THE USE OF ENGLISH AS A LINGUA FRANCA AND INTER-CULTURAL
COMMUNICATION TEACHING STRATEGIES IN PREPARING
STUDENTS FOR INTERNATIONAL COMMUNICATION
By Alexander S R
Walsh, BSc
Contents
Purpose of Study ................................................................................................................................1
Section 1. The History of EFL in South Korean Public Education ....................................................3
1.1 Cultural Influences towards ‘Education Fever’ ...........................................................................3
1.2 Recent Developments of EFL and English Usage in South Korea ...............................................4
1.3 A Focus on International Communication Competencies ..........................................................6
Section 2. The Need for International Communication Strategies ............................................... 10
2.1 The Spread of English and English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) .................................................... 10
2.2 Linguistic Features of English as a Lingua Franca .................................................................... 15
2.2.1 Phonology ..................................................................................................................... 15
2.2.2 Pragmatics ..................................................................................................................... 17
2.2.3 Lexico-Grammar ............................................................................................................ 19
2.3 Culture in ELF ........................................................................................................................... 22
2.4 Orienting a Classroom towards ELF and ICA ............................................................................ 24
2.4.1 ELF Based Pedagogy ...................................................................................................... 24
2.4.2 ICA Based Pedagogy ...................................................................................................... 28
Section 3. Methodology ............................................................................................................ 31
3.1 Research Methodology ............................................................................................................ 31
3.1.1 Research Aims ............................................................................................................... 31
3.1.2 Research Design ............................................................................................................ 32
3.2 Textbook Analysis .................................................................................................................... 34
3.2.1 Developing the Textbook Analysis Form....................................................................... 34
3.2.2 Issues with the Textbook Analysis ................................................................................ 34
3.3 Teacher Survey......................................................................................................................... 35
3.3.1 Developing the Survey .................................................................................................. 35
3.4 Issues with the Survey ............................................................................................................. 36
3.5 Ethical Considerations ............................................................................................................. 37
3.6 Validity and Bias ....................................................................................................................... 39
Section 4. Results ..................................................................................................................... 41
4.1 Textbook Materials .................................................................................................................. 41
4.1.1 Nationality of Characters .............................................................................................. 41
4.1.2 Variation of Accents ...................................................................................................... 42
4.1.3 Location of Dialog ......................................................................................................... 43
4.1.4 Curriculum Goals ........................................................................................................... 44
4.2 Teacher Survey......................................................................................................................... 46
4.2.1 Materials Focus and Student Needs ............................................................................. 46
4.2.2 The Communicational Abilities of South Korean High School Students ....................... 48
4.2.3 Teachers’ Perceived Challenges Prohibiting the use of ELF Based Strategies .............. 49
Section 5. Discussion ................................................................................................................ 50
5.1 To what extent are textbook materials preparing South Korean students for using English as
a means of international communication as outlined in the National English Curriculum (MOE 2008)?
................................................................................................................................................. 51
5.2 What are South Korean teachers’ attitudes towards the need for students to be prepared for
international communication through either native or non-native speaking models? .................... 54
5.3 How can South Korean students be better prepared for English as a means of international
communication within the parameters of the current educational system? .................................... 57
5.3.1 Macro-Strategies ........................................................................................................... 58
5.3.2 Micro Strategies ............................................................................................................ 60
Section 6. Conclusions, Limitations & Contributions .................................................................. 64
Bibliography .................................................................................................................................... 70
Appendices ...................................................................................................................................... 84
Appendix 1 – Sample Instruction Sheet & Teachers Survey (next page) ........................................... 84
Appendix 2 – Examples of Textbook Evaluation Categorisation ........................................................ 89
Example 1 – Curriculum Goal 1 & 2: Developing an understanding of native/non-native
speaker cultures ......................................................................................................................... 89
Example 2 – Curriculum Goal 4: Developing an Appreciation of non-native English speaking
cultures ...................................................................................................................................... 90
Example 3 – Curriculum Goal 6 (&2): Understanding the difference between Korean culture
and non-native English speaking cultures.................................................................................. 91
Example 4 – Curriculum Goal 12 – Developing students’ ability to share South Korean culture.
................................................................................................................................................... 92
Appendix 3 – Sample Consent Form .................................................................................................. 93
Appendix 4 – Textbook Analysis Form ............................................................................................... 95
Appendix 5 – Pilot Textbook Analysis Form ....................................................................................... 98
Appendix 6 – Pilot Teacher Survey .................................................................................................. 100
Appendix 7 – Using context and background information to identify the nationality of characters
......................................................................................................................................................... 105
List of Tables
Table 1.1: Trade Partners of South Korea .....................................................................................................6
Table 1.2: Origin of Visitors to South Korea ..................................................................................................7
Table 1.3: Extracted Goals of National English Syllabus (2008) ....................................................................9
Table 2.1: Kachru’s (1985) Circles of English with estimated speaker numbers from Crystal (1997) ....... 11
Table 2.2: Jenkins (2000, 2002) Lingua Franca Core .................................................................................. 16
Table 2.3: Lexico-Grammar Based Features of ELF Communication ......................................................... 20
Table 2.4: Murray’s (2012) Strategies and Classroom Practices for Developing an ‘Intersociety’ ............ 26
Table 2.5: Recommended Classroom Practices to Develop ELF Based Pragmatic Competencies (Murray
2012) .......................................................................................................................................................... 26
Table 2.6: Kohn’s (TBP) Stages for Development of ‘My English’ .............................................................. 28
Table 2.7: Baker’s (2012a) Elements of ICA ............................................................................................... 28
Table 2.8: Baker's (2012a) Pedagogical Suggestions for Developing ICA .................................................. 30
Table 3.1: Research Questions ................................................................................................................... 31
Table 3.2: Publishing Details of Textbooks Analysed ................................................................................. 34
Table 3.3: Ensuring Informed Consent through Diener and Crandall’s (1978) Framework ...................... 37
Table 3.4: Issues Regarding Validity of Research (adapted from Cohen 2007) ......................................... 39
Table 4.1: Variation of Characters featured in Textbooks ......................................................................... 41
Table 4.2: Variation of Accents featured in Textbooks .............................................................................. 42
Table 4.3: Location of Textbook Dialog ...................................................................................................... 43
Table 4.4: Frequency of Activities Meeting Identified Curriculum Goals .................................................. 44
Table 4.5: The Focus of South Korean High School English Language Classes and Teachers’ perceived
needs of Students ...................................................................................................................................... 46
Table 4.6: South Korean Students’ International Communication Abilities as Perceived by Teachers ..... 48
Table 4.7: The Perceived Challenges South Korean Teachers face in preparing Students for International
Communication .......................................................................................................................................... 49
Table 5.1: Macro Strategies for Developing South Korean High School Students’ International
Communication Competencies .................................................................................................................. 58
Table 5.2: Micro Strategies (Set 1) for Developing South Korean High School Students’ International
Communication Competencies in Current English Language Classes ....................................................... 60
Table 5.3: Micro Strategies (Set 2) for Developing South Korean High School Students’ International
Communication Competencies in Current English Language Classes ....................................................... 62
Table 6.1: The Relevancy of Curriculum Goals to Students’ Needs and their Application in South Korean
High School Classrooms ............................................................................................................................. 65
List of Abbreviations
CA - Cultural Awareness EC – Expanding Circle EFL - English as a Foreign Language EIL - English as an International Language ELF - English as a Lingua Franca ELT - English Language Teaching ENL - English as a Native Language ESL - English as a Second Language IC – Inner Circle ICA - Intercultural Awareness MOE - Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology NEC – National English Curriculum NNE – Non-native English NNS - Non-native Speaker(s) of English NS - Native Speaker(s) of English (NSE as used by Jenkins 2002) OC – Outer Circle OECD - Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development SE – Standard English
WE - World English(s)
Page 1 of 105
Purpose of Study
There has never been a greater need to develop South Korean students’ ability to use English as
a means of international communication than now. While English has spread to all corners of the world
(Graddol 1997) South Korea has seen an increased reliance on international trade and a significant
increase in both foreign visitors to South Korea and South Koreans going abroad. Meanwhile, new
models of English language teaching have evolved to account for the increased use of English involving
one or more non-native speakers. One of the most prominent of these is English as a Lingua Franca (ELF),
which promotes a shift from traditional English as a Foreign Language (EFL) models of teaching towards
an approach that recognises and accounts for the important role non-native English speakers play
(Seidlhofer 2004).
The changing role of English towards that of an international language incorporating non-native
speakers is reflected in the goals of the National English Curriculum (NEC) of South Korea (Ministry of
Education (MOE) 2008), which states the need for South Korean students to be able use English to
“develop our own [Korean] culture and introduce it to other countries” (p.43) and use English to
“connect [South Korea] to different countries” (p.41) as well as having numerous goals specifically
aimed at developing students ability for international communication with both native speakers of
English (NS) and non-native speakers of English (NNS).
As the need for students to become competent interlocutors with other NNS becomes
increasingly recognised, Graddol (2006:87) claims that “its *ELF+ ideas are likely to influence mainstream
teaching and assessment practices in the future.” The role of textbooks may be imperative in the
realisation of ELF models in English language classrooms. Jennifer Jenkins, who is one of the founding
and most influential figures of ELF, states that textbook developers have the potential to act as
Page 2 of 105
‘gatekeepers’ to English language classrooms (Jenkins 2002). The importance of textbooks is
summarised eloquently by Sheldon (1988:237), who states “these *textbooks+ represent for both
students and teachers the visible heart of any ELT programme.” Yet, currently, there has been no
research on how appropriate South Korean public school textbooks are in the preparation of South
Korean students for international communication including NNS of English. With this in mind, this study
will analyse the appropriacy of textbook materials used in South Korean high school classrooms in
meeting the international communication goals stated in the NEC (MOE 2008).
The attitudes of teachers towards ELF models of English language teaching are also important if
they are to make their way into the classrooms of South Korea. Research on attitudes towards
communicative language teaching describes how hostility amongst South Korean English language
teachers can prevent the uptake of approaches perceived as ‘Western’ (Li 1998). With this in mind, this
study looks to analyse the extent to which South Korean public school teachers may now be affected by
similar attitudes towards preparing students for international communication through an ELF oriented
approach.
This paper will begin by describing the development of education in South Korea, including an
analysis of how the development of the South Korean education system has been, and still is, heavily
influenced by South Korean culture and the possible effects these influences have in preparing South
Korean students for international communication. In Section 2 I will move on to discuss the
development of ELF, how it relates to the goals of the NEC (MOE 2008) and how these tie in with South
Korea’s current economic climate. As part of this discussion I will evaluate the issues ELF faces both as a
concept and a pedagogical tool when applied to South Korean public high school classrooms. Section 3
outlines the research design used for this study. It also describes the difficulties encountered and how
this research has been adapted to account for these. Section 4 presents the results of the textbook
Page 3 of 105
analysis and teacher surveys, before moving on to Section 5, which contains my discussion of the key
issues highlighted by the results of this study. This paper concludes with my recommendations on how
the South Korean education system can adapt teaching strategies aimed at improving students’
international communication skills to the current framework of education on both a micro and macro
level.
Section 1. The History of EFL in South Korean Public Education
1.1 Cultural Influences towards ‘Education Fever’
In many areas South Korea has undergone a remarkable transformation since the end of the
Japanese occupation in 1945, but one of the most remarkable transformations is undoubtedly in
education. In fact, the OECD report (2009) ‘Reviews of National Policies for Education: Korea’ specifically
comments on “the strong zeal for education” which “cannot be matched anywhere else in the world.”
(OECD 1998:27) This modern educational revolution can be dated back to the end of the Japanese
occupation, when the newly formed government of an independent Republic of Korea (which, from
hereon, will be referred to by its more common name of South Korea) revolutionised an education
system that had, for the past 3000 years, been heavily influenced by the Confucian and Buddhist
teachings which had spread from China.
Following its liberation from Japan in 1945, before which there was limited access to education
for South Korean children, South Korean educators strived to promote literacy for all (see Thomas &
Postlethwaite 1983). In stark contrast to the pre-occupation framework which had been influenced by
the teaching of Buddhism and Confucianism, the government established a 3-part educational system
largely based on that of the United States; elementary school (six years), middle school (three years)
and high school (three years) (Ministry of Education & Human Resource Development, 2004) and
Page 4 of 105
entitled all South Korean citizens to free education (Hong, 1983). The focus of this paper will be the high
school stage of South Korean public education. It is at this stage that students are being prepared to
enter either higher education or full time employment. Given this, in my opinion, the need for
developing South Korean students’ international communication skills is likely to be of most importance
during this period.
From 1945 to this day, a combination of governmental policies and cultural influences has
resulted in what has become known as a period of ‘education fever’ in South Korea (Seth 2005). Despite
the adoption of a Western model of education, Confucianism maintained a large influence on South
Korean society and education (Wollam 1992). As Seth (2005:6) neatly summarises, “this preoccupation
with the pursuit of formal schooling was the product of the diffusion of traditional Confucian attitudes
toward learning and status, new egalitarian ideas introduced from the West, and the complex, often
contradictory ways in which new and old ideas and formulations interacted.” In the period between
1945 to 1960 enrolment at primary schools tripled, in secondary schools it increased by 8 times and by
the early 1990s high school graduation rates reached 90%. Education very quickly became seen as “the
most powerful means to achieve upward social mobility and economic prosperity” with parents often
“emphasizing, and even imposing, education for their children” (Park 2009:51) and, in doing so,
contributing towards “the most exam-obsessed culture in the world” (Seth 2005:5). The culmination of
South Korean public school education is the University Entrance Examination, which is seen as the key
to South Korea’s top universities and, from there, the most successful careers. The University Entrance
Examination is widely regarded as the most important moment in a South Korean student’s life.
1.2 Recent Developments of EFL and English Usage in South Korea
In 1995 the South Korean government determined that, due to internationalisation, the English
proficiency of South Korean students needed to be increased. Following this decision, English was
Page 5 of 105
introduced to the elementary school curriculum in 1997 (Kwon 2005). On a governmental policy level
the past decade has seen major developments in English education policy; in 2007 the English education
policy was amended to state that English education should be learner centred, communication focused,
activity/task based and conducive to logical thinking and creativity (Song 2012:36). Meanwhile, the
English Program in Korea (EPIK) was developed, which placed native English speaking teachers
throughout South Korea, with the goal to “improve the English speaking ability of students and teachers
in Korea, to develop cultural exchanges, and to reform English teaching methodologies in Korea.” (EPIK
2010)
Within South Korea English currently plays a mixed role. Although it has become increasingly
popular to insert small chunks of English into Korean speech, this English is often used inaccurately and
features a heavy Korean accent. This ‘Konglish’ can often occur in day to day speech, or it can be used in
advertisements to help sell products, with the use of English often being linked with the construction of
modernity (Lee 2006). In the media, meanwhile, British and US music and TV shows are popular forms
of entertainment with dedicated channels featuring them, and, in the movie theatres, Hollywood
movies are extremely popular. The consumption of non-Korean media is almost always done so through
the use of subtitling. As described above, this allows popular chunks of speech or lyrics to make their
way into language use, especially amongst the younger generations. Hobbies such as football (soccer)
and baseball are also popular in South Korea, with the Premier League having a large following amongst
South Korean men. However, unlike the media outlets discussed above, the coverage is exclusively in
Korean as are the means of following the sports, with dedicated Korean websites being the most
popular means of staying up to date. Due to this, these hobbies tend to have little influence on the use
of English in South Korea.
Page 6 of 105
Little research has been conducted on the urban-rural divide of English in South Korea,
nevertheless there are some important trends that require mentioning. Western media, advertising and
culture are more prominently featured in urban areas. Urban areas also tend to be wealthier, allowing
the consumption of Western products, more opportunities to go abroad and more jobs requiring basic
competencies in English. These trends can result in a higher level of familiarity with English in urban
areas which, in turn, leads to a greater desire and understanding of the need to improve one’s ability to
communicate in English.
1.3 A Focus on International Communication Competencies
Throughout the 1980s and 1990s South Korea underwent a process of internationalisation (Park
2009). This was stimulated by the 1986 Asian Games and 1988 Seoul Summer Olympic Games, and,
following this, the financial crisis of 1997 made South Koreans aware of the importance of English in the
process of internationalisation (Park 2009). On an economic level, in coordination with its rapid
economic development, international trade has become seen “as a vital resource for their country’s
economic survival in the era of internationalization.” (Song 2012:14) By looking at South Korea’s ten
major trade partners (see Table 1.1 below) the need for South Koreans to use English for international
communication, predominantly with NNS, is made clear.
