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THEORIES OFLEARNING
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Psychologists identified three principlesthat underlie three different kinds of
learning:CLASSICAL CONDITIONING, OPERANTCONDITIONING, AND COGNITIVELEARNING
Three Kinds of Learning
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CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
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CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
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At first Pavlov considered this sort of ananticipatory salivation to be a bothersomeproblem. Later, he reasoned that the dogssalivation at the sight of food was also a
reflex, but one that the dog had somehowlearned.
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
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CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
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In a well-known experiment, Pavlov rang abell before putting food in the dogs mouth.After a number of trials of hearing a bell pairedwith food, the dog salivated at the sound of
the bell alone, a phenomenon that Pavlovcalled a conditioned reflex and today is calledCLASSICAL CONDITIONING.
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
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Classical conditioning was an importantdiscovery because it allowed researchers tostudy learning in an observable or objective
way. Classical conditioning is a kind of learning in
which a neutral stimulus acquires the ability toproduce a response that was originally
produced by a different stimulus. Behaviorist believe there were human
applications in those experiments.
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
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B. Procedure: Classical
Conditioning
How is Salivation Classically Conditioned? Your subject is a dog named Russ, who will learn to salivate to a
tone in the following three-step procedure.
Step 1. Selecting Stimulus and Response Neutral Stimulus. You need to choose a neutral stimulus.
Your neutral stimulus will be a tone (represented by a bell),which the dog hears but which does not normally produce thereflex of salivation.
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B. Procedure: Classical
Conditioning
Unconditioned Stimulus. You need to choose anunconditioned stimulus or UCS.
Your unconditioned stimulus will be a food, which will
elicit the reflex of salivation.
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B. Procedure: Classical
Conditioning
Unconditioned Response. Finally you need toselect and measure an unconditioned response orUCS.
For example, salivation is an unconditionedresponse that is elicited by food, the unconditionedstimulus; eye blink is an unconditioned responsethat is elicited by an air puff to the eye.
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B. Procedure: Classical
Conditioning
Step 2. Establishing Classical Conditioning Neutral Stimulus. In a typical trial (the
presentation of both stimuli), the neutralstimulus, the tone, is paired with the
unconditioned stimulus, the food. Generally, theneutral stimulus (tone) occurs first, followedshortly after by the unconditioned stimulus(food).
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS). Some seconds(but less than a minute) after the tone begins, youpresent the unconditioned stimulus, a piece offood, which elicits salivation. This procedure is theone most frequently used in classical
conditioning.
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Unconditioned Response (UCR). Theunconditioned stimulus, food, elicits theunconditioned response, salivation. Food and
salivation are said to be unconditioned because theyhave an effect that is inborn and not dependent onprior training.
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B. Procedure: Classical
Conditioning
Step 3. Testing for Conditioning Conditioned Stimulus. At the presentation of the
tone alone, Russ shows salivation. This indicatesthat the tone, originally stimulus, has now become a
conditioned stimulus (CS). Conditioned Response. Russ salivation to the tone
alone is called the conditioned response (CR).
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B. Procedure: Classical
Conditioning
Because the conditioned response (salivation) isusually similar in appearance but smaller in amountor magnitude than the unconditioned response,Russ will salivate less (CR) to the tone (CS) than tofood (UCS).
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B. Procedure: Classical Conditioning
Why Does Reading Zoo WorldMake
Carla Anxious?Step 1. Identifying the Stimuli and the Response
Neutral Stimulus: a copy of a Zoo Worldwhich Carla held tightlywhile experiencing pain in the dentists chair. Zoo Worldhas twocharacteristics that make it a neutral stimulus; it affected Carla (sheheld it); and it did not initially produce feelings of anxiety. In fact ,
initially Carla greatly enjoyed reading Zoo World.
The Unconditioned Stimulus: one or more dental procedures,including injections, drillings, and fillings. The unconditionedstimulus or UCS, which is a dental procedure, elicited the
unconditioned response or UCR, which was pain and anxiety. The Unconditioned Response: feeling of anxiety, which is a
combination of physiological reflexes, such as increased heart rateand blood pressure and rapid breathing, as well as emotionalreactions. The unconditioned response or UCR was elicited by the
unconditioned stimulus or UCS.
