviors are related to a certainunderlying trait?
Intuitive correlation- sea monsterso By looking at the correlations between all the parts we can
see (observable behaviors), we can infer something about
their underlying nature (theoretical constructs)
o Factor analysis- statistical method that looks at how lots ofdifferent observations correlate and determines how many
theoretical constructs could most simply explain what you see
Patterns in correlations Set of factors that summarize how different variables
are inter-correlated
Factor analytic study Test items given to participants Certain items will correlate with others
E.g. Do you often go to loud and noisyparties? And Do you enjoy spending time
with large groups of people? Clusters of correlated items may be influenced by
underlying factors
Relatively objective Can only show patterns of co-variation
No explanation of why Different explanations from different psychologists
Some subjectivity Number, nature of factors
10/16/13
Trait theorists
Cattello Lab of Personality Assessment (U. of Illinois)
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o Extremely prolific 200 articles 15 books
o Huge influence on 20thcentury psychologyo Need for taxonomy of traitso Use of factor analysiso Personality structure
Surface traits Observable behavioral tendencies
Source traits Underlying structures Responsible for relationship between surface traits
o Cattells 16 personality traitso Behavior: stability vs. variability
People not same all the time Behavior depends on traits and:
State Emotion at a particular point in time E.g. anxiety, fatigue, arousal
Role Social roles one has to play
o Influence of settingo Strengths and limitations
Strengths Systematic approach Foundation for future trait based research Development of 16 PF measure
Limitations 16 PF not parsimonious Structure based solely on factor analysis
May not cover all of personality Hans J. Eysenck
o Fled to England to escape Naziso Work influenced by
Factor Analysis European psychologists (Jung)
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Research on heredity and psychology Pavlovs work on classical conditioning
o Founded journal- Personality and Individual Differences Personality traits Temperament Biological foundations
o Measures of individual differences Importance of underlying biology
o Personality structure Superfactors
Higher order factors than initial factors Continuous dimensions Initially two:
Introversion-extraversion (sociability,liveliness, excitability)
Neuroticism (anxiety, feelings of guilt,shyness)
Used Ancient Greeks chart Later added third superfactor
Psychoticismo Abnormal traits (aggressive, cold,
egocentric, antisocial, unsympathetic) More objective measures
Lemon drop test Lemon juice placed on tongue Difference in amount of saliva produced Introverts vs. extraverts: who produced
more? Introverts
o Biological bases- introversion vs.extraversion
Differences in arousal level inbrain
Introverts Over- aroused by intense
environmental stimuli
Extraverts
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Less aroused byenvironmental stimuli
Need more stimulus fromenvironment
Necker cube experiment Extraverts switched viewing of cube more
than introverts
Research in brain activity Support for Eysencks ideas
Twin studies Support notion of hereditary influence
Other biological functionso Social context
Introverts Higher pain sensitivity More easily fatigued Performance inhibited by excitement More careful, slower Higher school performance Seek solitary jobs Lower need for novelty Intellectual humor Study habits
Quiet, solitary locations Extraverts
Performance enhanced by excitement Seek jobs that involve working with others Like diversion from routine Enjoy more explicit, sexual humor Study habits
Library Frequent study breaks
o Neuroticism Influence of autonomic nervous system
High neuroticism had overly active autonomicnervous system
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o Psychoticism Much less known compared to others Genetic influence
Gender Testosterone
o Psychopathology Psychopathology related to traits (and other biological
roots) + environmental factors
Neurotic patients High neuroticism, low extraversion
Criminals, antisocial people High neuroticism, high extraversion, high
psychoticism
Limitations to Eysencks theoryo Alternate models provide better fit
Influence of impulsivity, anxietyo Lack of consistent support for biological baseso Personality and Individual Differences as isolating factoro Model not comprehensive enough
Honesty, reliability, creativity10/21/13
Five factor model
Need for taxonomy Individual differences into 5 dimensions
o The big five Factor analytic trait approach Supported by research evidence Description vs. explanation Each factor present in everyone Biological basis on factors
o Genetic influenceo Downplay influence of nurtureo Causal influence on development
Universal raw material of personality
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o High reliability, high validityo Relative stability throughout adulthood
3. Relationship to other questionso NEO-PI-R
Five factors Six narrower facets Format
Self report Observer report
Relationship with: Eysencks inventories
E & N P: low agreeableness, low conscientiousness
Cattells 16 factors Temperament
Big five facetso Hierarchical organization