Table 1.1: Trade Partners of South Korea
Rank Partners Million Euro % of World Trade
1 China 158,559 21.1
2 Japan 77,629 10.3
3 European Union Members 74,533 9.9
4 United States 72,696 9.7
5 Saudi Arabia 31,580 4.2
6 Australia 24,857 3.3
7 Hong Kong 23,914 3.2
8 Indonesia 22,157 2.9
9 Singapore 21,418 2.8
10 United Arab Emirates 15,812 2.1
Page 7 of 105
Total NS 13%
Total NNS 56.5%
(European Commission 2013)
In coordination with South Korea’s economic progress there has also been a sharp increase in
foreign visitors to South Korea (see Table 1.2 below). In the twenty years between 1992 and 2012, the
number of foreign visitors coming to South Korea and number of South Koreans visiting abroad
increased from 3,231,081 to 11,140,028 and 2,043,299 to 3,231,081 respectively (Kto.visitkorea.or.kr
n.d 2013). By analysing the nationality of visitors coming to South Korea, with 37.7% from China and 19%
from Japan (see Table 1.2), the need to communicate with NNS is further reinforced. Statistics on the
destinations of South Korean tourists are hard to come by, however by contacting the Tourism
Organisation of Korea I was able to establish the top two destinations for South Korean tourists are
China (30%) and Japan (22%).
Table 1.2: Origin of Visitors to South Korea
While these statistics indicate China and Japan as the two countries South Koreans are most
likely to communicate with, in the public school system Chinese and Japanese language classes only
compromise elective components of high school foreign language courses, of which enrolment has
halved since 1992 (Centre for Education Statistics 2009). Given the complicated history of the
relationship between South Korea and Japan and the continuing strained relations over issues such as
Rank Country % of Visitors to South Korea
1 China 37.7
2 Japan 19
3 US 6.6
4 Taiwan 5.1
5 Philippines 3.8
6 Hong Kong 3.3
7 Malaysia 1.9
8 Indonesia 1.8
9 Singapore 1.7
10 Russia 1.4
(Kto.visitkorea.or.kr 2013)
Page 8 of 105
Dokdo/Takashima, this decline in enrolment could be due to hostility towards Japan and Japanese
culture. The multitude and extent of local variations of Chinese, meanwhile, could be perceived as
making it difficult to become fluent enough to engage in conversation.
The seventh revised National Curriculum was the first to specifically mention the need for
English to contribute to both the nation’s development and respond to internationalisation (Matsuda,
2003). This was followed up by the 2007 revised English curriculum, which reinforced the
communicative function of English and the cultural dimension to English language learning. The 2007
revised English curriculum was designed to meet the ultimate goal of creating ‘intercultural’ English
speakers (Matsuda, 2003) based on the fact that “South Koreans increasingly use English with speakers
of languages other than English.” (Song 2012:36) Most recently the NEC (MOE 2008) demonstrates the
emphasis on South Koreans becoming capable of communicating in English with both NS and NNS from
around the world:
English, being the most widely used language, is playing an important role in the
communication and bonding between people of different native languages. For
elementary and secondary school students who must live in the future, the ability to
communicate in English is an essential skill that they must learn at school. To contribute
to the nation and society, to show leadership as a cosmopolitan citizen, and to enjoy a
wide range of cultural activities, the ability to understand and use English is essential.
The ability to communicate in English will act as an important bridge connecting different
countries, and will be the driving force in developing our country, forming trust among
various countries and cultures [italics added].
(Ministry of Education 2008:41)
Page 9 of 105
More specific goals emphasising the importance of students’ ability to use English as a means of
international communication with both NS and NNS can be found throughout the NEC (MOE 2008). For
this study these goals were extracted from the syllabus and grouped into four categories as shown in
Table 1.3 below.
Table 1.3: Extracted Goals of National English Syllabus (2008)
Goal Description Pages
1 Developing an understanding of, and international appreciation for, foreign
native and non-native English speaking cultures.
42, 43, 44, 45, 55, 60, 63, 64
2 Developing an understanding of the relationship of, and differences between,
foreign native and non-native English speaking cultures.
43, 45, 63, 64
3 Developing techniques for students to effectively communicate with both
native and non-native English speakers.
43, 44
4 Exposing students to the natural speech of both native and non-native English
speakers and strategies to deal with natural speech.
45, 60
(adapted from National English Syllabus, MOE 2008)
In this section I have tracked the development of education in South Korea while analysing how
the combination of cultural and economic factors have culminated in a need for South Korean high
school students to develop their ability to communicate with not only NS, but other NNS from around
the world. I have also extracted the international communication goals that can be found throughout
the NEC (MOE 2008). In Section 2 I will outline the relevant literature dealing with the preparation of
students for international communication, discuss its relevancy to South Korean high school students
and evaluate the relationship between this literature and the goals of the NEC (MOE 2008).
Page 10 of 105
Section 2. The Need for International Communication Strategies
2.1 The Spread of English and English as a Lingua Franca (ELF)
The spread of English can be documented as far back as AD 450 and tracked through the
colonial period of 1450-1750, which saw the growth of British colonies. This period resulted in English
speaking settlements taking root in many parts of the world, two major examples being the US and
Australia, providing a base for the spread of English (Graddol 1997). From 1750, English became a
standardised language and, triggered by the industrial revolution, the international language of
consumerism. Technologies such as the telegraph also allowed English to become the major language
for wire services and, as Britain consolidated imperial power, education in many parts of the world
began to be conducted in English (Graddol 1997). The late modern period of 1950 onwards saw the
scientific, economic and cultural expansion of American institutions and the increased use of US English
throughout the world (Graddol 1997).
The spread of English has resulted in the development of three kinds of English; the first, known
as the inner circle (IC), is that used by first language speakers, including settlements such as the US and
Australia. The second kind, known as the outer circle (OC), is typified by colonial settlements such as
Nigeria, which only allowed a proportion of the population access to learning English. The third type of
English which occurred in countries with no colonial history and includes the creation of new varieties of
English (Leith 1996), for example South Korea, is known as the expanding circle (EC) (Kachru 1985,
please see Table 2.1 below for a brief overview of inner, outer and expanding circles). A common
criticism of presenting these descriptions of English in such a format is that they display ‘NS’ at the
centre of the English circle and therefore indicate NS as the source of correctness (Graddol 1997). Yet, as
I will now discuss, NS may no longer be the dominant bearers of ‘correct English’.
Page 11 of 105
English as a Lingua Franca (ELF), meanwhile, is an approach that, although recognised in the
1990s, has been rapidly developing since the year 2000 (Cogo 2012) to account for the phenomena of
English becoming commonly used as a means of communication by members of the EC (Kachru 1985).
Although ELF is a relatively new concept, Jenkins et al. (2011:281) explains that “English itself has served
as a lingua franca ever since the countries of the outer circle (Kachru 1985) were first colonized from the
late sixteenth century." Recently, however, a shift has occurred that has had far reaching implications:
the EC, which South Korea and many of its major trade partners (see Table 1.1) are part of, now contains
significantly more English speakers than either the IC or OC (Crystal 1997). As Graddol (1997) explains,
this means that NS no longer hold the authority regarding language use.
Table 2.1: Kachru’s (1985) Circles of English with estimated speaker numbers from Crystal (1997)
If South Korean students are to become competent at communicating internationally this is a
phenomenon they need to be prepared for. In creating a working concept of ELF we are presented with
e.g. China, South Korea
500-1000 million speakers of English
e.g. India, Nigeria
300-500 million speakers of English
IC NS
of English
e.g. UK, USA
320-280million
OC English gained the status of an official
language in the colonial period
EC English spoken as a foreign language, no history
of colonisation by IC
Page 12 of 105
one of the major challenges ELF has faced, that is the speed at which the study of ELF has developed
(Jenkins et. al 2011). Jenkins et. al (2011:283), in summarising the differences between ELF and EFL,
provides a neat summary of what can be considered defining features of ELF:
• ELF is part of the international Englishes paradigm, according to which most speakers
of English are NNS, and all English varieties, native or non-native, are accepted in their
own right rather than evaluated against a NSE [native speaker of English] benchmark.
• An ELF perspective sees non-native Englishes as different rather than deficient. Or, to
put it another way, differences from English as a native language (ENL) are not assumed
to be signs of incompetence *…+ but are explored as emerging or potential features of
ELF.
• ELF is underpinned by theories of language contact and evolution. For example, while
in EFL code-switching is regarded as evidence of a gap in a NNS English knowledge, in
ELF it is seen as a crucial bilingual pragmatic resource [italics added].
By seeing non-native varieties of English as acceptable in their own right, a key component of
the above features is that “a language *English+ *…+ is being shaped, in its international uses, at least as
much by its NNS as its NS.” (Seidlhofer 2004:211) This shaping of the language is influenced by the
backgrounds of the communicational participants and the locality in which the communication occurs. It
is this influence that prevents ELF from being identified as monolithic or as a single variety because, as
Cogo (2012:98) explains, “cultural and linguistic resources are inevitably transformed as they are locally
appropriated.” The concern of ELF, then, is not with describing and identifying a single variety of English,
but the processes by which interlocutors draw on their available resources, such as their first language,
second languages and culture to produce mutually intelligible communication (Seidlhofer 2011). With
Page 13 of 105
every interlocutor drawing on different resources ELF becomes a fluid, interchangeable variation of
English in each instance (Seidlhofer 2011).
We will now consider in what situations ELF communication occurs and how this relates to
South Korean high school students’ communicational needs. As recently as 1996, ELF, in what is now
considered its original, and purest form, was defined as;
A contact language between persons who share neither a common native tongue nor a
common national culture, and for whom English is the chosen foreign language of
communication [italics added].
(Firth, 1996:240)
Or, three years later;
Interactions between members of two or more different linguacultures in English, for
none of whom English is the mother tongue [italics added].
(House, 1999:74)
According to these definitions, ELF communication occurs between two NNS from different mother
tongues. However, this interpretation of ELF, as Jenkins et al. (2011:283) explains, is out dated and now
being shared by only “a minority of ELF researches.” More recently, Jenkins et al. (2011) points us
towards the definition, as used by the VOICE corpus website, of:
“an additionally acquired language system which serves as a common means of
communication for speakers of different first languages [italics added].”
(www.univie.ac.at)
As the emphasis shows, this definition allows ELF to occur in communication with both IC and OC
speakers of English. Jenkins et al. (2011) describes the goal of ELF as to improve people’s ability to
Page 14 of 105
communicate with “speakers who have come together from a range of different geographical regions.”
(Jenkins et al. 2011:285) The contradiction as to the role of NS is just one that has arisen during the
rapid development of ELF, leaving educators in a confusing position whereby it is often unclear whether
claims by prominent ELF scholars still hold true (Maley 2009). For the needs of South Korean students,
based on NS still playing a significant role as trade partners of, and visitors to, South Korea (see Tables
1.1 and 1.2), and the fact that a large proportion of English use still involves at least one native speaker,
the incorporation of NS that the VOICE definition allows is necessary.
A common misconception of ELF is that it seeks to replace the current teaching models in place.
For example, Maley (2009:194), in his discussion of ELF, states that “although the proponents of ELF
frequently protest that they do not expect ELF to provide an alternative model for curricular and
syllabus design and materials production *…+ this is precisely what they do hope for.” Again, such
misunderstandings are not helped by seemingly contradictory claims from prominent ELF scholars.
Seidlhofer in 2004, for example, in discussing ELF states that “English courses in secondary schools *…+
could be replaced by a subject designated language awareness [italics added],” (2004:227) while Cogo
(2012) more recently describes how ELF is not about urging teachers to completely change their
teaching methods, but it is about awareness and choice. Cogo (2012) goes on to state that, as teachers,
one of the most important requirements is for us to make our students aware that they do not have to
speak like NS and that speaking ELF can, in certain situations, be beneficial.
Even with Cogo’s (2012) clarification above, the orientation of South Korean public school
classrooms towards ELF remains problematic as public school students are often not in a position to
choose which type of communication they want to be prepared for. Teachers in South Korea, in
preparing their students for their University Entrance Examination, must make decisions on behalf of
students. This is a point taken up by Sung (2013), who describes how learners may become confused as
Page 15 of 105
to which variety they should produce. Whilst the need to communicate internationally is, based on the
figures in Table 1.1 and Table 1.2, undeniable, so is the need to test a student’s English ability. With the
University Entrance Examination being considered so vitally important for one’s entire future, it is
imperative that these examinations are completely objective, allowing no room for confusion as to the
type of English required of students. Suggestions such as those from Jenkins (2000), for example, that
we test our students’ ability to achieve mutual intelligibility by asking them to adjust their pronunciation
to help an interlocutor’s comprehension, do not provide the level of objectivity required. Given this, it is
imperative that meeting the international communication goals of the NEC (MOE 2008) is done so
within the wider framework of South Korean public education. With this in mind, a key goal of this study
is to identify how South Korean public school classrooms can be oriented towards developing
international communication skills within the current educational framework.
In this section I have tracked the developments of ELF and introduced the conceptual challenges
it faces when applied to public education in South Korea. This paper will now move on to discuss how,
through the description and codification of ELF, research has begun unravelling the linguistic
consequences of the increasing use of English throughout the EC. In doing so, we can begin to
understand the needs of South Korean students if their English ability is to play “an important role in the
communication and bonding between people of different languages.” (MOE 2008:41)
2.2 Linguistic Features of English as a Lingua Franca
ELF descriptions focus on three areas, phonology, pragmatics and lexico-grammar. What follows
is a brief summary of the main findings from the research that has been conducted in these areas.
2.2.1 Phonology
The area of phonology was focused on in the research of Jenkins (2000, 2002) which had two aims:
Page 16 of 105
1) To identify the extent to which pronunciation was a cause of miscommunication
between NNS.
2) To identify which phonological features were subject to accommodation (speakers’
ability to change their speech patterns to make themselves more understandable to
their interlocutors).
(Cogo 2012:99)
Jenkins’ (2000, 2002) research identifies a ‘Lingua Franca Core’ (see Table 2.2 below), that is a set of
common phonological features that are necessary for intelligible pronunciation, and another set of
phonological features Jenkins (2000, 2002) claims do not affect intelligibility in ELF communication, yet
are often taught in English language classrooms.
Table 2.2: Jenkins (2000, 2002) Lingua Franca Core
Phonological Features Necessary for Intelligible Pronunciation
• Aspiration after /p/, /t/, /k/ to prevent the confusion of sounds and meaning
• The correct pronunciation of word-initial consonant clusters, for example in the words
‘proper’ and ‘strap’, the elision of /r/ rather than /t/ was likely to cause intelligibility
issues
• Maintaining the contrast between long and short vowels, for example in the words
‘live’ and ‘leave’ the contrast between /I/ and /iː/ is necessary for intelligibility
• Production and placement of nuclear stress
Phonological Features Not Necessary for Intelligible Pronunciation
• The th-sounds /θ/ and /ð/ and the dark /l/ allophone
• Vowel quality
• Weak forms
• Features of connected speech such as assimilation
• Pitch direction to signal attitude or grammatical meaning
• Word stress placement
• Stress-timing
Page 17 of 105
For the teaching of pronunciation in South Korean public schools, this research highlights the
need for a move towards prioritising students’ ability to produce those features necessary for
intelligibility and accommodation of errors that do not affect intelligibility, as opposed to spending large
amounts of time concentrating on the teaching of NS models. If materials are meeting these goals, we
would expect to find varieties of authentic speech from both NS and NNS. This is identified in the NEC’s
(MOE 2008) fourth goal (see Table 1.3).
2.2.2 Pragmatics
Research into ELF pragmatics has identified how ELF users work cooperatively in order to gain a
mutual understanding regardless of ‘correctness’. Boldly, Jenkins et al. (2011:193) even suggests that in
the area of pragmatics “one common finding running through all the more recent empirical studies of
ELF *…+ is that non-understanding/misunderstanding tends to occur less frequently [in ELF
communication] than it does in NSEs communication,” however Jenkins et al. (2011) fails to provide any
research to back up such a claim. In my opinion, it seems more likely that in NS communication an
interlocutor will more comfortably indicate a non-understanding/misunderstanding. An NNS, however,
may be apprehensive to admit they have misunderstood due to a feeling that doing so indicates a gap in
their own knowledge or an inability of their interlocutor to make themselves understood. Nevertheless,
I feel it is important to analyse ELF communication to discover how interlocutors go about preventing
and recovering from non-understandings/misunderstandings and that the strategies identified should
form an important part of preparing students for international communication.