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B. Procedure: Classical Conditioning
Step 2. Establishing Classical Conditioning
One procedure for establishing classical conditioning is to present the
neutral stimulus and quickly follow it with unconditioned stimulus.Each presentation of the two stimuli is called trial.
In Carlas case, theneutral stimulus was
holding a copy ofZoo World as sheexperienced painfuldental procedures.
After many trips tothe dentist, Carla
repeatedlyexperienced theneutral stimulus,which was holdingZoo Wolrd, andoccurrence of the
unconditionedstimulus, whichinvolved a variety ofpainful dentalprocedures.
The painful dentalprocedures elicited
the unconditionedresponse, whichincluded feelings ofanxiety as well asother physiologicalresponses, such as
increases in heartrate, blood pressure,and breathing.
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B. Procedure: Classical Conditioning
Step 3.Testing for a Conditioning
A test for classical conditioning is to be observe whether the neutral
stimulus, when presented alone, elicits the conditioned response.
When Carla sat in thedentists waiting roomand held a copy of ZooWorld, she felt anxious.Zoo World, formerly aneutral stimulus, hadbecome a conditionedstimulus, which elicitedanxiety, the conditioned
response.
The conditionedresponse, feeling anxious,was elicited by holdingZoo World, theconditioned stimulus. Theconditioned response issimilar to, but of lesserintensity than, theunconditioned response.
Thus, the anxiety elicitedby Zoo World was similarto, but not as great as,the anxiety Carla feltduring the painful dental
procedures.
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Because of classical conditioning, about 50% ofyoung children report being very fearful ofdental procedures and approximately 6 % ofadults develop an intense fear or phobia of
dental procedures (Johnson et.al., 1990;Milgrom et.al., 1994).
Just as classical conditioning elicit fears andphobias, it can also be used to treat them.
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C. Other Conditioning Concept
Four Concepts (Carlas Case) Generalization - is the tendency for a stimulus that is similar to the
original conditioned stimulus to elicit a response that is similar to theconditioned response. Usually, the more similar the new stimulus is to theoriginal conditioned stimulus, the larger will be the conditioned response.
Discrimination occurs during classical conditioning when an organism
learns to make a particular response to some stimuli but not to others.
Extinction - refers to a procedure in which a conditioned stimulus isrepeatedly presented with out the unconditioned stimulus and, as a result,the conditioned stimulus tends to no longer elicit the conditionedresponse.
Spontaneous Recovery- recovery is the tendency for the conditionedresponse to reappear after being extinguished even though there havebeen no further conditioning trials.
D Ad ti V l
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D. Adaptive ValueWhats the Use of Classical Conditioning?
Taste-Aversion Learning
* In areas where rats are a problem, it is very difficult to exterminate themwith bait poison. Thats because some rats eat enough poison to die but others
eat only enough to become sick and then learn to avoid that particular poison
taste in the future. Exterminators must continually change the smell and taste
of bait used to lure animals into traps.
* Survival values (warns us from poisons that cause illness or death; from
overeating and becoming sick; warning to predators; etc.) Salivation and Digestion
Salivation lubricates our mouths and throats to make chewing andswallowing easier. This means that classically conditionedsalivation is a help to the digestive process.
Emotions, Fears, and Phobias In a conditioned emotional response, we feel some positive or
negative emotion, such as happiness, fear, or anxiety, whenexperiencing a stimulus that initially accompanied a painful orpleasant event.
l ti
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E. Two ExplanationsWhat is Learned?
Three Theories stimulus substitution, contiguity theory, andinformation theory that offer different explanation of what welearn.
Th f L i
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Theory of LearningA. Operant Conditioning (Thorndike and Skinner)
It is also called instrumental conditioning, is a kind of learning in
which the consequences that follow some behavior increase ordecrease the likelihood of that behavior occurring in the future.
In operant conditioning we act, or operate, on the environment inorder to change the likelihood of the response occurring again.
Example:
The Bear (movie): The Bear Bart, learned to perform 45behaviors on cue, such as sitting, running, standing up, roaring,and most difficult of all, cradling a teddy bear, which is not whatan adult bear does in real world.
Training Procedure: each time Bart performed a behavior
on cue, the trainer, Doug Seus, gave Bart an affectionateback scratch, an ear rub, or a juicy apple or pear. Forexample the trainer raised his arms high in the air, it wasthe signal for Bart to sit and hold the teddy bear. Aftercorrectly performing this behavior, Doug would give Bart
his reward.