Extraversion Gregariousness, activity level, assertiveness,
excitement seeking, positive emotions, warmth
Bill Clinton Agreeableness
Straightforwardness, trust, altruism, modesty,tender mindedness, compliance
Conscientiousness Self-discipline, dutifulness, competence, order,
deliberation, achievement striving
Neuroticism Anxiety, self consciousness, depression,
vulnerability, impulsiveness, angry hostility
Openness to experience Fantasy, aesthetics, feelings, ideas, actions,
values
o Stronger relationship with School performance
E.g. Anxiety and impulsivity facets of neuroticism
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Job performance and attitudes Organizational citizenship behaviors
Growth and developmento Over time, people become less neurotic, extraverted and
openness More agreeable, conscientious
Personality in childhoodo More complex in childhoodo 7 personality factors in childreno Instead of extraversion:
Sociability Activity
o Instead of neuroticism: Fearfulness Irritability
o Merging in adolescence Five factor limitations
o Main problems: 1. Link between personality structures and processes
Not enough info on processes No clear link between psychological
2. (Lack of) influence of social factors Traits said to be unaffected by external factors Twenge
Changes in US in 20thcenturyo Increase in anxiety, extraversion
10/23/13
A 6thfactor
Person A vs. Person Bo Person B-honesty
HEXACO model Research suggests there may be one more factor
o Honesty/humilityo Truthfulness, sincerity
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o Genuineness Findings from 7 languages Relation to type of religious orientation
o Intrinsic orientation: truly believe in religious teachings andlive life according to religious beliefs
Significantly correlated with honesty-humility,conscientiousness
o Extrinsic-personal orientation: focused on what religion cangive you (ex: comfort during difficult times)
Significantly correlated with agreeableness,conscientiousness
o Extrinsic- social orientation: religiousness based on formingsocial connections
Not strongly correlated with any Big Five or HEXACOtraits
Applications of 5 factor model
Conscientiousness and life expectancyo Sample followed for 70 yearso Conscientious children
Significantly longer lives 30% less likely to die each year
o Reasons: Less likely to:
Face violent death Less likely to smoke Less likely to drink heavily
More likely to: Exercise regularly Eat well Have physicals Follow medication schedule Avoid toxins
Predicting job performanceo Extraversion- Social enterprising (e.g. sales)
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o Openness to experience- artistic, investigative (e.g.filmmaking)
o Conscientiousness- various roles Predicting academic performance
Conscientiousness (higher) Neuroticism (lower)
Personality type and therapy optionso High openness to experience
Exploration (free association)o Low openness
Directive Medication
o No one specific therapy for all patients Related trait measures
o MMPI 567 True/False questions General pattern of responding 10 clinical scales
Paranoia, psychasthenia (Ocd), hypomania, socialintroversion
Validity scaleso 16 PF
16 primary personality traits Personality profile is created
Person-situation controversy
How much consistency do people demonstrate in their behaviors?o Enough consistency to support the notion of traits?
Walter Mischelo Behavior varies based on situationo Ability to examine situations and adapto May explain why people do not always act in accordance with
their traits
Consistency over time vs. situationso Skepticism about cross-situational consistency
Evidence for trait consistencyo Seen more within domains across time
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Research on conscientiousnesso Measures twice in one semestero Highest for class-related behaviors and lower for other
domains
Trait theories evaluation
Scientific observationo Strong foundation of data
Emphasis on: Statistical analyses of objective personality tests
Diversity of subjects Age, ethnicity, sociocultural factors
Different sources of data Self reports, observer reports, life data,
physiological measures
o Limitations Lack of in-depth methods
Focus on traits, general qualities Surface characteristics Not enough focus on individual uniqueness
Systematic natureo Cattell
Systematic theorizing about: Traits, states, roles, motivation
Problem: not enough influenceo Eysenck
Relationship between trait and biological factors Structures (traits) and processes (nervous
system)
Problem Other than extraversion-introversion, not much
evidence
o McCrae and Costa (5 traits) No explanations of dynamic processes that influence
behavior
o Trait theories in general
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Not enough systematic explanation regardingpersonality
Testabilityo Testable through objective methodso Many aspects that can be tested
Comprehensivenesso Strengths
Incorporations of important individual differences Factor analysis methods
o Limitations Focused primarily on taxonomy of traits and influence of
traits on behaviors, leading to deficits in other areas
Not enough info regarding: Interaction between conscious and unconscious Influence of sexuality Dreams Relationship between therapist and client Role of parents Not enough focus of personality processes