While initial research identifies the “let it pass” principle, which, as Firth (1996: 243) explains, is
a strategy that occurs in ELF communication whereby the “hearer *…+ lets the unknown or unclear
action, word or utterance 'pass' on the (common-sense) assumption that it will either become clear or
redundant as talk progresses,” recent research has delved more deeply into the techniques being used
Page 18 of 105
to maintain communication. One set of strategies, that function to resolve instances of
miscommunication, has been found to include the use of repetition. Research by Mauranen (2006)
highlights the proactive nature of this, for example when a speaker clarifies or repairs their own speech
to make it easier for them to be understood. Cogo & Dewey (2006) identify further strategies such as
adapting speech to align it with an interlocutor’s while Kaur (2009) identifies how paraphrasing is used
proactively, for example after a prolonged silence, minimal response or overlapping talk. Further
strategies include systems of turn-taking, simultaneous speech, utterance completions (Cogo 2012), the
use of discourse markers (House 2009) and chunking, which is the use of units of speech to manage
interaction (Mauranen 2005, 2009). For example, the chunks in my opinion and in my point of view are
found to be far more common in ELF speech than in NS speech. In my point of view also demonstrates
how, in ELF communication, these chunks are often creative adaptations of NS speech that take on a
new role, in this case as a means of signalling a divergence of opinion (Jenkins et al. 2011).
Research has also shown ELF interlocutors’ ability to draw on shared cultural backgrounds and
knowledge to collaboratively construct meaning, a phenomenon Jenkins et al. (2011) refers to as the
exploitation of pluralingual resources. One example of this is the use of idiomatic expressions in ELF
communication whereby, through collaboratively drawing on cultural backgrounds, ELF interlocutors
actively build meaning free from the cultural loading of NS. Cogo (2012), for example, demonstrates
how three monolingual French, German and Italian speakers work together to collaboratively adapt the
idiom ‘cheesy’ to provide an alternative, more appropriate meaning, to their circumstances, by drawing
on similar idioms from their own languages such as ‘fleur’, ‘bleue’ and ‘kitchig’. A large proportion of the
findings regarding ELF pragmatics have been born from studies on the use of idiomatic expressions
amongst NNS from various cultural backgrounds (for an example see Cogo 2012). However, while the
background of the participants who were French, German and Italian, were very similar, the results
have been generalised to communicative situations between people from all over the world. This issue
Page 19 of 105
is amplified by the fact that the research was based on the use of an idiom featuring the word ‘cheesy’,
an idiom for which all the participants’ native languages have similar idioms. South Korean students,
however, are likely to encounter communicational situations with people from vastly more diverse
backgrounds. As Sewell (2013) points out, further research needs to be carried out to test whether
similar strategies would be possible between speakers from a more varied range of backgrounds. Also, if
we refer to Conversation Analysis of NS, it is possible to find many of the features described in ELF as
also being common features of conversation in general (Sewell 2013). Further to this, many of the
strategies described here also comprise ‘Negotiation of Meaning’, that is the second language
acquisition model that underpins task based learning (Ellis 2000). These links call into question the
extent to which the identified features are unique to ELF and not simply features of NS and NNS
language use in general.
In developing South Korean students’ ability for international communication, I believe the
pragmatic features identified are important techniques that they should be able to draw upon if they
are to effectively communicate in ELF situations. However, with the above criticisms in mind, I believe it
is also important to raise students’ awareness of pragmatic strategies utilised in NS conversation. These
needs are reflected in the second and third goals (see Table 1.3) of the NEC (MOE 2008). Given this, in
an analysis of South Korean English language textbooks we would expect to identify activities that raise
awareness of and encourage use of these pragmatic strategies in both NS and NNS communication.
2.2.3 Lexico-Grammar
The final component of ELF that research tends to focus on is that of lexico-grammar, which as
Cogo & Dewey (2006) point out, is strongly linked to both pragmatics and accommodation. Table 2.3
provides a summary of the main research findings, which identify a number of what teachers would
normally consider errors, yet are common features of ELF speech and are less likely to affect
Page 20 of 105
intelligibility. Seidlhofer (2004) goes on to explain that if picked up by a teacher, these could result in a
large amount of classroom time being allotted to help students repair the ‘error’, even though it is
claimed that these errors in no way hinder communication.
Table 2.3: Lexico-Grammar Based Features of ELF Communication
• Dropping the third person present tense –s
• Confusing the relative pronouns who and which
• Omitting the definite and indefinite article where they are obligatory in ENL, and inserting them
where they do not occur in ENL
• Failing to use correct forms in tag questions
• Inserting redundant prepositions
• Overusing certain verbs of high semantic generality, such as do, have, make, put, take
• Replacing infinitive-constructions with that-clauses, as in I want that
• Overdoing explicitness (for example, describing something as being ‘black colour’)
Seidlhofer (2004:220)
Research on lexico-grammar in ELF indicates that an important aspect of ELF communication is
an acceptance of the “inherent variability (even instability) of human language in general and English
more specifically.” (Jenkins et al. 2011:306) In that respect, exposure to non-native English (NNE),
especially ELF communication, would help to develop this acceptance of deviation from NS norms.
While not directly discussing ELF, Swain & Lapkin (1995) explain that while top-down approaches (those
that rely on exposure to and noticing of how comprehension is attained), such as exposure to NNE, are
useful for developing comprehension skills, production skills more often require a bottom-up approach
(one that requires consciously applying syntactic rules to convey intended meanings). In other words, as
Kuo (2006:216) points out, “ELF applied linguists seem to be suggesting that what is needed for
comprehension is all that is needed to be produced.” However, as I discuss in Section 2.5, recent
Page 21 of 105
pedagogical suggestions have developed considerably, moving beyond noticing how comprehension is
attained to also systematically developing students’ production based ELF skills.
Further problems surface when we begin to consider what “seeking to derive artificial norms
from these ad hoc procedures” (Sowden 2012b:93) means for the content of language teaching. Here
Sowden (2012b) is describing how the codification and standardisation of ELF, through a corpus built on
NNS/NNS discourse that allows ungrammatical features so long as they are unproblematic, can result in
a reduced version of English being taught. The case of question tags illustrates this problem; ELF
research finds that question tags are rarely used correctly in NNS/NNS speech, but, most importantly, it
is claimed their incorrect usage does not affect the ability of interlocutors to achieve mutual
comprehension (Seidlhofer 2004). Given the claim that the correct use of question tags is not necessary
for achieving mutual comprehension, and that, according to Jenkins (2000:160) “there really is no
justification for doggedly persisting in referring to an item as ‘an error’ if the vast majority of the world’s
English speakers produce and understand it,” then the incorrect use of question tags should not be
considered an error and classroom time should not be spent correcting it. However, if we were to
exclude such unimportant ‘errors’ from our teaching materials it could, as Kuo (2006:216) explains,
“result in a qualitatively and quantitatively reduced version of ENL [English as a Native Language]” being
taught. This is particularly important in the context of South Korean public schools as all students
throughout the country need to be taught to the same standard. If those standards start being reduced
it will be a difficult task for teachers to know what ‘errors’ should be corrected and what ‘errors’ are not
deemed as necessary for correction. It is also important to note that English language students are often
learning English for reasons other than international communication. In many countries (including South
Korea) one’s mastery of the English language is important in giving a competitive edge in the
employment marketplace, as opposed to for use in seemingly stress-free and unimportant settings such
Page 22 of 105
as in restaurants when travelling abroad, making the ability to accurately produce English important for
South Korean students’ futures.
Cogo (2008) responds to this criticism by claiming that description is being confused with
prescription, a claim supported by Seidlhofer (2009) who points out that ELF is now moving towards a
stage where the processes rather than the end product are of primary importance. This indicates that
ELF has moved beyond advocating the teaching of ‘errors’, and is more concerned with the functions of
language in use. In the context of South Korean public schools, I believe that it is necessary to take a soft
approach towards dealing with errors in ELF. This would allow the teacher time to pick up on and deal
with ‘unimportant’ errors that occur in communication, while dedicating larger periods of time to errors
that have been shown to be more detrimental to intelligibility. In this sense, ELF research acts as a guide
for teachers to help them decide where the majority of time and energy should be placed, without
having to necessarily exclude certain aspects of language from their teaching.
2.3 Culture in ELF
In his discussion of interpretability, Kachru (2008) introduces the relationship between
intelligibility, comprehensibility and interpretability and explains how one’s culture affects the
achievement of mutual comprehension in communication. Of these three domains, Smith (1992)
explains the area of most importance is interpretability. Interpretability refers to the recognition of
meanings assigned to words and how they are influenced by a cultural context. This cultural context
affects how one perceives the purpose and intent of an utterance. After all, as Phipps & Guilherme
(2004) point out, language always involves people, places and purposes, meaning it can never be
culturally neutral. If interlocutors have different social expectations of what is appropriate in a given
situation, it is going to put a strain on their ability to successfully communicate. Whilst this need for
Cultural Awareness (CA) has become an important aspect of English language teaching, more recently
Page 23 of 105
the development of Intercultural Awareness (ICA) has allowed discussions regarding the effect of
culture on communication to fit within the paradigm of ELF. This development has been necessary
because, as Baker (2009, 2012a) points out, CA sees culture as a fixed entity. In ELF communication,
culture is an emergent resource negotiated during communication, moving between and across local,
national, and international contexts (Baker 2009). Culture is hybrid, diffuse, and deterritorialised
(Canagarajah 2005). Communication takes place neither as part of a first language/culture or a target
language/culture. Instead, just like language in ELF, a new and different sense of culture is created.
Baker (2012a) describes this as a ‘third place’. If South Korean students are to be able to negotiate
culture in real time conversation as it moves through and is influenced by both local and international
environments they must be prepared for this in high school classrooms. As Baker (2012a) explains, it is
not enough to know about all the specific cultures, students must be aware of how to deal with the
effect of culture on communication as it transpires in conversation, a skill that must be developed in the
classroom.
In my opinion, alongside ELF, ICA should form an integral component of developing South
Korean students’ ability to engage in international communication. This approach fits in with the
international communication goals of the NEC (MOE 2008) (see section 1.3), which highlights both the
need for an appreciation of different cultures and the need for students to understand the relationship
of and differences between cultures and therefore the effect this has on communication. Given this, in
an analysis of South Korean high school textbooks we would expect to not only find variations of culture
and language, but also activities that draw awareness of the effect culture may be having on
communication. This will help students understand the need to be flexible themselves and also
appreciate the flexibility they must allow interlocutors.
Page 24 of 105
2.4 Orienting a Classroom towards ELF and ICA
As Widdowson (1994:388) points out, ‘real’ English has been associated with English spoken by
NS and ‘good’ English teaching associated with their teaching. According to ELF scholars, this approach
to English language teaching is not preparing students for the communicational situations they are likely
to encounter. Indeed, in some cases, it may actually be detrimental to the ability to communicate in
English with other NNS. Given the theoretical framework discussed, ELF approaches are essential in
developing the linguistic capabilities that South Korean students need for international communication
in English, while ICA is necessary for developing students’ ability to critically assess how their own
culture, as well as that of their interlocutors, may affect communication and their ability to adapt to this.
In this section I will outline the pedagogical approaches found throughout relevant literature regarding
how a classroom can be orientated towards developing students’ ELF and ICA competencies.
2.4.1 ELF Based Pedagogy
While ELF is still a relatively new concept, there is no denying that since the formation of Jenkins’
(2000, 2002) ELF core over thirteen years ago, it has struggled to make its way into English language
classrooms. The main concern amongst ELF advocates is that textbooks, as the gatekeepers of what is
studied in EFL classrooms, have continued down the path of focusing primarily on IC norms (Brown
1995). It seems that while ELF has, by applied linguists working in the area at least, been largely
accepted as a theoretical model, it has had little or no impact on language teaching or teaching
materials (Jenkins 2002:83). If, as Jenkins (2002) suggests, textbooks maintain the role of gatekeepers,
this study is extremely important in identifying the extent to which South Korean High School textbooks
are either promoting or preventing ELF and ICA oriented approaches to the development of
international communication skills.
Page 25 of 105
Kohn (to be published) identifies teachers’ attitudes as a further hurdle that ELF has, thus far,
been unable to overcome in being accepted as an alternative to traditional Standard English (SE)
approaches. One reason for this is the confused stance ELF presents on SE teaching, where on one hand
SE is presented as in need of being replaced by ELF (Dewey 2012) and on the other it is seen as
compatible with ELF (Seidlhofer 2011). As well as drawing attention to the detrimental effects of this
ambivalence. Kohn (TBP) also describes how many professionals still hold SE with a high esteem,
resulting in statements such as “Do you want me to teach incorrect English?” with regards to ELF. It is
this rift, Kohn (TBP) argues, that has to be mended if ELF is to make its way into our classrooms. Given
this, a key part of orienting classrooms towards an ELF approach may be the need for teacher education.
This is an issue this study looks to address through the analysis of South Korean High School Teachers’
attitudes towards models of English language teaching designed to improve students’ international
communication competencies.
Further issues lie in the lack of concrete suggestions regarding classroom practices. While
prominent ELF researchers, such as Seidlhofer (2004:226), offer suggestions such as “abandoning
unrealistic notions of achieving perfect communication through ‘native-like’ proficiency in English” by
“drawing on extralinguistic cues, identifying and building on shared knowledge, gauging and adjusting to
interlocutors’ linguistic repertoires, supportive listening, signalling non-comprehension in a face-saving
way, asking for repetition, paraphrasing, and the like,” they give little advice regarding how to go about
doing this beyond top-down approaches such as “exposure to a wide range of varieties of English,”
“focusing on teaching language rather than languages” and introducing students to variation “as soon as
they are ready.” (Sewell 2013:7) However, as previously mentioned, in very recent literature
pedagogical suggestions have started to emerge from those who have successfully oriented their
classroom to an ELF based model. While top-down approaches (such as exposure to varieties of English)
can help students develop their own more realistic goals (Jenkins et al. 2011) and develop tolerance
Page 26 of 105
towards non-native Englishes, these approaches are important as they include bottom-up approaches
that focus on developing students’ production skills. This is a significant development, one that allows
an ELF-oriented classroom to meet the third goal of the NEC (MOE 2008 see Table 1.3) of developing
techniques students can use to effectively communicate with both NS and NNS.
Murray (2012), for example, offers suggestions as to how we can develop our students ELF
pragmatic competencies through the creation of an ‘intersociety’. Murray (2012:321) explains that an
‘intersociety’ is a space where participants can “negotiate a new pragmatics for current purposes and
mutually agree to relinquish any firm allegiance to their L1 pragmatic norms.” In Table 2.4 we can see
the three types of strategies Murray (2012) recommends for the creation of this ‘intersociety’.
Table 2.4: Murray’s (2012) Strategies and Classroom Practices for Developing an ‘Intersociety’
Type of Strategy Description
Empirically Based
Strategies
Based on pragmatic aspects of ELF documented in empirical studies.
Inductive Strategies A bottom-up approach whereby we raise learners’ awareness through the
observation of ELF speech acts.
Deductive Strategies A top-down approach in which we raise learners’ awareness and
understanding of the universal principles that enables the parameter-
setting/negotiation process to happen more efficiently.
Murray goes on to outline a number of more specific classroom practices that can be used as
part of these strategies. I offer a brief overview of these strategies in Table 2.5 below.
Table 2.5: Recommended Classroom Practices to Develop ELF Based Pragmatic Competencies (Murray 2012)
Classroom Practices Description
Translation Activities
Having students translate speech acts from their own language into
English and discuss the pragmatic norms of different speech
Page 27 of 105
communities.
Self-awareness
Guided discussion of how speech acts function in learners’ own
languages, and ways of recognising, negotiating, and mitigating the
possible fallout of different realisations of the same speech act.
Awareness of Others Encouraging learners to become their own ethnographers and
observe how speech acts are realised by different L1 speakers in
particular contexts of use and to contrast these with their L1.
Problem Solving Engaging learners in discourse completion tasks based, where
possible, on authentic ELF exchanges and present these as problem
solving activities where learners are required to employ their
strategic competence to ‘work’ a solution to the discourse.