Th f L i
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Theory of LearningA. Operant Conditioning
In operant conditioning we act, or operate, on the environment inorder to change the likelihood of the response occurring again. Forexample, Bart acted or operated on his environment by picking upthe teddy
Th f L i
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Theory of Learning
E.L. Thorndikes Law of Effect: The Law of Effect states that behaviors followed by positive
consequences are strengthened while behaviors followed bynegative consequences are weakened.
He built a series of puzzle boxes from which a cat could escape bylearning t o make a specific response, such as pulling a string or pressinga lever. Outside the puzzle box was a reward for escaping a piece of
fish. Thorndike place a cat in the puzzle box and record its escape time.After Thorndike graphs the data, there is a gradual improvement: on thefirst trial the cat needed over 240 seconds to hit the escape latch but bythe 21st trial the cat hits the escape latch in about 60 seconds.
To explain that, with repeated trials, the cat spends more time around
the latch, which increases the chances of finding and hitting the latchand more quickly escaping to get the fish. To explain why a cats
random trial and error behaviors gradually turnedinto efficient goal-directed behaviors, Thorndikeformulated the law of effect.
Th f L i
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Theory of Learning
E.L. Thorndikes Law of Effect: Thorndikes (1898) findings were significant because they suggested
that the law of effect was a basic law of learning and provided anobjective procedure to study it. Thorndikes emphasis on studyingthe consequences of goal-directed behavior was further developedand expanded by B. F. Skinner.
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Skinners Theory of Learning
Operant conditioning
Conditioningstimulus-
response (S-R)
associations throughreinforcement
Shapingbehaviour
through selectivereinforcement
Ski Th f L i
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Skinners Theory of Learning
Operant conditioning
If you want to analyze ongoing behaviors,
you must have an objective way to
measure them. Skinners ingenioussolution is a unit of behaviour he calls an
operant response (Skinner, 1938). By measuring or recording operant
responses, Skinner can analyze animals
ongoing behaviours during learning. He
calls this kind of learning operant
conditioning, which focuses on how
consequences (rewards and punishments)
affect behaviours.
Ski Th f L i
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Skinners Theory of Learning
Operant conditioning
Procedure:
Skinner goes on to explain three
factors involved in operantlyconditioning a rat to press a lever, as
follows
Procedure: Operant Conditioning
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Procedure: Operant Conditioning
1. The rat has notbeen fed for hoursso that it will beactive and morelikely to eat thefood reward. Ahungry rat tendsto roam restlesslyabout, sniffing atwhatever it finds.
2. Thegoal is tocondition the ratto press the lever.By pressing thelever, the ratoperates on itsenvironment;thus, thisresponse is calledan operant
response.
3. In conditioning arat to press a lever,Skinner will use aprocedure calledshaping. Shaping
refers a procedure inwhich an experimentsuccessivelyreinforces behaviorsthat lead up to orapproximate thedesired behavior.
Shaping: Reinforcing Close Approximations
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Shaping: Reinforcing Close Approximations
SHAPING: FACINGLEVER
At first the rat wandersaround the back of thebox but, when it turnsand faces the lever,Skinner releases a foodpellet in to the foodcup. The rat hears the
pellet and eats it. Therat moves away but, assoon as it again turnsand faces the lever,Skinner releasesanother pellet.
SHAPING: TOUCHINGLEVER
Skinner decides toreinforce the rat only whenit moves toward the lever.As soon as the rat facesand then moves towardthe lever, Skinner releasesanother pellet. After eatingthe pellet, the rat wanders
a bit but soon returns tothe lever and actually sniffsit. A fourth pelletimmediately drops into thecup and the rat eats it.When the rat places onepaw on the lever, a fifthpellet drops into the cup.
SHAPING:PRESSING LEVER
Now the rat rears upon its back feet,sniffs the lever, andputs its front pawson it. This downwardmotion presses the
lever and causesrelease of anotherpellet (reinforcer).With in a period oftime, the rat isputting down, and
getting food pellets.
Principles of Operant Conditioning
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Principles of Operant Conditioning As Skinner pointed out, operant conditioning affects many of our
behaviors: putting money into a vending machine to obtain a soda;calling our parents or friends to borrow money; studying hard to getgood grades; or practicing long hours to win at sports. One reasonwe continue behaving to perform these behaviors is that they havebeen reinforced.