Theories more about structures Not enough focus on individual
Traits across populations Cannot conclude that identified traits exist
in everyone
Applicationso Helpful in prediction
Accepted set of traits Used to predict behaviors
o Limitations Not very useful in clinical setting
No therapy for psychological changeTEST #2
10/30/13
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Phineas Gage
Construction foremano Accident involving explosiono Iron bar shot through his face
Left check, front of brain, top of heado Results
Damage to left frontal lobe Maintained ability to walk, speak, remember Changes in:
Disposition, preferences, goals, personality Implications:
Frontal brain and personalityTemperament
Individual differenceso Mood, emotional response, activity level
Inherited (for the most part) Biologically based Early views (from ancient Greeks)
o Melancholico Phlegmatico Cholerico Sanguine- outgoing, sociable
19thcenturyo Darwin
The Origin of Species The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals
Emotional expression in humans and othermammals are similar
Contribution to Study of temperament, evolutionary
psychology
o Gregor Mendel Experiments on plant hybrids
Modern genetics on personality developmento Ernst Kretschmer
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Physique and character Pyknic
Plum, rounder body Extraversion
Athletic Muscular Vigorous
Aesthenic Frail Introversion
Temperament longitudinal studieso NY Longitudinal study
Over 100 subjects followed from birth to adolescence Parental reports regarding infants:
Activity level, mood, attention span, persistence Infant temperament types
Easy Playful, adaptable
Difficult Negative, unadaptable
Slow to warm up Low reactivity, mild responding
o Buss and Plomin: 4 Dimensions of temperament Emotionality- arousal in upsetting situations, level of
general distress
Activity- vigor of movement, fidgety nature Sociability- responsiveness to other people, ease of
making friends
Impulsivity- ability to control behavior, later droppedo Kagan
Neural bases of differences in: Emotions Behavioral tendencies
Research Observe behaviors in lab settings
Infants (4 months)
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Presented infants with novel stimulio Voice of stranger talkingo Balloon popping
Resultso Low reactivity: calm, laid backo High reactivity: strong negative
reactions to novel stimuli
Children (4.5, 8 yrs old) Presented with novel stimuli
o Flashing lights, stranger in costume High reactive infantsgreater
fear responses at ages 4.5 & 8
Some changes: role ofenvironment
Temperament profiles Inhibited temperament (high reactive)- react to
novel stimuli with
Restraint, avoidance, distress More time needed to relax in new situations More unusual fears Timid, cautious
Uninhibited temperament (low reactivity) Likes unfamiliar situations Responds with laughter, smiling to novelty
Temperament in adulthood Adults categorized as inhibited vs. uninhibited
children
Presented with novel stimuli fMRI to note active brain activity
(amgydala)
Inhibited children have much more activeamygdala compared to uninhibited
Evolutionary psychology
Need to belongo Universal need seen across cultures, time
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Chances for survival, reproductiono Social ostracism
Akin to physical pain Evolutionary alarm
Evolved psychological mechanismso Help solve problems important to reproductive success
Social behaviorso Domain specific
Fear for certain stimuli Specific adaptive emotions (jealousy)
Participants asked to predict distress from sexualvs. emotional infidelity
60% of male sample: greater distress fromsexual infidelity
83% of female sample: greater distressfrom emotional infidelity
Proposed evolutionary explanations Womans mate value
o Reproductive capacity Youth Markers of fertility Chastity
Paternal probability Mans mate value
o Resources Earning capacity Ambition
o Causes of jealousy: counterevidence Question format unrealistic Participants asked to rate reaction to:
Sexual infidelity Not at all upset.... Extremely upset
Emotional infidelity Sex differences no longer present
Both upset more by sexual infidelity
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Evolutionary theory and the big five
Goldberg: Lexical hypothesiso OCEAN from desire to categorize important behaviorso Value of recognizing people who are
Responsive, dependable (vs. unreliable) Agreeable (vs. disagreeable) Emotionally stable (vs. unstable)
o Consistent focus on certain traitsTrait terms in lexicon Sex differences in the big five
o Big five traits in men and women across 55 nations More and less developed, egalitarian
o Findings Women higher on: neuroticism, extraversion,
agreeableness, conscientiousness
Male-female differences greater in: More developed countries, more egalitarian
countries
Evolutionary theory
Strengthso Explanation for:
Behaviors Social structures
Culture Limitations
o Humans not bound by evolutionary influenceso Not enough focus on environment
11/4/13
Genetics
Behavioral geneticso Influence on genes on:
Cognitive ability, personality, interestso Interaction between genes and environmento Cognitive ability
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Most inherited Males in Denmark
Correlations for full siblings Reared apart: .47 Reared together: .52