Deterding (2010), based on his experiences in China, offers pedagogical recommendations such
as paired dictation and transcription activities. These, he explains, require students to adapt their
pronunciation to make it as easy as possible for their partner to understand. Deterding (2010) also
suggests that we enrich English teaching by using a range of idioms from around the world or even have
our students create their own idioms.
Kohn (TBP), meanwhile, has attempted to reconceptualise the issue of SE and ELF by applying a
social constructivist model of non-native ownership, which he conceptualises as “my English” (Kohn
2007, 2011). “My English”, as Kohn (TBP:6) explains, is based on the premise that “the English I acquire
and develop is my own: inevitably different from any target language model no matter how strong the
orientation.” In terms of implementation, creating a space whereby “my English” can be created
involves utilising activities that promote “using one’s own English for lingua franca purposes.” (TBP:12)
To provide a pedagogical framework within which teachers can comfortably encourage the
development of “my English” Kohn (TBP) makes a number of suggestions that can be found in Table 2.6:
Page 28 of 105
Table 2.6: Kohn’s (TBP) Stages for Development of ‘My English’
Stage Description
1 Awareness raising activities should be used as a first step, making students responsive to the
characteristics, possibilities and challenges of ELF.
2 Activities that develop skills to help cope with situations such as unfamiliar pronunciation,
unclear meanings or weak coherence through ‘learning about’ activities.
3 Developing ELF-specific production skills, with a focus on pragmatic fluency and interactional
performance skills such as speech acts, topic management, turn taking, rate of speech and
repairs.
From my point of view, whilst more radical suggestions, such as Murray’s (2012) view that
students should relinquish their allegiance to L1 norms, may deter teachers from introducing ELF based
pedagogy, the recent pedagogical suggestions appearing in ELF literature represent an important
development. Many of these more direct and clear suggestions for classroom practice, albeit having so
far been documented as being successful in only certain contexts, provide important stepping stones
from which strategies to develop South Korean students’ communicative competencies can be
developed.
2.4.2 ICA Based Pedagogy
In his discussion of ICA, Baker (2012a:66) developed twelve elements that demonstrate the
cultural knowledge, skills and attitudes needed in order to successfully participate in international
communication:
Table 2.7: Baker’s (2012a) Elements of ICA
Level 1: Basic Cultural Awareness
An awareness of:
1. culture as a set of shared behaviours, beliefs, and values;
2. the role that culture and context play in any interpretation of meaning;
Page 29 of 105
3. our own culturally induced behaviour, values, and beliefs and the ability to compare this with others’
culturally induced behaviours, values, and beliefs.
Level 2: Advanced Cultural Awareness
An awareness of:
5. the relative nature of cultural norms;
6. cultural understanding as provisional and open to revision;
7. multiple voices or perspectives within any cultural grouping;
8. individuals as members of many social groupings including cultural ones;
9. common ground between specific cultures as well as an awareness of possibilities for mismatch and
miscommunication between specific cultures.
Level 3: Intercultural Awareness
An awareness of:
10. culturally based frames of reference, forms, and communicative practices as being related both to
specific cultures and also as emergent and hybrid in intercultural communication;
11. initial interaction in intercultural communication as possibly based on cultural stereotypes or
generalisations but an ability to move beyond these through:
12. a capacity to negotiate and mediate between different emergent socioculturally grounded
communication modes and frames of reference based on the above understanding of culture in
intercultural communication.
These levels serve a useful guide in that they build from a basic understanding of cultural
contexts (Level 1) to a more complex understanding of language and culture (Level 2) and, finally, to a
fluid, hybrid, and emergent understanding of cultures and languages (Level 3). Baker (2012a) notes that
learners do not necessarily have to develop these skills in this order and that the skills should not focus
exclusively on one culture, but instead materials can be selected that are appropriate to the variety of
intercultural interactions a learner is likely to encounter.
In Table 2.8 I have outlined the pedagogical suggestions made by Baker (2012a) to help teachers
raise students’ knowledge, awareness and skills associated with ICA:
Page 30 of 105
Table 2.8: Baker's (2012a) Pedagogical Suggestions for Developing ICA
Type of Strategy Description
Exploring local
cultures
Learners can explore the diversity and complexity of different local and
national cultural groupings. Students could identify with local and
international communities such as religious groups, ELF learners or
groups such as music and sports fans.
Explore language
learning materials
Students can critically evaluate images and descriptions of cultures in
locally produced textbooks and images of other cultures in local and
imported textbooks
Exploring the
traditional media
and arts through
English
Students can critically evaluate images and descriptions of cultures in
traditional media.
Exploring
IT/electronic media
through English
This can be used in two ways; firstly in a similar manner to the previous
two, secondly students can engage in actual instances of intercultural
communication.
Cultural Informants Non-local English speaking teachers and local English speaking teachers
with experience of intercultural communication and other cultures can be
used to provide information about these experiences and cultures.
Face-to-face
intercultural
communication
Opportunities for students talk face to face, in English, with people from
various different cultures can provide opportunities for students to
practice ICA.
Again, I feel that these strategies serve as a useful guide for teachers trying to improve their
students’ international communication competencies. While they are not specifically written for use in
the context of South Korea, strategies such as critically evaluating textbook materials and electronic
media from other cultures are universally applicable. However, it must be noted that goals such as five
and six may not be feasible without the support of school officials or the MOE.
Page 31 of 105
In this section I have outlined some of the factors that may inhibit the orientation classrooms
towards ELF and ICA based teaching strategies. Despite these issues, the literature has, very recently,
begun to identify how teachers can incorporate ELF and ICA based teachings into their classrooms.
Although useful as a guide, it should not be expected that South Korean English teachers can simply
replicate what has worked in different contexts. Given this, a major part of this study is to correlate the
literature with the results of this research in order to develop pedagogical recommendations that can be
used within South Korean High School classrooms to develop students’ ability to engage in international
communication. This paper will now outline how this data was collected, including a discussion of
problems encountered and how the study was adapted to deal with these.
Section 3. Methodology
3.1 Research Methodology
3.1.1 Research Aims
The aims of this research are to identify the extent to which South Korean high school students
are being prepared for international communication and what South Korean English language teachers’
attitudes are towards the development of students’ international communication competencies. In
accordance with these aims, I lay out the research questions this study will investigate in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1: Research Questions
Question Description
○1 To what extent are textbook materials preparing South Korean students for using English
as a means of international communication as outlined in the National English Curriculum
(MOE 2008)?
○2 What are South Korean English teachers’ attitudes towards the need for students to be
prepared for international communication through both native and non-native models?
Page 32 of 105
○3 How can South Korean students be better prepared for English as a means of
international communication within the parameters of the current South Korean
educational system?
The research consists of three parts: (1) identifying the processes that can be used in textbooks to
prepare students for international communication, (2) an analysis of textbooks according to the
processes identified in (1), and (3) a quantitative investigation of teachers’ attitudes towards the needs
of South Korean students and how those align with modern literature regarding international
communication.
3.1.2 Research Design
The textbook analysis was designed under a quantitative parameter. Brown (2011:192) defines
quantitative research as “any research that focuses on counting things and on understanding the
patterns that emerge from those counts.” A quantitative research design was chosen as I felt this
approach would be the most suitable for judging the extent to which textbooks are preparing students
for international communication. This decision was based on the fact that exposure to a variety of
English, including one’s own, is a stepping stone from which further pedagogical goals can be reached.
Thus, the number of varieties was seen as being of primary importance.
Structured, closed-question, self-administered surveys were chosen in order to assess teachers’
attitudes towards the needs of South Korean students. Qualitative methods such as in-depth interviews
and focus groups were considered. However there were practical issues, such as the time required on
behalf of participants. Teachers are extremely busy, and so finding the number of teachers necessary
with the time available for interviewing would have been difficult. Further difficulties include the issue
of anonymity, as discussed in further detail below. Also, teacher training is constantly evolving, as are
Page 33 of 105
the experiences of teachers, and so it is unlikely that I would have been able to find a small, yet
representative sample.
A single stage sample of twelve South Korean English teachers working at a high school in Seoul
were asked to participate in the research on a cross-sectional basis. The teachers were asked to
complete the surveys within two weeks. Surveys were chosen as they allow a large amount of data to
be collected at one time (Garret at al. 2003). They also make it possible for the participants to fill out
the information where and when they choose. Also, by using surveys, teachers were provided the
choice of remaining anonymous (Garret at al. 2003), this was important as I knew the participants
personally, so they may not have wanted to share opinions that they believed were not the ‘right
answer’ due to the potential loss of face.
By choosing surveys I was limited in certain ways. One of these is due to the fact that
questionnaires do not allow the researcher to ask follow up questions on any issues deemed particularly
relevant or to delve further into any contradictions that appear (Garrett et al. 2003). Also, by being
highly structured, it limits the opportunity for participants to share anything outside of the set questions
(Garrett et al. 2003). In order to limit the effect of these issues, at the end of each section a field was
included asking participants to share anything else they deemed important to the research (see
Appendix 2). Furthermore, at the end of the survey participants were asked if they would be willing to
have a follow up interview. This was to provide me with the opportunity to ask any follow up questions
deemed necessary. Bias is also an issue in qualitative data (Garret et al. 2003) due to the fact that the
questions are created solely by the researcher. This means that there is the possibility of the researcher
unconsciously leading the potential answers down a certain path. To help circumvent this, both the
questionnaire and the textbook analysis form were peer checked by a fellow teacher and researcher for
issues of bias and validity.
Page 34 of 105
3.2 Textbook Analysis
3.2.1 Developing the Textbook Analysis Form
The textbook analysis form was developed from three sets of data; (1) the NEC (MOE 2008) was
used to extract goals related to international communication, (2) these goals were aligned with the
pedagogical recommendations identified in relevant literature and adapted to the South Korean public
school context, and (3) these were developed into a categorical system influenced by similar research
conducted by Takahashi (2011) on ELF in the Japanese public education system and Kivisto (2005) on
the use of ELF accents in Finnish textbooks. Through the analysis of these three sets of data a form was
created identifying the types of materials and activities expected in South Korean high school textbooks
(see Appendix 4). The textbooks that were analysed can be found in Table 3.1 below:
Table 3.2: Publishing Details of Textbooks Analysed
Title Year of Publication Publisher Author
High School Practical English 1
2012 (주)금성출판사
(Ju) Gumsongchulpansa
김경한
Kim Gyeonghan Advanced English Conversation 1
2012 YBM 한상호
Han Sangho High School English Reading and Writing
2012 (주)능률교육
(Ju) Nunglyulkyoyuk
이찬승
Lee Chansung High School English 1 2012 (주)능률교육
(Ju) Nunglyulkyoyuk
이찬승
Lee Chansung
3.2.2 Issues with the Textbook Analysis
The first issue arose when choosing the sample of textbooks that would be used for the analysis.
The South Korean public school system does not have set textbooks provided by the Ministry of
Education. Instead, private companies produce textbooks and, at the beginning of the school year, each
school chooses the textbooks they will use for that academic year. With the vast number of textbooks
available (well over thirty were counted for first grade high school alone) it would be extremely time
Page 35 of 105
consuming to analyse every textbook. Due to this, the decision was made to choose the four textbooks
that were most representative. Initially I wanted to select the textbooks that had sold the most copies.
However on contacting the distributors it became apparent these figures were not available. The next
best option was to analyse the four textbooks selected and used in the high school in which the teacher
interviews would be conducted.
Further methodological developments were required in response to the pilot study conducted
on a textbook used for the 2012 academic year. The initial textbook analysis form identified the
nationality of characters and variation of accents in one category, under the presumption that, for
example, a Filipino character would have a Filipino accent (see Appendix 5). However, the textbook
used the same two voice actors for the entire book, including when characters were from different non-
native speaking countries. To account for this, the nationality of characters and the location of dialogs
were given categories of their own based on the materials and the content of the speech. Due to this,
variation of accents had to be separately based on the linguistic features of the accent used. Finally,
when it came to conducting the textbook analysis and deciding whether or not an activity met a certain
curriculum goal, despite having a clear idea regarding how activities could meet that goal, it was often
difficult to keep the decision process as objective as I would have liked. Usually, if a decision as to
whether or not an activity met a goal was ambiguous, the textbook was given the benefit of the doubt. I
have included several examples of my thought process regarding this in Appendix 2.
3.3 Teacher Survey
3.3.1 Developing the Survey
In a similar fashion to the textbook analysis form, the survey was created by bringing together
the goals of the NEC (MOE 2008) and the pedagogical implications of relevant literature. In order to
assess the perceived ability of students to participate in international communication I developed a
Page 36 of 105
range of imaginary scenarios. These scenarios were designed to demonstrate a certain skill identified in
the relevant literature as necessary for international communication (see Appendix 1 Teacher Survey -
Section 3). Teachers were asked to rate whether they expect South Korean students to be able to deal
with similar scenarios. Finally, teachers were asked to rate the relevance of a number of challenges they
may face in preparing their students for international communication (see Appendix 1 Teacher Survey -
Section 4). These challenges were developed from similar research conducted in South Korea, such as Li
(1998). However, similar research in South Korea is over 15 years old and has only focused on
communicative language teaching. With this in mind, the issues were adapted to fit in with an ELF
paradigm. Common issues in employing ELF were also identified in relevant literature and, as discussed
in further detail below, a pilot study was conducted in which a South Korean English language teacher
made further suggestions. A simple counting technique was used to record the data. This technique has
been successfully used for similar research conducted by Takahashi (2011) who recorded instances of
ELF traits in Japanese public school textbooks.
3.4 Issues with the Survey
In the development of the survey there were again a number of issues that required adaptation.
First of all, in the initial pilot survey, questions were posed regarding the extent to which teachers
currently use supplementary materials to prepare students for international communication, as well as
questions asking for examples of the materials used (see Appendix 6 Pilot Teacher Survey - Section 3).
However, the pilot study indicated that no ELF focused materials are used, and, in further conversation
with the pilot study participants, the feedback was that this would be the same for all teachers. With
this in mind, it was decided this section would not provide useful data. Instead, it was replaced with a
section asking teachers to identify the factors which prevent them from preparing students for
international communication. There were also issues with some of the language used in the survey to
Page 37 of 105
describe certain ELF based concepts. Based on this feedback, the terms were simplified while
maintaining the meaning intended.
3.5 Ethical Considerations
When conducting research involving people it presents the researcher with “a major ethical
dilemma *…+ which requires researchers to strike a balance between the demands placed on them as
professional scientists in pursuit of truth, and their subjects’ rights and values potentially threatened by
this research.” (Cohen et. al 2007:51) BERA ethical guidelines were followed throughout the research, in
this section I will outline the steps taken to reduce the threat posed to participants as much as possible.
The first step taken was to use a framework adapted from Diener and Crandall (1978) to ensure
that the consent given by participants was a fully informed one. The details of this framework can be
found in Table 3.2 below.
Table 3.3: Ensuring Informed Consent through Diener and Crandall’s (1978) Framework
Framework Element Method of Fulfilment
Ensuring Participants
Competency
All participants were adults and, as professional teachers, were deemed
capable of being able to make responsible, mature decisions regarding
education and students.
Making Participation
Voluntary
Participants were given multiple opportunities to pull out of the research.
Participants were advised before, during and after filling out the surveys that
participation was completely optional and their data could be removed at
any time.
Fully Informed
Participants were provided with information sheets about the research
Page 38 of 105
Decisions intentions and how the data would be used before seeing the survey.
Aronson & Carlsmith (1969) warn that researchers should only give as much
information as is deemed appropriate. With this in mind, the teachers were
not told that the goals were extracted from the NEC (MOE 2008). This
decision was taken to prevent respondent bias as I did not want teachers to
rate goals as having a high level of importance as they believed that was the
‘right answer’.
Ensuring Teachers
Fully Comprehend the
Nature of the
Research
Teachers are highly educated in the subject of education and so understood
the nature of the research and what was being asked of them. Participants
were also provided with my contact details in case they had any questions or
concerns.
Permission to request access was gained through face to face contact with a senior teacher and
the Head of English at the school in which the participants teach. Access was not deemed a major issue
due to the fact that participants were free to fill out the survey when and where they choose.
Participants were given two weeks to complete the survey form, this was done to reduce the sense of
stress or burden that might come from completing the survey.