Principles of Operant Conditioning
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Principles of Operant Conditioning Toilet Training and Operant Conditioning
Heres how operant conditioning techniques can be applied to teachtoilet training.
1. Target Behavior:
The target behavior or goal is for Sheryl tourinate in the toilet.
2. Preparation:
Before training begins put all of Sheryls toys away so thatshe will not be distracted. Then give her a large glass of apple
juice, so that she will have to urinate soon.
3. Reinforcers:
Select reinforcers, which can be candy, verbal praise, or a hug. Each
time Sheryl performs or emits a desired behavior, you immediatelyreinforce her. The reinforcer increases the likelihood that the behaviorwill be repeated.
4. Each time Sheryl performs a behavior that leads to the target behavior (usingthe toilet), give her a treat, verbal praise or a hug. For instance, when Sheryl saysthat she has to go potty, say, Thats great. When Sheryl enters the bathroom ,say, What a good girl. When she lowers her pants by herself, say, Youre doingreally good. After Sheryl urinates into the toilet, give her a big hug and perhaps atreat.
Comparison
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Comparison
Classical versus Operant Conditioning
B. Reinforcers
Punishment: Positive versus
Negative
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E. Cognitive Learning
Three year old Dusty
The first time he got a skateboard, he imitatedwhat he had observed. He put one foot on theskateboard, used his other foot to propel forward,and held his arms out for balance. Dustys learninghow to propel a skateboard was not due to classicalor operant conditioning, but to cognitive learning.
Cognitive Learning involves mental processes, such
as attention and memory; may be learned throughobservation or imitation; and may not involve anyexternal rewards or require the person to performany observable behaviours.
E Cognitive Learning
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E. Cognitive Learning Three Viewpoints in Cognitive Learning
B. F. SKINNER:AGAINST
- In his acceptancespeech (honored by theAmerican PsychologialAssociation (APA) withthe first APA Citationfor OutstandingLifetime Contributionto Psychology), hissevere criticism ofcognitive process andmental events causedmany in the audienceto gasp and only a fewto applaud. Apparently,
many in the audience,as well as throughoutpsychology today,believe that cognitiveprocesses are not, asSkinner implied, a stepbackward in
knowledge.
EDWARD TOLMAN: INFAVOR.
In the 1930s, Tolman wasexploring hidden mentalprocesses.
The rat in his experimentselected the shortest pathto the food box because itdeveloped a cognitive map
of the maze.Learning occurred whilethe rats were exploring.
A cognitive map is amental representation inthe brain of the layout ofan environment and itsfeatures.
Tolman, showed that ratslearned the layout of amaze without beingreinforced, a position verydifferent from Skinner.Tolmans emphasis oncognitive processes inlearning is continued byAlbert Bandura.
ALBERT BANDURA.IN FAVOR.
In many of his studies,Bandura (1986) hasfocused on howhumans learn throughobservation. Forexample, Bandura
would say that a childcan learn to hatespiders simply byobserving thebehaviors of someonewho exhibits a greatdislike of spiders(results from watchingand does not requirethe observablebehaviour or receiveany reward).
Banduras Theory of Observational
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Bandura s Theory of Observational
Learning
Four Processes Necessary for
Observational Learning
1. ATTENTION
Th e observer
must payattention to whatthe model says ordoes. Mary, theyoung girl, saw hermothers reactions
of fear and disgustand hear her saythat spiders werefilthy, dirty things.
2. MEMORYThe observer must store or
remember the informationso that it can be retrievedand used later. Mary storedthe image of her mothersfearful, disgusted facialexpression and themothers comments aboutspiders being filthy things.
3. IMITATION
The observer must beable to use therememberedinformation to guidehis or her own actionsand thus imitate themodels behavior. Maryimitates the mothersfacial expression of
disgust and repeats hermothers commentsabout dirty spiders.
Banduras Theory of Observational
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Bandura s Theory of Observational
Learning
Four Processes Necessary for
Observational Learning4. MOTIVATION
The observer must have somereason, reinforcement, orincentive to perform themodels behaviors. Marywants to show her mother
that she also thinks spidersare disgusting things.
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Insight Learning
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