Correlations for adoptive siblings Reared together: .02
Strong influence of environment in childreno Specific mental abilities
Evidence for less influence of heredity for: Verbal ability, spatial ability, perceptual speed,
memory
o Interests Occupational interests
Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social,Enterprising, Conventional
Somewhat weaker genetic influence and strongerenvironmental influence compared to personality
o Gene- Environment interactions Shared vs. non-shared environments
Shared environment Shared by siblings in the same family
Non-shared environments Unique experiences not shared by members
in the same family
Differential treatment from parents Which is more important in personality
development? Non-shared
Indications that non-shared environmentalinfluences much stronger than shared
Variance explained Genetic factors 40% Non-shared environments 35% Shared environments 5%
Does not mean within family experiencesunimportant
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Focus on experience of individual Environmental effects
Significant differential treatment of siblingso Much of this due to genetic
characteristics of child Again, importance of unique experiences of
child
o Phenomenological experience ratherthan objective events
Difficulty in measuremento Measurement error
Three nature-nurture interactions 1. Environment affects individuals differently
based on genetic makeup (passive)
E.g. conscientious vs. lazy child andintelligent parents
2. People with certain genetic makeup bring forthdifferent responses from environment (evocative)
E.g. difficult baby may cause differentreactions in parent compared to easy baby
3. People choose, create different environmentsbased on genetic makeup
E.g. extraverts choice of hobbies, friendscompared to introverts
Research methods 3 main research methods in genetics
1. Selective breeding studieso Animals with desired trait mated
Create separate strain Study behavior Manipulate environmental
experiences
Separate genetic vs.environmental influences on
behavior
2. Twin studies
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o Monozygotic (MZ0 vs. Dizygotic (DZ)twins
MZ twins genetically identical DZ twins share 50% of genes
o Genetic influence High: MZ twins more similar
than DZ twins
Low: MZ and DZ twins similaro MZ twins reared apart
Evidence of genetic influence MZ twins raised together
not more similar with
regard to personality
traits
3. Adoption studieso Individual raised by adoptive parentso Genetic influence
Biological siblings Neuroscience
o Influence of Specific parts of the brain Neurotransmitters Hormones
o Hemispheric dominance Depressed people: decreased left brain activity Inhibited children: greater activity in right hemisphere Uninhibited children: greater activity in left hemisphere
o Role of neurotransmitter Dopamine
Feel good chemical Associated with pleasure Cocaine as imitation
Serotonin SSRIs and depression
o Neurotransmitters and emotionality Model of emotionality
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1. Negative emotionality High NE individuals
o Higher levels of negative emotionso Environment seen as:
Threatening, problematic,distressing
o Report feelings of: Fear, sadness, anger, guilt,
disgust
Low NE individualso Calm, emotionally stable, self-
satisfied
Neurobiologyo Low levels of serotonin in high NE
Depression, anxiety, OCDbehaviors, negative view of
environment
2. Positive Emotionality High PE individuals
o Higher levels of positive emotions,sociable, energetic, cheerful,
enthusiastico Report feelings of
Joy, interest, attentiveness,excitement, pride
Low PE individualso Reserved, low energy, low confidence
Neurobiologyo Association with dopamineo Relationship to left hemispheric
dominance
3. Disinhibition vs. Constraint Manner of regulating emotions High DvC individuals
o Impulsive, reckless, focus on feelingsin the moment
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o Behaviors Lower grades, lower job
performance ratings, higher
alcohol drug consumption
o Night owls Low DvC individuals
o Careful, more focused on future, avoidrisk, morning people
Neurobiologyo Association with serotonin
Aggression, drug useo Possible relationship with testosterone
Competitiveness, aggression Neurotransmitters and love
o High dopamine, low levels of serotonin, high levels ofaggression
o In love but rejected Recently rejected participants fMRI to study brain activity
Picture of rejecter Fillers
Activation in brain regions associated with: Craving, emotion regulation, addiction
Greater understanding of irrational, obsessive behaviors Decrease in activation with time
Plasticityo Changes in biologyo Monkey leaders and serotonin- serotonin levels change when
become a leader (higher levels)
o Aggression and testosterone Lower testosterone levels after:
Losing at sports, being fan of losing team11/6/13
Antecedents of behaviorism
Darwin
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o Link between animals and humans Rise of animal psychology
George Romaneso Introspection by analogy (using what we know about our
thinking to infer behavior or what animals are thinking)o Comparative psychology
C. Lloyd Morgano Morgans Canono Limit introspection by analogy to mammalso Comparative psychology closer to experimental science
Edward L. Thorndikeo Influenced by Morgano Cats in puzzle-boxes