A participant’s right to privacy is also an important consideration for reducing any potential
threat. This was taken very seriously as a participant’s answer could affect their professional reputation
amongst colleagues. To maintain the teachers’ privacy the forms were all distributed electronically and
stored on password protected storage drives. As per Frankfort-Nachmias and Nichmias’ (1992)
recommendation, the confidentiality of participants’ identities was maintained throughout the research.
This made the results completely anonymous and guaranteed participants’ privacy.
Page 39 of 105
Finally, the cost/benefit ratio (Frankfort-Nachmias and Nichmias 1992) was considered before
going ahead with the research. This ensured the benefits of the research outweighed the personal costs
to the participants. The benefit of this research for the participants is that the results and conclusions
drawn from it are directly related to their teaching context and can be used to further understand and
meet their students’ needs. The cost was around twenty minutes of their time. Based on this ratio, I
believe the teachers will see their participation in this study as worthwhile.
3.6 Validity and Bias
Response bias is the effect of non-responses on survey estimates (Fowler 2002). All of the
twelve participants in the study returned the survey within the two week time period. With the time
period being short, and the topic being a long term issue, it is unlikely that the time it took for
participants to complete the survey would affect response bias.
Ensuring the results of a study are valid is imperative, as Cohen et al. (2007:133) explains
“validity is an important key to effective research. If a piece of research is invalid then it is worthless.”
Cohen (2007) identifies many types of validity, Table 3.3 highlights those that are deemed as being of
most relevance to this study and how they were managed.
Table 3.4: Issues Regarding Validity of Research (adapted from Cohen 2007)
Type of Validity
Description Relevance to Research
External
Validity
The extent to which the
results can be
generalised to the
wider population.
The fact that all of the participants in this survey work at the
same school is a factor that needs to be taken into account
when drawing generalisations from the results. However,
many of the participants have experience of working at
many schools throughout South Korea and are also aware of
the issues other high schools face.
Page 40 of 105
Content
Validity
The extent to which the
research
comprehensively covers
the issues it sets out to.
To maintain content validity careful steps were taken to
make sure that the survey was not overly long, while
covering all the necessary topics. It was estimated that the
survey only took around twenty minutes to complete,
nevertheless we must take into account that teachers are
very busy. To try and make it easier and less time
consuming, the majority of the survey was designed on a
closed scale basis.
Consequential
Validity
Related to content
validity in describing
the necessity for the
research data to not
exceed the capability of
the research.
This study is based on the adaptation of modern literature
to South Korean teaching contexts and the data formed
from South Korean textbooks and teachers. Therefore, care
must be employed when extending the findings of this
research and the conclusions drawn from it beyond South
Korea.
In this section I have outlined the steps taken to ensure this study accurately answers the
research questions posed, yet nullifies the threat posed to participants as much as possible. I will now
move on to outline the results of the study. I will also highlight the important links between the results
of the textbook analysis and the teacher survey.
Page 41 of 105
Section 4. Results
4.1 Textbook Materials
4.1.1 Nationality of Characters
One of the most interesting findings in this study is related to the variation of characters
featured in the textbooks, the results of which were quite striking. As can be seen in Table 4.1 below, in
the majority (53.7%) of instances it was not possible to identify the nationality of the speaker(s) through
either it being explicitly mentioned nor identifiable from clues such as activities they are participating in
and background pictures. An example of how materials and contexts were used to make sensible
guesses regarding a characters nationality can be found in Appendix 7.
Table 4.1: Variation of Characters featured in Textbooks
Country Total Instances Percentage
South Korea
100
23.9
Inner Circle US UK Canada
87 82 1 4
20 19.7 0.3 0.9
Outer Circle Nigeria
1 1
0.2 0.2
Expanding Circle Filipino Brazil Italy Japanese Finland Unknown/Unspecified
5 1 1 1 1 1 224
1.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 53.7
Page 42 of 105
Of those nationalities it was possible to identify, South Koreans (23.9%) and Americans (19.7%)
represented the overwhelming majority of characters. Regarding the variation of characters, there were
a total of ten different nationalities represented between the four textbooks. For this study I decided to
remove South Korea from the EC category. This was done because I felt including South Korea made the
importance given to EC variations of English seem unrealistically high. With this in mind, instances
featuring characters from the EC represented only 1.2% of the total, while the OC was represented only
once between all four textbooks. In comparing these results with the trade and visitor statistics outlined
in Table 1.1 and 1.2 of Section 1.4 there are clear discrepancies between the variation of characters in
the textbooks and the interlocutors South Koreans are most likely to be communicating with. While
Chinese and Japanese are the top two trade partners and visitors to South Korea, there are no Chinese
characters and only one instance of a Japanese character in the textbooks. I will now move on to the
variation of accents featured in the textbooks.
4.1.2 Variation of Accents
As we can see in Table 4.2, the variation of accents does not correlate with the variation of
characters, with 417 out of the 419 instances of communication featuring a General American accent,
while there was one Regional American accent and one South Korean accent featured.
Table 4.2: Variation of Accents featured in Textbooks
Accent Instances
General American Regional American South Korean
417 1 1
Communication Participants in Textbook Conversations (based on accent)
NS-NS 100%
Page 43 of 105
The discrepancy between the variation of characters and variation of accents was due to the fact that,
for the majority of dialogs (other than two) in the textbooks, every textbook used the same two (one
male and one female) voice actors for the entirety of their book. Although there were some very minor
variations of the General American accent used, mainly to account for age, it is reasonable to presume it
was the same voice actor. Again, to compare these results with the likely interlocutors of South Koreans,
it shows a complete lack of exposure to both Chinese and Japanese variations of English.
4.1.3 Location of Dialog
Table 4.3 shows us the location of the dialogs featured in the textbooks. We can see similar
results to Table 4.1, with the overwhelming majority of dialogs (70.5%) taking place in
unknown/unspecified locations.
Table 4.3: Location of Textbook Dialog
Book Location Instances Percentage
Totals South Korea IC OC EC Unknown/Unspecified
45 20 0 3 163
19.5 8.7 0 1.3 70.5
Again, so as not to misrepresent the importance given to the EC, South Korea was given its own
category. Even though South Korea was given its own category, it was the most featured location of all
the dialogs, with 19.5% of dialogs taking place in South Korea. This was followed up by locations within
the IC, which accounted for 8.7% of dialogs. There were no dialogs in OC locations and only 3 from the
EC, comprising just 1.3% of dialogs.
Page 44 of 105
4.1.4 Curriculum Goals
Finally, Table 4.4 shows the frequency of activities that were deemed to meet the goals related
to international communication contained within NEC (MOE 2008). On average, each textbook
contained 21 activities that could be considered as related to these goals, this was 8.9% of the total
activities. However, almost all of these activities were related to exposure to culture (see Appendix 2 for
specific examples of activities related to culture). No activities amongst the four textbooks extended this
to encouraging students to consider the effect of a person’s culture on their language use (see Appendix
2 – Example 3 for an example of where this opportunity was missed).
Table 4.4: Frequency of Activities Meeting Identified Curriculum Goals
Curriculum Goal Number of Activities (average
per textbook)
Percentage of Activities
1. Developing an understanding
of native English speaking
cultures.
3.75 1.6
2. Developing an understanding
of non-native English speaking
cultures.
2.5 1.1
3. Developing an appreciation of
native English speaking cultures
4 1.7
4. Developing an appreciation of
non-native English speaking
cultures.
5.25 2.3
5. Understanding the difference
between South Korean culture
and native English speaking
culture.
1 0.4
6. Understanding the difference
between South Korean culture
and non-native English speaking
culture.
1 0.4
7. Developing techniques to
help students effectively
communicate with native
English speakers.
0.25 0.1
Page 45 of 105
8. Developing techniques for
students to effectively
communicate with non-native
English speakers.
0 0
9. Developing students’ ability
to understand the natural
speech of native English
speakers.
0 0
10. Developing students’ ability
to understand the natural
speech of non-native English
speakers.
0 0
11. Developing students’
understanding between culture
and language.
0 0
12. Developing students’ ability
to share South Korean culture.
4 1.7
Activities related to identified
Curriculum
21 8.9
Average Total Activities per
Textbook
235.5
Average for native speaker
related goals (1,3,5,7,9)
9 3.8
Average for non-native speaker
related goals. (2,4,6,8,10)
8.75 3.7
There were on average 9 activities per textbook that related to communication with NS, while
8.75 related to communication with NNS. There were no activities in any of the four textbooks related
to ELF oriented communication techniques, there was one activity that could be deemed as helping
develop techniques to communicate with NS, however this was not related to ELF. Furthermore, there
were no activities that could be deemed as specifically designed to help develop students’ ability to
understand the natural speech of either NS or NNS. This is linked to the fact that, as Table 4.2 shows,
there were only two activities in the four textbooks that contained natural speech and these made no
effort to explicitly develop students’ ability to understand the speaker.
Page 46 of 105
4.2 Teacher Survey
4.2.1 Materials Focus and Student Needs
The results of the teacher survey (see Appendix 1 for full survey) reinforce the findings drawn
from the textbook analysis, which found a lack of materials currently meeting the identified goals of the
NEC (MOE 2008) (see Table 4.4 above). As Table 4.5 shows, the highest average score based on current
coverage was just 0.6 (all scores range from -2 to +2 with 0 being neutral), afforded to ‘understanding
the pronunciation of native speakers’. The average score given was -0.2, although this indicates teachers
believe high school classes give little coverage to these goals, based on Table 4.4, this could be expected
to be even lower. When the average score is divided into goals related to communication with NS and
goals related to communication with NNS an interesting picture emerges. Teachers perceived coverage
of goals related to NS has a very slight positive score of 0.1 (please note that although not negative, this
is still considered a low score), while goals related to NNS have an average score of -0.7. This indicates a
firm opinion amongst the teachers that current classes offer little coverage of non-native English use.
This is likely to be related to the fact that a General American accent is featured in all but two of the
dialogs (see Table 4.2) and the majority of non-South Korean characters being American (see Table 4.1).
Table 4.5: The Focus of South Korean High School English Language Classes and Teachers’ perceived needs of Students
Goal
Current coverage in
English classes
Range from -2
(lowest) to +2
(highest) with 0
(average)
Importance of this goal
for future student
needs
Range from -2 (lowest)
to +2 (highest) with 0
(average)
Difference
Developing an
understanding of native
English speaking cultures.
0.2 1 0.8
Developing an
understanding of non-native
-0.7 0.3 1
Page 47 of 105
English speaking cultures.
Improving students’ ability
for spoken and written
communication in native
English speaking countries.
-0.2 1.2 1.4
Improving students’ ability
for spoken and written
communication in non-
native English speaking
countries.
-0.4 0.6 1
Understanding the
differences between South
Korean culture and native
English speaking cultures.
0.1 0.7 0.6
Understanding the
differences between South
Korean culture and other
non-native English speaking
cultures.
-0.7 0.2 0.9
Understanding the
pronunciation of native
English speakers.
0.6 0.7 0.1
Understanding the
pronunciation of non-native
English speakers.
-0.6 0.5 1.1
Exposing students to natural
language as used by native
speakers.
-0.4 0.9 1.3
Exposing students to natural
language as used by non-
native speakers.
-1.1 0.4 1.5
Average -0.2 0.7 0.9
Goals Related to
communication with NS
0.1 0.9 0.8
Goals related to
communication with NNS
-0.7 0.4 1.1
Regarding the importance of these goals for students’ future communication needs, the teachers
rated every goal as having positive importance. Finally, the teachers rated goals related to
Page 48 of 105
communication with NS as significantly more important than goals related to communication with NNS,
with scores of 0.9 and 0.4 respectively.
4.2.2 The Communicational Abilities of South Korean High School Students
From the teacher survey, the most surprising result comes from the teachers’ perceived abilities
of South Korean high school students to utilise ELF based strategies in international communication.
Despite teachers giving a low score of -0.2 to the coverage of ELF and ICA based communication goals in
English language classes (see Table 4.5), as Table 4.6 shows, the teachers gave a positive score to
students’ ability to use all the ELF and ICA based competencies featured in the survey, except for their
understanding of the effect culture has on language use, which received a score of -0.2. The average
score given was 0.3, whilst this is only slightly above average it is a significant increase from the average
score of -0.2 given to the coverage of international communication based goals (see Table 4.5).
Table 4.6: South Korean Students’ International Communication Abilities as Perceived by Teachers
Target Ability Teachers Rating
Range from -2 (lowest) to +2
(highest) with 0 (average)
Ability for students to select vocabulary to help achieve mutual
understanding with an interlocutor(s).
0.6
Ability for students to indicate to an interlocutor a lack of
comprehension.
0.6
Ability for students to achieve mutual comprehension with an
interlocutor.
0.4
Ability for students to recognise and use conversational cues to enter
and leave discussions.
0.3
Ability to adapt an expression or idiom while maintaining the intended
meaning.
0.2
Ability for students to adapt their pronunciation to achieve mutual
understanding with an interlocutor.
0.1
Ability for students to adapt their culture to their interlocutors. 0
Ability for students to understand the effect of one’s culture on their
use of language.
-0.2
Average 0.3
Page 49 of 105
The two abilities with the lowest scores (of 0 and -0.2 respectively) are those that require
students to consider the role of culture on communication. This score directly correlates with the
textbook analysis (see Table 4.4) which found no activities related to developing awareness of the link
between culture and language use. In Table 4.6 we can see the joint highest score given is for students’
ability to select appropriate vocabulary. It is possible that teachers gave this a high score due to the
extensive vocabulary South Korean students are required to memorise in preparation for the University
Entrance Examination. It is also possible that teachers relate the ability to indicate a lack of
comprehension as being dependent on vocabulary choices (which received a score of 0.6). However, the
extent to which the vocabulary learnt in South Korean public schools is actually helpful in ELF
communication is unclear and is in need of further investigation.
4.2.3 Teachers’ Perceived Challenges Prohibiting the use of ELF Based Strategies
Table 4.7 displays the perceived challenges South Korean public school teachers face in
preparing their students for international communication. One of the most interesting results is that,
despite the lack of materials appropriate for preparing students for international communication
highlighted in section 4.1, ‘lack of appropriate materials in textbooks’ was ranked as only the fifth
biggest problem teachers face.
Table 4.7: The Perceived Challenges South Korean Teachers face in preparing Students for
International Communication
Challenge Teachers Rating
Range from -2 (lowest) to +2 (highest) with 0
(average)
Large class sizes 0.8
Lack of time to prepare additional materials 0.5
Lack of training in appropriate teaching
methods
0.5
Page 50 of 105
Lack of appropriate materials in textbooks 0.3
Students’ attitude towards non-native English 0.3
Reading comprehension and grammar based
examination
0.1
Students’ lack of motivation to improve their
ability for international communication
0
Students’ English proficiency -0.2
Are there any challenges I have missed? [free text]
The results in Table 4.7 correlate with the teachers’ perceived communicational abilities of
South Korean students shown in Table 4.6. In Table 4.7, ‘students’ English proficiency’ is the only
challenge that resulted in a negative score (with a score of -0.2), indicating that teachers only see this as
a minor issue. Physical teaching issues regarding the implementation of ELF based strategies are the
biggest challenges teachers face, with scores of 0.8, 0.5 and 0.5 for large class sizes, lack of time to
prepare additional materials and lack of training, respectively. Of the teachers that mentioned
additional challenges, four mentioned the format and importance of preparing students for the
University Entrance Examination and two mention cultural influences on South Korean students’
willingness to speak English in class.
Section 5. Discussion
In order to best facilitate the discussion I will first answer each of the research questions before
making a number of pedagogical suggestions to help develop students’ ability for international
communication in South Korean high schools.
Page 51 of 105
5.1 To what extent are textbook materials preparing South Korean students for using
English as a means of international communication as outlined in the National English
Curriculum (MOE 2008)?
This paper began by identifying the extent to which the NEC (MOE 2008) was designed to
prepare students for the communicational realities they are likely to face upon leaving the classroom.
Upon reviewing the NEC (MOE 2008) it became apparent that the development of skills and knowledge
required for international communication are not only heavily featured throughout, but they also
correlate with pedagogical suggestions drawn from ELF research including the role of ICA in language
use. The paper then moved on to analyse the materials used in high schools in South Korea. From the
results of the study it is clear that the goals of the NEC (MOE 2008) are not reflected in textbook
materials used in South Korean high schools. Based on the results of this study, it would not be an
exaggeration to state that there is an absolute dearth of materials in South Korean high school
textbooks that can be deemed as useful in preparing students for international communication.