Reward for escape Trial and error for effective behaviors These animals dont have insight
Rules out reasoning Interested in learning and adaptive advantages Law of effect
Law of reinforcement Instrumental learning
Behaviorism: View of the person Analogous to machine
o Mechanisms to be studied Determinism
o Contrast to free willBehaviorism: View of personality
Causal influence of environment on individualo No interest in internal factorso Focus on environments impact
Understanding of people built on lab researcho Peopleo Animals
Environmental determinismo Human behavior guided by laws
Behavior causes by environmental factors
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Comparable to rock thrown in airo Individuals thoughts, feelings all caused by environment
Selection of major Selection of classes Beginning, ending relationships
Research methods
Environmental manipulationo Manipulate individual variables
Influence on behavioro Study only observable factors
Contrast to other theories Behaviorists: other theories too speculative, unscientific
Simple systems strategyo Simpler system than area of researcho Reasons:
Complexity of environment Unethical to conduct certain tests
E.g. airplanes reaction to certain elements E.g. drug testing E.g. experiments on addiction
Theories of learning
Pavlovs Classical conditioning/Skinners Operant conditioningo 2 Complementary theories
Foundation of behaviorismo Mid-20thcentury: predominant school of thought
John Watsono Founder of behaviorism
Research with animals Classes in neurology, physiology Philosophy then psychology
o Examined how rats travel through mazes Explored the significance of the kinesthetic sense
o Behaviorist manifesto Call for:
New methodology, new topic of study End focus on:
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Immediate conscious experience, self-observation, internal perception, introspection
The time seems to have come when psychology mustdiscard all reference to consciousness
Watsons psychology begins with: Organisms adjustment to environment Certain stimulicertain responses
o Little Albert Experiment Report on conditioned emotional reactions in Little
Albert
Conclusion Fears as conditioned emotional reactions
NOT from unconscious or other areaso Watson- most famous American psychologist of 20thcentury
Forced to resign from scandal Went on to career in advertising and business
Ivan Pavlovo Studied digestive system, salivary responses of dogs
Placed food powder in mouth, measured resultingsalivation
After several trials, dogs began to salivate in responseto:
Sight of food dish Approach of researcher
o Classical conditioning Unconditioned stimulus elicits unconditioned response During conditioning
Neutral stimulus is paired with unconditionedstimulus to elicit conditioned response
Generalization Reponses to similar stimuli
E.g. salivation to other noises Discrimination
Animal learns which CS lead to UCS Extinction
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CS presented without UCSanimal no longerresponds to CS
11/11/13
Behaviorism
Psychopathologyo Explained in terms of learned response patterns
Individuals not sick or diseasedo Failure to learn proper responses
Behavioral deficit E.g. social inadequacies
o Learning of maladaptive responses Conditioned emotional reactions
o Little Albert Combination of white rat+ loud noise
Ratfear Conditioned emotional reaction
Generalization of fearo Watson and Rayner- fears as conditioned emotional reactions
Contrast to psychodynamic explanationso Psychopathology and treatment
Psychopathology not internal Abnormal behavior from maladaptive environments Treatments
Provide new environment Learn different, more adaptive behaviors Want to extinguish (unlearn) abnormal anxiety Effectiveness for:
Phobias OCD PTSD
Systematic desensitization Relaxation training: remain calm through
regulation of breathing, bodily sensations
Go through fear hierarchy
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o Feared situations from least to mostfearful
Disconnect association between hierarchicallevels and fear through new connection
Flooding Prolonged exposure to feared object or
situation
OCD Exposure and response prevention: have
thoughts without performing compulsive
rituals
PTSD Prolonged exposure through imagining
o Weaken link between actual traumaand things that cause anxiety
Skinner and operant conditioning
Interest in building things Initially waned to become a writer Became interested in Pavlovs, Watsons work Harvard
o Animal behavior Explanation based on environment
Personality structureo Behavior as result of environment
Change in situationChange in behavioro No need for stable personality structure
Non-scientific Skinners behaviorism
o Learning in animalso Skinner boxeso Rejected the notion of intervening variableso Operant conditioning
Contrast to Pavlov: stimulus- response Instead, consequence- behavior Focused on:
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Positive and negative reinforcement Positive- give something pleasurable
likelihood of behavior being repeated goes
up
Negative- take away somethingunpleasurablelikelihood of behavior being
repeated goes up
Positive and negative punishment Positive- give something unpleasurable
likelihood of behavior being repeated goes
down
Negative- take away somethingpleasurablelikelihood of behavior being
repeated goes down
Focused on: Shaping Acquisition Extinction Schedules of reinforcement
o Skinner as inventor WWII: Project Pigeon 1940s: Baby tender 1950s: Teaching machine
o Growth and development Increasing number of responses learned from
reinforcement experiences
Parents should pay attention to which behaviors arereinforced
Most effective: reinforce good behavior No reference to specific stages Behavior change
Token economy Desirable behaviors rewarded Rewards exchanged for desired goods Used in schools, hospitals Evidence for short-term effectiveness
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Behaviorism: evaluation
1. Scientific observationso Strengths
Systematic research major part of behaviorism Information not based on speculation
Limitations Limited database
Information primarily from animals Humans have capabilities not shared with
animals
o Languageo Reason about pasto Plan for future
Overlooked phenomenological issues 2. Systematic nature
o Strengths Extremely systematic Various phenomena explained through one system
Behaviors in response to reinforcement Learning of responses Response persistence
o Limitations Not enough information about other areas
Internal processes 3. Testability
o Testable in labo More difficult in real world
4. Comprehensivenesso Extremely comprehensiveo Skinner (1953)
Behaviorist principles applied to: Analysis of individual, group behavior Government, laws Psychotherapy Economic Education
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Culture 5. Applications
o Not enough information regarding differences betweenpeople, animals
o However, many application seen today Token economy Variable reinforcement schedules
11/13/13
George Kelly
Early work in Kansas public schools Examination of teachers referrals
o Construct systems/ interpretation of environmento E.g. teachers complaint that student is lazy
Kelly observed Behaviors of child Teachers perception/ interpretation
No absolute trutho Reality can be reconstructed
Kellys Personality theory Truth vs. Utility
o Search for trutho Kellys view- utility
Tools for prediction Different theories as different viewpoints Constructive alternativism No one correct theory
Kellys beliefso Too much emphasis on measurement
No traits within people that need to be measured Role of psychologists as statisticians
Statisticians vs. experts on mind Role of clinical methods Emphasis on important issues
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Understand people Work on problems
View of persono Person as a scientist
Constructs used to predict events Whether or not we will succeed at certain goals What might help us achieve these goals
Theory development/ hypothesis testing Weigh evidence from the past People focused on future People actively
Think about environment Think about selves and others
Can alter theories to make new predictions Change point of view Modify assumptions
Kelly: fundamental corollaryo A persons thoughts, feelings, behaviors and actions are
psychologically affected by the ways in which they anticipate
events
A person lives his life by expecting what comes nextand the only information we have about what comesnext comes from the constructs we create for ourselves
Personal constructso Categories to help us make sense of world
Individual categories Difference in
Types of categories When certain categories used
E.g. mother who fusses over child Attentive Overbearing
Understanding of individualo Built from previous experienceso Used to gain new knowledgeo Interpretation of environment
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Cognitive processes Categorization Attributions Predictions
Bring order to environmento Individual predicts events by noticing patternso Necessary elements
Similarity pole Contrast pole E.g. kind/cruel construct
o Need similarity/ contrast comparison Cannot fully understand individuals construct without
both
E.g. respectful Need individuals views of respectful actions =
disrespectful actions for full understanding
Provides information regarding individuals idea ofconstruct
E.g. supportive- cold vs. supportive- unreliableo Used to interpret events in environment + anticipate future
Construct systems and applicationso Construct systems
Core constructs Integral to functioning E.g. religious beliefs
Sinful/ holy Peripheral constructs
Less important Can be changed without affecting individuals core
structure
E.g. views regarding arto Creative/ uncreative
Hierarchical organization Differences in breadth, inclusiveness
Superordinate constructs Broadest
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Most inclusive E.g. nice/ not nice
Subordinate constructs More narrow More specific E.g. good math student/ poor math student
o Failure to communicate between Clinical health professionals Hospital managers Due to different background experiences, training,
language
Clinician, managers asked to describe Culture Ideal clinician and ideal manager Discussions between clinicians and managers Reveal constructs regarding common values
Similarities in constructs Increased communication
o Personality assessment Role Construct Repertory (REP) Test
Two steps Role Title List
o Names of people who fulfill differentroles (20-30)
o Elements Construct elicitation
o 3 people selectedo How are two of them alike? Different
from the third?