While the figures in Section 4 paint a clear picture, there are a number of specific examples
contained within the textbooks that further support the strong sentiments above. The first example is
an activity contained in one of the conversational textbooks. In this activity students are required to
listen to a recording of three characters and identify the music they enjoy. The three characters are
located in three places around the world; Brazil, ‘the Bronx’ (US) and Nigeria. This type of activity
presents an excellent opportunity to expose students to authentic varieties of accents as advocated
throughout ELF literature by writers such as Murray (2012), Jenkins et al. (2011), Kohn (2007),
Seidlhofer (2004) and Berns (2008). Yet, the textbook developers handled this activity by employing the
same voice actor to record all three characters. Further to this, the voice actor did not vary his accent at
all, resulting in all three characters, from vastly different backgrounds, featuring exactly the same
General American accent.
Page 52 of 105
The second example is an activity that asks students to listen to a speech of Ban Ki Moon and
identify the main ideas. Again, this activity could have been more beneficial. Ban Ki Moon is not only
South Korean, but is Secretary General of the UN, undoubtedly one of the most senior and important
positions in the world, a position that creates an enormous sense of pride amongst South Koreans. Ban
Ki Moon, being South Korean, is from an EC country, and is known to speak with a non-native accent.
Exposure to this kind of material could, for South Korean students, have gone a long way to releasing
them from the perception of having to speak English like a NS. This is a key component of ELF which
could help encourage students to develop, own and use ‘my English’ (Kohn 2007). However, despite this
potential, the textbook developers made the decision to use a voice actor, with a General American
accent, to read the speech of Ban Ki Moon. This has a number of potential effects on the students,
including creating the perception that the English of Ban Ki Moon, South Korean Secretary General of
the UN, is inadequate and that instead students should strive towards a NS model. In turn, this is likely
to have a detrimental effect on students’ tolerance towards varieties of English.
An analysis of results of this study reveals a number of issues that could explain the lack of
materials aimed at developing ELF and ICA based competencies. An initial reaction to the results in
Table 4.2, which shows all but two accents featured in the four textbooks as being General American, is
that there may be practical issues textbook developers face. These issues include financial constraints,
such as the need to operate on a tight budget affecting their ability to produce materials that feature
wider varieties of English; physical constraints such a lack of ability to find sources of wider varieties of
English in South Korea, or even a demand from schools that they only feature General American accents
due to the makeup of the University Entrance Examination. However, looking at Tables 4.1 and 4.3 we
can see the majority of locations and characters in South Korean high school textbooks are of
unknown/unspecified origin. With the integration of activities designed to develop ICA not being
Page 53 of 105
affected by the physical issues described above, it indicates that these needs are simply overlooked by
the textbook developers.
It is also necessary to consider the effect of “washback” (Alderson & Wall, 1993) on English
language teaching materials, a term used to describe how “the testing process has an influence on both
teaching and learning.” (Luxia 2007:51) All the accents featured in the University Entrance Examination
are also General American accents and questions have no direct relevancy to students’ international
communication competencies. Given this, it is possible that textbook producers are prioritising the
needs of students in the University Entrance Examination over the goals of the NEC (MOE 2008). As
Pearson (1988) points out, examinations can be a lever for change, textbooks will be designed to match
the purposes of a test and teachers and students will incorporate the methods needed to achieve high
scores on a test. Research in East Asia has shown the possibility of developing a new test in order to
stimulate changes in textbook materials. Cheng (1997), for example, found that with the announcement
of a new examination in Hong Kong, by the year preceding the introduction of the new examination
every school had changed their textbooks and that textbook developers had overhauled the content of
their materials. Possible adaptations to the current exam system in South Korea to help orient the
University Entrance Examination towards the goals of the NEC (MOE 2008) are discussed further in
Section 5.3.1.
The lack of textbook materials aimed at developing international communication competencies
becomes particularly important when South Korean high school textbooks are compared with similar
materials around the world. Takahashi (2010) found that high school textbooks in Japan feature 40% of
their characters from the EC (excluding Japan) and that 40% of all dialogs feature EC variations of
English. Takahashi (2010) also identifies multiple examples of mixed country based speech, as opposed
to none identified in the South Korean textbooks used in this study. In an analysis of textbooks in
Page 54 of 105
Finland, meanwhile, Kivisto (2005) identifies twelve non-native accents, nine of which are EC varieties.
Both of these studies indicate that South Korea is falling behind other nations in preparing its students
for international communication, especially when we consider that these studies were conducted three
and eight years ago respectively.
Dealing directly with culture, Matsuda (2006:9) suggests that “coursebooks and other teaching
materials for English as an international language […] must have a broader representation in terms of
both language and culture.” It is possible to identify in South Korean textbooks an attempt, albeit a
limited one, to integrate cultural issues into the textbook materials. As Table 4.4 shows, those goals that
are met do so through exposure to culture. In every textbook there was at least one chapter dedicated
to culture. However, whilst this can be seen as a positive start, it is important to note that there were no
instances of students being asked to consider the link between culture and language use. This
conclusion is supported by the teachers’ opinions on the ELF and ICA abilities of South Korean students,
giving the only negative score to their ability to ‘understand the effect of one’s culture on their use of
language’ (see Table 4.6).
5.2 What are South Korean teachers’ attitudes towards the need for students to be
prepared for international communication through either native or non-native
speaking models?
Kohn (TBP) identifies teachers’ attitudes as a hurdle that needs to be overcome if ELF based
strategies are to make it into classroom practices. The results of this study indicate that teachers
recognise the usefulness of EFL and ICA approaches in preparing students for international
communication and the inadequacies of current textbooks in doing so. However, while the teacher
survey results indicate a positive attitude towards those strategies that incorporate non-native English
varieties of language and culture, strategies related to NS norms were recognised as more important
Page 55 of 105
than non-native in every instance. This does not mean that, from a teacher’s perspective, there is no
room for ELF and ICA related strategies in South Korean high school classrooms. In fact, ELF researchers
have recently made it clear this does not require teachers to completely overhaul their teaching
methods, but that creating awareness and choice for our students is a positive start (Cogo 2012). It is
also important to bear in mind that concrete pedagogical strategies related to ELF and ICA have only
been developed and documented in the past few years, yet the teachers in this research have been
teaching for an average of seventeen years. This could explain the positive score given to the challenge
of a lack of training in appropriate teaching methods (see Table 4.7). Given the already positive attitude
towards the need to develop students’ ability to communicate with NNS, it is reasonable to presume
that with adequate training teachers’ positive attitudes may increase further, while also leading to an
increased use of relevant teaching strategies.
The need for further training in ELF and ICA pedagogy is also reflected by ‘large class sizes’ being
rated as the biggest challenge teachers face, significantly higher than lack of appropriate materials in
textbooks. Whilst there are benefits to having smaller classes, this issue was not, to my knowledge,
mentioned in previous ELF or ICA literature and is not specifically applicable to developing international
communication competencies. This suggests that teachers believe pedagogical strategies related to ELF
and ICA might be difficult for the teachers to control. However, as highlighted in Section 2.4, there are
numerous suggestions such as awareness raising activities, pronunciation based activities and
translation activities that could be used in South Korean high school classrooms. Prior conversation with
South Korean English language teachers suggests that strategies to promote international
communication competencies are not covered in teacher training courses. In fact, my experience
suggests that the teachers may not have been made aware these international communication goals
compromise part of the NEC (MOE 2008). If there is a lack of training regarding international
communication competencies, it is possible that teachers are conflating ELF and communicative
Page 56 of 105
approaches, which involve greater speaking and classroom interaction. I take on the challenge of
developing specific strategies to improve the international communication competencies of South
Korean students in the next subsection.
The teachers taking part in the survey are split on the influence of the University Entrance
Examination as a challenge in preparing students for international communication. Despite seven of the
twelve participants reporting it as one of the most difficult challenges they face, two strongly disagreed
with this. However, of the two that disagreed, in the additional notes section one mentions the fact that
English is taught in South Korea “not as a tool but a subject necessary for exams.” This indicates that
perhaps the score given was due to a miscomprehension. Of the other six teachers that made additional
comments, four out of the six directly mention the effect of the University Entrance Examination,
making comments such as “I think the greatest challenge we face in high school English education is [the]
KSAT system (the University Entrance Examination)” and “We Korean English teachers should develop
his or her own teaching methods more seriously, but the entrance system of college in Korea is more
important than any other affair. So we focus on the Exam, and we teach that kind of thing.” While this
challenge is particularly worrying, it is also to be expected. As Pearson (1988:98) explains, “it is generally
accepted that the public examinations influence the attitudes, behaviours, and motivation of teachers,
learners, and parents.” In this case, it seems there is a direct conflict in the South Korean education
system between the expectations of the NEC (MOE 2008), which states the need for students to be
prepared for international communication and contains many goals related to students ability to
communicate with other NNS (see Table 1.3), and the nature of the University Entrance Examination
which features only General American accents and is not set up to test students ability for international
communication.
Page 57 of 105
The response of the teachers supports the idea that the University Entrance Examination is
having a large washback effect (Alderson & Wall 1993) on what is happening in the classrooms. That is,
they believe the examination is affecting both how the teachers teach and what the students learn.
Given the level of importance put on the University Entrance Examination this is entirely plausible.
However, one must be cautious in presuming that a change in examination system would inevitably lead
to a change in teachers’ attitudes and teaching methods. While Cheng (1997) found that in Hong Kong a
new examination system had a profound effect on the materials published, the evidence as to whether
the teaching methods changed was inconclusive. Alderson & Wall (1993) meanwhile, found that in Sri
Lanka a new English test did not have any effect on the methods of teaching used. Similar conclusions
have also been made in separate research conducted by Li (1998), Shohamy (1993) and Andrews (1995).
5.3 How can South Korean students be better prepared for English as a means of
international communication within the parameters of the current educational
system?
The final part of this study is, I feel, also the most important. For me, it is imperative that any
teacher reading this paper, especially those in the South Korean education system, can take away some
concrete suggestions to help orientate their class towards preparing their students for international
communication. Given this, I intend to keep the suggestions as easy to implement as possible. When I
set out to write this paper my intention was to only make classroom based pedagogical suggestions.
However, over the course of conducting this research, it became apparent that changes must also be
made outside of classrooms. With this in mind, I have decided to break this section into two parts; the
first will look at changes that I recommend on a macro level (those that can be considered as changes
above and beyond the classroom) and the second part will introduce suggestions on a micro level (those
that teachers have direct control over).
Page 58 of 105
5.3.1 Macro-Strategies
If the South Korean Ministry of Education is going to realise its goal of developing the
international communication competencies of South Korean students, merely adapting the national
curriculum is not enough. While it can be argued that the examination system requires a complete
overhaul, the goal of this study is to identify ‘how South Korean students can be better prepared for
English as a means of international communication within the parameters of the current education
system.’ Given this, the suggestions laid out in Table 5.1 are those that I firmly believe can be
implemented within the current educational framework. They are based on realistic goals, the results of
this study and contain firm theoretical grounding.
Table 5.1: Macro Strategies for Developing South Korean High School Students’ International
Communication Competencies
Macro Goal Reasoning & Recommendations Adapted
From
To include ELF
and ICA based
competencies
in the National
Entrance
Examination.
The listening section of the National Entrance Examination, which
currently makes up half the exam, should feature a variety of accents.
This variety should include accents from the IC, OC and EC. This will
make it necessary to expose students to a variety of accents in
preparation for the exam.
Jenkins
(2002)
To include ELF
and ICA based
competencies
in the National
Entrance
Examination.
While maintaining the multiple choice nature of South Korean
examination systems, a number of the listening questions should
require students to identify the most useful communication strategy.
An example of this could be to, after hearing a dialog in which one
person clearly cannot understand his partner’s accent, ask students to
select from a range of strategies the most suitable for indicating to the
interlocutor non-comprehension. These choices would include different
Murray
(2012)
Page 59 of 105
strategies, such as those to deal with unfamiliar pronunciation, unclear
meanings and weak coherence. This would require the teaching of such
strategies in high school classrooms
Developing
textbooks
aligned to
developing
competencies
related to
international
communication.
Pressure needs to be placed on textbook developers to meet the goals
laid out in the NEC (MOE 2008). The current textbooks have been
shown, in some areas, to be detrimental to the development of
international communication competencies. If textbooks are to be used
in South Korean public schools they should have to meet the curriculum
goals. Standards should be set that require textbooks to contain a
certain number of activities related to the international communication
goals laid out in the NEC (MOE 2008).
Alderson
& Wall
(1993)
Increasing
students’
exposure to
non-native
speakers of
English.
I recommend that the Ministry of Education introduces a scheme that
would expose students to non-native English speakers, preferably from
China and Japan as well as a number of other nationalities. A small
number of teachers operating in a ‘cultural centre’ per region, providing
students with the chance to experience engaging with them, could help
create awareness of the varieties of English they will encounter and
ways of dealing with them. These experiences could be supported by
reflective tasks designed to stimulate thoughts about the relationship
between culture and language use.
Baker
(2011b)
Developing
students
awareness of
the need for
developing ELF
and ICA based
All high schools are now required to dedicate a certain amount of time
for students to participate in optional programs. These programs are
provided by the school but selected by the students. I recommend
schools be encouraged to offer courses on international communication.
As Cogo & Dewey (2011) identify, ELF should be about awareness and
choice, thus the extra-curricular program should be optional with the
Cogo &
Dewey
(2011)
Page 60 of 105
competencies benefits of taking it clearly laid out to prospective students.
Developing
teachers’ ability
to increase
students’
international
communication
skills.
As Jenkins claims (2007:250), “knowledge of the advantages and benefits
of ELF is not in itself sufficient: it is important to find convincing ways of
demonstrating these to teachers.” This research identifies a positive
attitude from South Korean teachers towards ELF and ICA based
strategies. However, teachers also believe physical issues such as large
class sizes prevent them from using such strategies. This indicates that
teachers require training in how they can orient their classroom to help
students develop their ability to engage in international communication.
This training should focus on exploring documented methods and
adapting these to fit in with teachers current teaching contexts as well
as developing their own methods.
Jenkins
(2007)
Kohn
(TBP)
5.3.2 Micro Strategies
Despite the inadequacies of the current textbooks and the detrimental format of the University
Entrance Examination to prepare students for international communication, we cannot expect these to
be transformed in the very near future. Therefore, the pedagogical recommendations laid out in Table
5.2 are designed to be used with current materials while achieving the goals laid out by the NEC (MOE
2008) identified in Table 1.3.
Table 5.2: Micro Strategies (Set 1) for Developing South Korean High School Students’ International
Communication Competencies in Current English Language Classes
Curriculum
Goal
Reasoning & Recommendations Adapted
From
Page 61 of 105
1 + 2
If teachers have travelled abroad, they could create warm up or listening
activities that involve sharing their personal experiences of cultural errors or
miscommunications, possibly including how they dealt with it (either
successfully or, probably more enjoyable for the students, unsuccessfully).
This would help to raise awareness of the challenges of ELF communication.
Awareness raising is seen as the ‘first step’ in developing ‘my English’ (Kohn
TBP).
Kohn
(TBP)
2
Students could be asked to compare the speech acts of a non-South Korean
character in the textbook with how they would approach the same situation
with South Korean friends in Korea. For example, if a dialog is taking place at
a dinner table, students could be asked to make a similar dialog, but include
features of Korean politeness and compare those with the politeness
features of the textbook conversation.
Murray
(2012)
3
The textbooks contain many dialogs that could be used for developing
students’ ability to adapt their accents. The students could, for example, be
asked to work in pairs, with each pair taking one character and each
transcribing their partner’s part (by only listening) within a certain time limit.
This would encourage students to simplify their accent as much as possible
and in doing so achieve mutual comprehension (adapted from Deterding
2010). For homework, students could be asked to reflect on the effect of
turn taking, rate of speech, how they indicated lack of comprehension and
repairs. The reflective component could even be done in Korean.
Deterding
(2010)
Kohn
(TBP)
4
Translation activities are commonly used in South Korean high school
classrooms. Students could be asked to translate authentic speeches, they
could then check their translation by listening to the speech. After
translating dialogs students could be asked to identify the differences in
pragmatic norms between the Korean and English versions.