Learn about test taker based on categorization E.g. shy/outgoing construct How individual views/interprets important
individuals
o Personality process Activity directed toward more accurate predictions of
future events
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Experiencesindividual notices similarities, contrastconstruct development
Constructs used to predict future events Tested repeatedly Modified, developed with experience
Desire for validation of construct systemo Psychopathology
Maintenance of poorly functioning construct system People stick with construct system to avoid
Anxiety Current construct system not applicable
Threat Feeling that imminent change in core
construct(s) is about to occur
Treatment Focus on changing personal construct system
Improve predictions through betterconstructs
Some constructs replaced, some added,some dropped
Goal: help client create more efficient constructsystem
Personality sketch New person for client to try out Aid in expansion of construct system Client becomes new person
o Behaviorso Thoughtso Communication with others
New person different from cliento Catalyst for changes in construct
system
o Safe way to try out new personality Goal: client reconstructs self
o Experimentation with constructso Changes in constructs
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o Construct system that makes moreaccurate predictions
Cultureo Symbols
US- eagle, flag Baruch- bearcat NYC- taxi, empire state, MTA, statue of liberty
o Rituals US- pledge of allegiance
o Beliefs/assumptions US- freedom
TEST #3
11/20/13
Focus of Social-Cognitive theory
1. Cognitive processes as main focus 2. Influence of social environment on cognitive development
Critique of previous theories
Psychoanalysiso Too much emphasis on unconscious
Conscious processes more importanto Too much focus on early childhood
Individuals can continue to develop Trait theory
o Average personality tendencies not personality Variability also informative
Evolutionary psychologyo Cannot explain changes over time
E.g. Current presence of women in the workplace Behaviorism
o Too much emphasis on external rewards/ punishments Individuals have some control Importance of thinking capabilities Human agency
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Learned behavior without reward/ punishmentsAlbert Bandura
Learning theory Rigorous experimental testing Familial influences on aggression in children Focus on self processes
o Goalo Self- evaluationo Beliefs about ones own abilities
Influence on personal agencyo Includes social factors
E.g. SESWalter Mischel
1965 Peace Corps projecto Global trait measures: poor predictor of performanceo Skepticism regarding trait theory, psychoanalysis
1968 Personality and Assessmento Challenged psychoanalysis, trait theoryo Person- situation controversy- which is more important?
View of the person Three essential qualities of people
o 1. Reason using languageo 2. Thoughts about present, past and futureo 3. Self-reflection
Fundamental aspects of personality Focus on:
o Individuals ability to overcome environmental influenceso Control over animalistic impulses
Humans as:o Active, aware, problem solving, benefit from experiences,
mental capabilities
Not just about habits, traits, environment, genesView of science of personality
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Reliance on advances ino Developmental, social, cognitive psychologyo Neuroscienceo Other areas of science
Emphasis on individuals Focus on practical applications
o Need tools to benefit humankindPersonality Structure
Components (Cognitive Affective Units)o 1. Competencies and skills
Individual differences based on differing abilities toperform certain types of behaviors
E.g. extraverts E.g. conscientious people
Problem solving Different ways to analyze problems Behavioral skills to execute solutions
Two types of knowledge Declarative- facts that individual knows and is
aware of
Procedural- performance, unable to describeprecisely
Implications Context specificity
Different situations call upon differentcompetencies, skills
Contrast to trait theories Psychological change
Competency acquisition possibleo 2. Beliefs and expectancies
Beliefs regarding what world is like + expectationsabout what may happen in the future
Expectations about Other people Potential rewards/ punishments
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Self Contrast to behaviorism
Behavior caused by reinforcements, punishmentsfrom environment
Social cognitive theory Peoples expectations about potential rewards,
punishments
Focus on expectations Explanations for why different people
behave differently in same environment
Perceived self efficacy Beliefs regarding abilities to perform certain
actions (in the present and future)
Self efficacy is Not Self esteem
o Overall, global evaluation of worth Outcome expectations
o Can know likely outcome of behaviorsbut not feel capable of performing
them
E.g. chemical engineering major Greater influence of self efficacy on behaviors Self efficacy and behaviors
High self efficacyo Try difficult taskso Maintain efforto Calm during performanceo Organize thoughts analytically,
coherently
Low self efficacyo Not attempt activitieso Give up easilyo Exhibit anxiety during performanceo Rattled in thoughts
Potential negative impact Self efficacy and self doubt
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o Less motivation Vancouver and Kendall
o Measures Self-efficacy (anticipated grade) Planned and actual resource
allocation (study time)
Performance (grades)o Results
Within persons: higher selfefficacy associated with:
Less planned and actual studytime
Lower performanceo Discrepancies from goals and resource
allocation
o Implications for self efficacy trainingo 3. Goals
Aim of behaviors Individuals
Imagine future Set goals Direct behaviors to help achieve goals
Goals Guide priorities Help individuals decide between situations Guide organization of behaviors Organized hierarchically Flexible Proximal vs. Distal goals
Proximate goal- closer in timeo E.g. good grades on quizzeso E.g. losing 1 lb. this week
Distal goals- far in the futureo E.g. getting into good grad schoolo E.g. losing 50 lbs. in 6 months
o 4. Evaluative standards
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Standard Criteria for judging whether person, thing, or
event is good vs. bad
Evaluative standards about self Internalized personal standards used to rate
behaviors
E.g. term paper Judgments regarding moral vs. immoral behaviors
Moral disengagement Temporarily disengaging from moral
standards in certain situations
Nature of personality structureso Not things in peoples mindso Ways of thinking that interact to form personalityo Personality too complex to be described by scores
Individuals have many different goals, beliefs,standards, skills
Change across time11/25/13
Personality Process Addressed in 2 ways
o 1. General theoretical principles Reciprocal determinism
Bandura Cause and effect 3 factors involved in behavior
Individual Behavior Environment
Mutual influence between 3 forces (reciprocaldeterminants)
Conversation with person you find attractive Behaviors Influence of environment
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Influence of personality structure Too simplistic to say behavior stems from solely
internal (psychodynamic, trait theories) or
external (behaviorism) forces
Reciprocal interactions of behaviors, environmentand personality characteristics
Cognitive- affective personality system (CAPS) Personality as system 3 features
1. Cognitive and emotional variables andcomplex interactions between them
o Goals, competencies and skills,expectancies, evaluative standards
and reactions
2. Situational featuresspecific aspects ofpersonality system activated
3. Therefore, peoples behavior will differfrom one situation to another
Personality system as a whole system If... then... Profile Analysis
Individuals behavior observed in varioussituations
o Measure systematic differences If... then... Children observed at summer camp
o Responses to various situations Teasing by peer Praise from adult Punishment from adult
o Results Evidence of distinctive, stable
personality profiles
Different reactions to differentsituations
o Different profiles based on individualsbehaviors in specific situations
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Behavioral signatureso Captures more info regarding unique
patterns than global measures
2 people with identical globalanxiety score
o 2. Key psychological functions 1. Attainment of new knowledge, skills
Observational learning Learning from observing model
o Bandura, Internal mentalrepresentations
Basic skills Acceptable vs. unacceptable
o More complex than just imitation ormimicry
o Influence of reality tv Issues- gossiping as normal part
of relationships between girls
78% of viewers agreed, vs/
54%
Difficulty of trusting other girls63% of viewers vs. 50% of non-viewers
Respect though meanness 37%of viewers vs. 25%
Acquisitions vs. Performanceo Acquisition
Learning (with or withoutreinforcers)
Does not necessarily lead tobehavior
o Performance More dependent on
reinforcement, punishment
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o Bandura- three groups of childrenwatched model aggress against Bobo
doll
Group 1Models aggressivebehavior was rewarded withcandy, praise
Group 2Models aggressivebehavior was punished with
reproach
Group 3Models aggressivebehavior had no consequence
Children taken to room full oftoys
Stage 1- No incentivecondition (children left
alone in room with toys,
including Bobo doll)
Stage 2- Incentive Vicarious learning
Learning responses byobserving models
Rewards, punishments,reactions (phobias)
o Use of acquired knowledge and skillso Focus on thinking processes
Personal expectations Goals
o Self-regulation Guidance od behavior toward
goals
o Involvement of personality structures Setting goals Evaluating behavior against
standards
Self-efficacy Emphasis on foresight
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Anticipation of
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