Murray
(2012)
Page 62 of 105
The second set of micro strategies (in Table 5.3 below) are designed to be used as part of extra-
curricular classes offered to students. As mentioned in Table 5.1, all high schools are required to offer
extra-curricular courses to students. I suggest one of these courses should be designed to meet the
curriculum goals related to international communication.
Table 5.3: Micro Strategies (Set 2) for Developing South Korean High School Students’ International
Communication Competencies in Current English Language Classes
Curriculum
Goal
Reasoning & Recommendations Adapted
From
1 + 2
Students could be asked to critically evaluate descriptions and images
of cultures found in South Korean textbooks. An example of this could
be setting groups the task of researching different, modern African
cultures, sharing them with the class and then comparing what they
find with the textbook image representing African culture found in
Appendix 2.
Baker
(2012a)
1 + 2
Students could be shown clips from movies that feature people
experiencing cultures different to their own. An example of this can be
found in a clip from the movie ‘Mr. Baseball’ (YouTube 2000). Students
could be asked to consider how their cultures are different and asked to
compare the cultures with their own. Students could also be asked to
develop strategies for dealing with the cultural differences shown.
Baker
(2012a)
3
Activities that require students to, in English, create their own proverbs,
idioms or expressions can be used to help develop students’ ability to
express themselves using the range of language they have available to
them. As a follow up students could share their proverb, idiom or
Deterding
(2010)
Page 63 of 105
expression with other groups and explain its meaning.
3
Examples of authentic ELF communication can be taken from the VOICE
corpus website (Univie.ac.at 2011). Students can be asked to listen to
these examples and to identify how interlocutors negotiate meaning
and achieve mutual comprehension through strategies such as
paraphrasing and turn taking.
Murray
(2012)
3
Students could be set tasks that require them to negotiate meaning.
Information sharing activities would be suitable for this as these are
most likely to prompt negotiation of meaning (Foster 1998). This
activity could be recorded and students asked to identify how they
went about negotiating meaning. If there are situations where
communication breaks down students could be asked to create a
solution for avoiding or repairing the breakdown in further instances of
communication.
Murray
(2012)
4
Students should be exposed to as many examples of different L1
speakers of English as possible. There are many places teachers can
look to find these examples, such as:
- Interviews with famous sports stars, for example premier league
stars or Olympic heroes. In South Korea, interviews with stars such
as Yuna Kim and Park Ji Sung can be found or, for more variety, non-
Korean sports stars can be readily found on YouTube, for example
an interview with Jose Mourinho (YouTube, 2013).
- Interviews or speeches from world leaders. In South Korea, Ban Ki
Moon would be a fantastic example to use. Interviews with world
Seidlhofer
(2004)
Kohn
(TBP)
Page 64 of 105
leaders can again be found on YouTube, for example an interview
with Ban Ki Moon (YouTube, 2000).
- On TED Talks there are talks in English from people all over the
world on a vast range of topics, for example this talk by an Italian
English speaker (Ted.com 2012).
These examples could help South Korean students gain confidence in
their own English as well as develop tolerance of other varieties of
English.
In this section I have evaluated the extent to which the data collected in this study answers the
research questions posed. I have also made suggestions as to how South Korean English language
classrooms may seek to improve students’ ability for international communication. There are important
limitations of this study that must be taken into account when interpreting this data and the
recommendations I draw from it. In the next section I will outline what I feel the main conclusions of
this study are, discuss the limitations that must be taken into account and the contributions I feel this
study can make towards the field of English language teaching.
Section 6. Conclusions, Limitations & Contributions
The role that English plays in international communication has undergone drastic changes,
resulting in the majority of communication in English taking place between NNS. South Korea,
meanwhile, has undergone massive transformations, making the likelihood of South Korean’s
communicating in English with other NNS increasingly high. This research set out to examine the extent
to which South Korean high school students are being prepared for international communication. In
Table 1.3 I extracted the goals of the NEC (MOE 2008) related to international communication, in Table
6.1 (below) I now offer my conclusions as to the relevancy of these goals in meeting the international
Page 65 of 105
communication needs of South Korean students and whether or not these needs are being reflected in
South Korean high school English classrooms.
Table 6.1: The Relevancy of Curriculum Goals to Students’ Needs and their Application in South
Korean High School Classrooms
Goal Description & Conclusion
1
Developing an understanding of and international appreciation for foreign native and non-native
English speaking cultures (both native and non-native).
Phipps & Guilherme (2004) describe the need for cultural understanding so that, when engaging in
international communication, students have knowledge of what is appropriate in the given
situation. This research has found South Korean High School English classrooms have limited
success in meeting this goal, with only a small number of activities describing and raising awareness
of other cultures in the OC and EC.
2
Developing an understanding of the relationship of and differences between foreign native and non-
native English speaking cultures.
Baker (2012a) explains that in international communication one must be able to compare and
evaluate one’s own behaviours, values and beliefs with that of an interlocutor in order to deal with
the effect culture has on language use. This research finds almost no evidence that South Korean
high school students are being adequately prepared for this.
Page 66 of 105
3
Developing techniques for students to effectively communicate with both native and non-native
English speakers.
In discussing ELF Seidlhofer (2004), Murray (2012), Deterding (2010) and Kohn (TBP) recommend
developing a number of techniques such as adapting one’s pronunciation, signalling non-
comprehension and paraphrasing. This research finds no evidence to indicate students are being
made aware of either the need for developing these skills or techniques to help them do this. I
conclude that students are being inadequately prepared for this aspect of international
communication.
4
Exposing students to the natural speech of both native and non-native English speakers and
strategies to deal with it.
Seidlhofer (2004), Jenkins (2002) and Kohn (TBP), amongst others, recommend students be made
aware of the varieties of English they are likely to encounter when engaging in international
communication. Jenkins (2000, 2002) and Seidlhofer (2004) also recommend a move away from
relying on a General American accent and Deterding (2010) points out the benefits of this in helping
students develop attainable goals. This research finds no evidence that South Korean high school
classrooms are exposing students to the natural speech of either NS or NNS. I conclude that
students are not being adequately prepared for the type of speech they are likely to encounter in
international communication.
Based on the conclusions in Table 6.1 it is clear that the goals of the National English Syllabus
(MOE 2008) are suitable for developing students’ ability to participate in international communication,
yet these goals are not being reflected in classroom practice. The MOE (2008) states that “the ability to
communicate in English will act as an important bridge connecting different countries, and will be the
driving force in developing our country [South Korea], forming trust among various countries and
cultures.” (Ministry of Education 2008:41) For this goal to be realised a great deal of work needs to be
done. This work must start on a macro level, with changes needed to both the examination system and
the materials used in South Korean high schools. This research does find openness, indeed in some
Page 67 of 105
cases a desire, from South Korean English teachers to develop students’ ability to communicate with not
only NS, but also NNS of English. With further training it is likely that South Korean English teachers will
develop the confidence and knowledge needed to transform this openness and desire into micro-level
classroom based strategies. Further research would be useful to discover whether prior training has
focused on how the international communication goals can be met in high school classrooms and the
extent to which teachers are aware of these goals.
The implications of this research are important for both classroom teachers and policy makers
within the South Korean educational system. However, there are a number of limitations that have to
be discussed and taken into account. The first issue regards the generalisability of the findings and the
recommended strategies laid out in response to these. The textbook analysis from which the
conclusions were drawn relies on only four textbooks. While efforts were made to make this selection
as representative as possible, it is entirely possible that a school would not use any of the four
textbooks sampled. Given this, it is important that schools review their own textbooks and make
informed decisions as to the appropriacy of these for their context. Schools could use a similar counting
technique using the textbook analysis form found in Appendix 4. In addition to this, the sample of
teachers was, considering the number of High School English teachers in South Korea, relatively small.
Also, all the teachers were from the same school, a high achieving school located in one of the most
affluent areas of Seoul, South Korea. If similar research were to be conducted in rural areas of South
Korea, it is likely that the teachers perceived needs of their students and the challenges they face would
be very different. While similarities can be drawn between the teaching contexts in South Korea and
other countries in East Asia, care must be taken when generalising the strategies laid out in Section 5.3.
I highly recommend teachers use these strategies only as a guideline, in other words, I recommend
these strategies are adapted rather than adopted in other teaching contexts.
Page 68 of 105
The second issue stems from the fact that this research only concentrates on the opinions of
teachers, yet the opinion of students is also of vital importance. If students do not believe there is a
benefit to, for example, exposure to non-native varieties of English or developing an understanding of
non-native English cultures, they are unlikely to develop their international communication based
competencies. This is an area that is in need of further research as it may well be that, along with the
macro strategies I suggest here, more needs to be done to make students aware of the reasons for and
challenges of becoming competent interlocutors with not only NS, but also NNS. To help with this, it
would also be useful to conduct further research investigating students’ current attitudes towards non-
native varieties of English and how this affects their comprehension. In addition, ELF suggests that one
of the primary goals must be to make students aware that they do not have to succumb to unrealistic
native speaker goals. This research does not shed any light on what the goals of South Korean students
actually are or how this affects their confidence when communicating in English. Further research could
help us to understand the affect current materials are having not only on students’ ability to
communicate, but also their willingness to communicate in English.
One of the contributions of this research is that it can act as a guide for policy makers, textbook
developers and teachers to identify the type of goals and materials that would be useful in developing
South Korean High School students’ abilities to participate in international communication. Furthermore,
I have recommended a systematic method teachers and schools can use to assess the appropriateness
of the materials they are using in their classrooms. This paper can also serve as a platform for debate
regarding the changing needs of South Korean students and the extent to which the South Korean
education system is set up to meet those needs. Finally, I have offered a number of realistic
recommendations that can be directly applied within the current educational framework. These
recommendations are designed to cause minimal interruption to the current system while having the
Page 69 of 105
potential to significantly improve the extent to which South Korean high school students are prepared
to use the English language as means of international communication.
Page 70 of 105
Bibliography
Alderson, J. C. & Wall, D. (1993) Does washback exist? Applied Linguistics, 14(2), 115–129.
Allwright, D. (1984) Why don’t learners learn what teachers teach? The interaction hypothesis.
Language learning in formal and informal contexts, 3‐18.
Andrews, S. (1995) Washback or washout? The relationship between examination reform and
curriculum innovation, in: D. Nunan, V. Berry & R. Berry (Eds) Bringing about change in
language education Hong Kong, Department of Curriculum Studies: University of Hong Kong,
67–81.
Archibald, A., Cogo, A. & Jenkins, J. (2011) Latest trends in ELF research. Newcastle: Cambridge
Scholars Publishing.
Aronson, E. and Carlsmith, J. M. (1969) Experimentation in social psychology. In G. Lindzey and
E. Aronson (eds) The Handbook of Social Psychology, Volume 2. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley,
1–79.
Baker , W. (2009). The cultures of English as a lingua franca. TESOL Quarterly 43(4), 567–592.
Baker, W. (2011a). International cultures and identities: Refocusing the aims of ELT in Asia
through intercultural awareness. In T. Muller, S. Herder, J. Adamson & P. Shigeo Brown (eds.),
Innovating EFL education in Asia. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 49–62.
Baker, W. (2011b). Intercultural awareness: modelling an understanding of cultures in
intercultural communication through English as a lingua franca. Language and Intercultural
Communication 11(3), 197‐214.
Baker, W. (2012a). From cultural awareness to intercultural awareness: culture in ELT. ELT
journal 66(1), 62‐70.
Baker, W. (2012b). International cultures and identities: refocusing the aims of ELT in Asia
through intercultural awareness. In Muller, T. 2012. Innovating EFL teaching in Asia. Houndmills,
Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan.
Belcher, D. (2006). English for specific purposes: Teaching to perceived needs and imagined
futures in worlds of work, study, and everyday life. TESOL Quarterly 40(1), 133‐156.
Page 71 of 105
Berns, M. (2008). World Englishes, English as a lingua franca, and intelligibility. World Englishes
27(3-4), 327‐334.
Berns, M. (2009). 'English as lingua franca and English in Europe'. World Englishes 28(2), 192‐
199.
Bok, G.-I. (1998). Kwukcey sidayuy mincoke [Ethnic languages in the age of the international
language]. Seoul: Mwunhak kwa Ciseng.
Brazil, D. (1997). The communicative value of intonation in English: Cambridge University Press
Cambridge.
Breiteneder, A. (2009). English as a lingua franca in Europe: An empirical perspective. World
Englishes 28(2), 256‐269.
Brown, K. (1995) World Englishes: to teach or not to teach. World Englishes 14, 233–46.
Brown, J. (2011). Quantitative Research in Second Language Studies. In: Hinkel, E. eds.
2011. The Handbook or Reseach in Second Language Teaching and Learning. 2nd ed. New York:
Routledge, 190-206.
Byram, M. (1997). Teaching and Assessing Intercultural Communicative Competence. Clevedon:
Multilingual Matters.
Byram, M. (1998). 'Cultural identities in multilingual classrooms', in Cenoz, J. & Genesee, F.
(Hg.): Beyond Bilingualism. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Cameron, L. & Larsen-Freeman, D. (2007). Complex systems and applied linguistics.
International Journal of Applied Linguistics 17(2), 226‐240.
Campbell, D., Ekniyom, P., Haque, A., & Smith, L. E. (1982). English in international settings:
problems and their causes. English World-Wide, 3(1), 66-76.
Canagarajah, S. (2005). Reclaiming the Local in Language Policy and Practice. London: R.
Erlbaum Associates.
Page 72 of 105
Canagarajah, S. (2013). Agency and power in intercultural communication: negotiating English
in translocal spaces. Language and Intercultural Communication 13(2), 202‐224.
Canale, M. & Swain, M. (1980). Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to second
language teaching and testing. Applied linguistics 1(1).
Center for Education Statistics (2009) Educational statistics almanac. Retrieved June 13th 2013
from http://cesi.kedi.re.kr/index.jsp
Cheng, L. (1997). How does washback influence teaching? Implications for Hong
Kong. Language and Education, 11(1), 38-54.
Cheng, L. (1999). Changing assessment: Washback on teacher perceptions and
actions. Teaching and teacher education, 15(3), 253-271.
Choi, I. C. (2008). The impact of EFL testing on EFL education in Korea. Language Testing, 25(1),
39-62.
Chomsky, N. (1965). Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Cogo, A. (2008). English as a Lingua Franca: form follows function. English Today 24(3), 58‐61.
Cogo, A. (2012). 'English as a Lingua Franca: concepts, use, and implications'. ELT journal 66(1),
97–105.
Cogo, A. & Dewey, M. (2006). Efficiency in ELF communication: from pragmatic motives to
lexico-grammatical innovation. Nordic Journal of English Studies 5(2), 59–93.
Cogo, A. & Dewey, M. (2011). Analysing English as a Lingua Franca: A corpus-driven
investigation. London: Continuum.
Cohen, L., Manion, L. and Morrison, K. (2007). Research methods in education. London:
Routledge.
Cook, V. (1999). Going beyond the native speaker in language teaching. TESOL Quarterly 33(2),
185‐209.
Crystal, D. (1997). English as an international language. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Page 73 of 105
Press.
Deterding, D. (2010). ELF-based pronunciation teaching in China. Chinese Journal of Applied
Linguistics, 33(6), 3-14.
Deterding, D. & Kirkpatrick, A. (2006). Emerging South-East Asian Englishes and intelligibility.
World Englishes 25(3-4), 391‐409.
Diener, E. and Crandall, R. (1978) Ethics in Social and Behavioral Research. Chicago, IL:
University of Chicago Press.
Dewey, M. (2012). Towards a post-normative approach: learning the pedagogy of ELF. Journal
of English as a Lingua Franca 1(1).
Dewey, M. (2013). 'The distinctiveness of English as a Lingua Franca'. ELT journal 67(3), 346–
349.
Dewey, Martin (2007). English as a lingua franca and internationalization: an interconnected
perspective. International Journal of Applied Linguistics 17(3), 332‐354.
ELFA Blog 2013. ELF Couples: Cross-cultural love relationships. URL:
http://elfaproject.wordpress.com/2013/05/17/elf-couples-cross-cultural-love-relationships/
[Stand 7th July 2013].
Ellis, R. (2000). Task-based research and language pedagogy. Language teaching research, 4(3),
193-220.
English Program in Korea (EPIK) (2010) About EPIK. Retrieved July 3, 2013, from
http://www.epik.go.kr/.
European Commission. 2013. SOUTH KOREA EU BILATERAL TRADE AND TRADE WITH THE
WORLD. [online] Available at:
http://trade.ec.europa.eu/doclib/docs/2006/september/tradoc_113448.pdf [Accessed: 24 Jul
2013].
Firth, A. (1996). The discursive accomplishment of normality: On ‘lingua franca’ English and
conversation analysis. Journal of Pragmatics 26(2), 237–259.
Page 74 of 105
Foster, P. 1998. A Classroom Perspective on the Negotiation of Meaning. Applied Linguistics, 19
(1), 1-23.
Fowler, F. J. (Ed.). (2009). Survey research methods (Vol. 1). California: Sage.
Frankfort-Nachmias, C. and Nachmias, D. (1992) Research Methods in the Social Sciences.
London: Edward Arnold.
Garrett, P., N. Coupland, and A. Williams (2003) Investigating Language Attitudes. Cardiff:
University of Wales Press.
Giles, H. & Coupland, N. (1991). Language: Contexts and Consequences. Milton Keynes: Open
University Press.
Graddol, D. (1997). The future of English? London: British Council.
Graddol, D. (2006). English Next. London: British Council
Holliday, A. (2010). Cultural descriptions as political cultural acts: An exploration. Language and
Intercultural Communication 10(3), 259‐272.
Hong, S. M. (1983). The Republic of Korea (South Korea). In R. M. Thomas, & N.T. Postlethwaite,
(Eds.). Schooling in East Asia. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
House, J. (1999). Misunderstanding in intercultural communication: Interactions in English as
lingua franca and the myth of mutual intelligibility. In C. Gnutzmann (ed.), Teaching and
learning English as a international language. Tubingen: Stauffenburg, 73–89.
Jenkins, J. (2000). The Phonology of English as an International Language. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Jenkins, J. (2002). A sociolinguistically based, empirically researched pronunciation Curriculum
for English as an International Language. Applied Linguistics 23(1), 83–103.
Jenkins, J. (2005). Teaching pronunciation for English as a lingua franca: a sociopolitical
perspective, in Gnutzmann, C. & Intemann, F. (Hg.): The Internationalisation of English and the
English Language Classroom. Tübingen: Narr, 145–159.
Page 75 of 105
Jenkins, J. (2006). Current perspectives on teaching world Englishes and English as a lingua
franca. TESOL Quarterly 40(1), 157‐181.
Jenkins, J. (2007). English as a lingua franca: Attitude and identity. Oxford: Open University
Press.
Jenkins, J. (2008). English as a Lingua Franca. JACET 47th Annual Convention: Waseda
University.
Jenkins, J. (2012). English as a Lingua Franca from the classroom to the classroom. ELT journal
66(4), 486‐494.
Jenkins, J., Cogo, A. & Dewey, M. (2011). 'Review of developments in research into English as a
lingua franca'. Language Teaching 44(3), 281–315.
Jeon, M. (2009). Internationalization and native English speakers in English Programme in Korea
(EPIK). Language, Culture and Curriculum, 22(3), 231-243.
Jeon, M. (2012). English immersion and educational inequality in South Korea. Journal of
Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 33(4), 395-408.
Jin, K. A. (2012). English test to facilitate communication in the Korean classroom. Korea Herald
/ Asia News Network 26/09/2012
http://www.edvantage.com.sg/edvantage/news/news/1339166/English_test_facilitate_comm
unication_in_the_Korean_classroom.html (accessed July 21st 2013).
Kachru, B. B. (1985). 'Standards, codification and sociolinguistic realism: the English language in
the OC.', in Quirk, R. & Widdowson, H. G. (Hg.): English in the World: Teaching and Learning the
Language and Literatures. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 11–30.
Kachru, B. B. (1996) English as lingua franca. In Hans Goebl, Peter H. Nelde, Zdenek Stary, and
Wolfgang Wolck (eds.), Contact Linguistics: An International Handbook of Contemporary
Research. Berlin: de Gruyter.
Kachru B. B. (1997) World Englishes 2000: Resources for research and teaching. In L.Smith and
M.L. Forman (eds.) World Englishes 2000. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i: 209–51.
Kachru, Y. (2008). Cultures, contexts, and interpretability. World Englishes, 27(3‐4), 309-318.
Page 76 of 105
Kachru, Y., & Smith, L. E. (2008). Cultures, contexts, and world Englishes. Routledge: Chicago
Kaur, J. (2009). Pre-empting problems of understanding in English as a lingua franca. English as
a lingua franca: Studies and findings 1, 107-123.
Kim, E.-J. (2011). Ten years of CLT curricular reform efforts in South Korea. In K. E. Johnson & P.
R. Golombek (Eds.), Research on second language teacher education: A sociocultural
perspective on professional development (225–238). New York, NY: Routledge.
Kim, S.Y. (2002). Teachers’ perceptions about teaching English through English. English
Teaching 57 (1), 131-148.
Kivisto, A. (2005). Accents of English as a Lingua Franca: A Study of Finnish Textbooks. Ph. D,
University of Tampere.
Kohn K. (n.p). A pedagogical space for English as a lingua franca in the English classroom. In:
Bayyurt, Y. and Akcan, S. eds. n.p. Current perspectives on pedagogy for ELF. 1st ed. Mouton:
De Gruyter.
Kohn, K. (2007). Englisch als internationale Lingua Franca: Eine Herausforderung für die Schule.
In Tanja Anstatt (ed.), Mehrsprachigkeit bei Kindern und Erwachsenen. Tübingen: Narr, 207-222.
Kohn, K. (2011). English as a lingua franca and the Standard English Misunderstanding. In:
Hower, A. and Wilton, A. eds. 2011. English in Europe Today. Sociocultural and Educational
Perspectives. 1st ed. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 71-94.
Kramsch, C. J. (2009). The multilingual subject: What foreign language learners say about their
experience and why it matters. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Kto.visitkorea.or.kr. (2013). 한국관광공사. [online] Available at:
http://kto.visitkorea.or.kr/eng/tourismStatics/keyFacts/KoreaMonthlyStatistics.kto#search
[Accessed: 19 Aug 2013].
Kuo, I-Chun V. (2006). Addressing the issue of teaching English as a lingua franca. ELT journal
60(3), 213‐221.
Page 77 of 105
Kwon, O. (2005). The Effect of Elementary School English Education on Korean High School
Students' English Abilities. English Teaching, 60(3), 49-66.
Larsen-Freeman, D. & Cameron, L. (2008). Complex Systems and Applied Linguistics. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Lee, J. (2006). Linguistic constructions of modernity: English mixing in Korean television
commercials. Language in Society, 35, 59-91
Li, D. (1998). “It's always more difficult than you plan and imagine”: Teachers' perceived
difficulties in introducing the communicative approach in South Korea. Tesol Quarterly, 32(4),
677-703.
Leith, D. (1996). English–Colonial to postcolonial. English: History, Diversity and Change.
London: Routledge.
Littlewood,W. (2000). ‘Do Asian students really want to listen and obey?’. ELT Journal 54(1):
31–36.
Littlewood, W. (2007). Communicative and task-based language teaching in East Asian
classrooms. Language Teaching, 40(3), 243-249.
Luxia, Q. (2007). Is testing an efficient agent for pedagogical change? Examining the intended
washback of the writing task in a high‐stakes English test in China. Assessment in
Education, 14(1), 51-74.
Maley, A. (2009). ELF: a teacher’s perspective. Language and Intercultural Communication 9(3),
187‐200.
Matsuda, A. & Friedrich, P. (2011). English as an international language: A curriculum blueprint.
World Englishes 30(3), 332‐344.
Matsuda, A. (2006) Negotiating ELT assumptions in EIL classrooms. In J. Edge (ed.) (Re)Locating
TESOL in an Age of Empire. Hampshire, UK: Palgrave MacMillan.
Matsuda, A. (2003). Incorporating World Englishes in teaching English as an international
language. TESOL Quarterly, 37, 719–729.
Page 78 of 105
Mauranen, A. (2005). English as a lingua franca – an unknown language? In G. Cortese & A.
Duszak (eds.), Identity, community and discourse: English in intercultural settings. Frankfurt:
Peter Lang, 269–293.
Mauranen, A. (2006). Signalling and preventing misunderstanding in ELF communication.
International Journal of the Sociology of Language. 177, 123–150.
Mauranen, A. (2009). Chunking in ELF: Expressions for managing interaction. Journal of
Intercultural Pragmatics, 6(2), 217–233.
Mauranen, A. & Ranta, E. (2009). English as a Lingua Franca: Studies and findings. Newcastle:
Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
McKay, S.L. (2002). Teaching English as an International Language: An introduction to the role
of English as an international language and its implications for language teaching. OUP: Oxford.
McKay, S. L. (2006). EIL curriculum development. In R. Rubdy & M. Saraceni (Eds.), English in
the world: International rules, international roles. Continuum International Publishing Group.
Ministry of Education. (2008). THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM OF THE REPUBLIC OF KOREA. [report]
Ministry of Education, Science and Technology, Korea.
Murray, N. (2012). English as a lingua franca and the development of pragmatic
competence. ELT journal, 66(3), 318-326.
Nelson, C. L. (2008). Intelligibility since 1969. World Englishes 27(3-4), 297‐308.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Develoment (OECD) (1998) Reviews of National
Policies for Education: Korea. Paris, France: OECD Publications
Ortega, L. (2009). Understanding Second Language Acquisition. London: Hodder Education.
Park, J. K. (2009). ‘English fever’in South Korea: its history and symptoms. English Today, 25(1),
50-57.
Park, J. S. Y. (2009). The local construction of a international language: Ideologies of English in
South Korea (Vol. 24). De Gruyter: Mouton.
Page 79 of 105
Pearson, I. (1988) Tests as levers for change, in: D. Chamberlain & R. J. Baumgardner (Eds) ESP
in the classroom: practice and evaluation (England, Modern English Publications, in association
with the British Council), 98–107.
Pennycook, A. (2007). International Englishes and transcultural flows: Routledge: New York.
Phillipson, R. (2003). English-only Europe? Challenging language policy. London:Routledge.
Phipps, A. M., & Guilherme, M. (Eds.). (2004). Critical pedagogy: Political approaches to
language and intercultural communication (Vol. 8). Multilingual Matters.
Pitzl, M. (2005). Non-understanding in English as a lingua franca: examples from a business
context. VIENNA ENGLISH WORKING PAPERS 14(2), 50–71.
Prodromou, L. (1988). English as cultural action. ELT journal 42(2), 73–83.
Prodromou, L. (2006). A reader responds to J. Jenkins’s ‘Current perspectives on Teaching
World Englishes and English as a Lingua Franca’. TESOL Quarterly 41, 409–413.
Prodromou, L. (2007). ‘ELF models and ‘‘linguistic capital’’’. IATEFL Voices 199: 9-10.
Quirk, R. (1981). 'International communication and the concept of Nuclear English', in Smith, L.
E. (Hg.): English for Cross-Cultural Communication. Basingstoke: Macmillan.
Rampton, B (1995). Crossing: Language and ethnicity among adolescents. Longman: London.
Risager, K. (2006). Language and culture: International flows and local complexity. Clevedon:
Multilingual Matters Limited.
Rubdy, R. & Saraceni, M. (Hg.) (2006). English in the World: International Rules, International
Roles. London: Continuum.
Saito, Akihiro 2012. Is English Our Lingua Franca or the Native Speaker’s Property? The Native
Speaker Orientation among Middle School Students in Japan. Journal of Language Teaching
and Research 3(6), 1071‐1081.
Scollon, R. & Scollon, S.W (2001). Intercultural Communication. 2nd. Oxford: Blackwell.
Page 80 of 105
Seidlhofer, B. (2001). Closing a conceptual gap: The case for a description of English as a lingua
franca. International Journal of Applied Linguistics 11(2), 133‐158.
Seidlhofer, B. (2002). 'The shape of things to come? Some basic questions about English as a
lingua franca', in Knapp, K. & Meierkord, C. (Hg.): Lingua Franca Communciation. Frankfurt am
Main: Peter Lang.
Seidlhofer, B. (2004). Research perspectives on teaching English as a Lingua Franca. Annual
Review of Applied Linguistics 24, 209–239.
Seidlhofer, B. (2009). Common ground and different realities: World Englishes and English as a
lingua franca. World Englishes 28(2), 236‐245.
Seidlhofer, B. (2011). Understanding English as a Lingua Franca. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Selinker, L. (1972). Interlanguage. IRAL-International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language
Teaching 10(1-4), 209‐232.
Seth, M. J. (2005). Popular demand and education in South Korea: An historical overview.
In conference “Profits and challenges of education in Korea,” by the Korea Argentina Study
Center, University of Buenos Aires. Retrieved July 18th 2013 (Vol. 11, p. 2007).
Sewell, A. (2013). English as a lingua franca: ontology and ideology. ELT journal 67(1), 3‐10.
Sheldon, L. E. (1988). Evaluating ELT textbooks and materials. ELT journal, 42(4), 237-246.
Shin, S., & Koh, M. S. (2005). Korean education in cultural context. Essays in Education, 14, 1-
10.
Shohamy, E. (1993) The power of test: the impact of language testing on teaching and learning.
NFLC Occasional papers. (College Park, MD, National Foreign Language Center, University of
Maryland).
Sinclair, J. (1991). Corpus Concordance, Collocation. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Page 81 of 105
Siu, S. F. (1992). Toward an understanding of Chinese American educational
achievement. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University, Center on Families, Communities, Schools
and Children's Learning.
Smith, L. E. (1983). (Ed.). Readings in English as an international language. Oxford, England: Pergamon. Smith, Larry E., and Bisazza, John W. (1982).The comprehensibility of three varieties of English
for college students in seven countries. Language Learning 32, 259–70 Repr. 1983 in Larry E.
Smith (ed.), Readings in English as an International Language (59–68). Oxford: Pergamon.
Smith, L. E. & Nelson, C. L. (1985). International intelligibility of English: Directions and
resources. World Englishes 4(3), 333‐342.
Smith, L. E. (1992) Spread of English and issues of intelligibility. In Braj B. Kachru (ed.), The
Other Tongue, 2nd edn (75–90). Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
Song, J. J. (1998) English as an official language in South Korea: International English or social
malady?. Language Problems & Language Planning, 35(1), 35-55.
Song, J. J. (2012): South Korea: language policy and planning in the making, Current Issues in
Language Planning, 13(1), 1-68
Sowden, C. (2012a). A reply to Alessia Cogo. ELT journal 66(1), 106–107.
Sowden, C. (2012b). 'ELF on a mushroom: the overnight growth in English as a Lingua Franca'.
ELT journal 66(1), 89‐96.
Stevenson, H. W., Lee, S. Y., Chen, C., Stigler, J. W., Hsu, C. C., Kitamura, S., & Hatano, G. (1990).
Contexts of achievement: A study of American, Chinese, and Japanese children. Monographs of
the society for research in child Development, i-119.
Sung, C. S. (2013). 'English as a Lingua Franca and English language teaching: a way forward'.
ELT journal 67(3), 350–353.
Svartvik, J. & Leech, G. (2006). English: One Tongue Many Voices. Basingstoke: Palgrave
MacMillan.
Page 82 of 105
Swain, M., & Lapkin, S. (1995). Problems in output and the cognitive processes they generate: A
step towards second language learning. Applied Linguistics, 16, 371-391.
Takahashi, R. (2010). English as a Lingua Franca in a Japanese Context: An Analysis of ELF-
oriented Features in Teaching Materials and the Attitudes of Japanese Teachers and Learners of
English to ELF-oriented Materials. Ph. D. University of Edinburgh.
Ted.com. (2012). Paolo Cardini: Multi-tasking try Monotasking. | Video on TED.com. [online]
Available at:
http://www.ted.com/talks/lang/ko/paolo_cardini_forget_multitasking_try_monotasking.html?
embed=true [Accessed: 3 Sep 2013].
Thomas, R. M. & Postlethwaite, N.T. (Eds.). (1983). Schooling in East Asia. Oxford: Pergamon
Press.
Trudgill, P. (1995). 'Grammaticalization and social structure: nonstandard conjunction-
formation in East Anglian English', in Palmer, F. (Hg.): Grammar and Semantics. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 136–147.
Univie.ac.at. n.d.. VOICE - Project. [online] Available at: http://www.univie.ac.at/voice/
[Accessed: 10 Jul 2013].
van Ek, J.A (1986). Objectives for Foreign Language Learning, Vol. 1: Scope. Strasbourg: Council
of Europe.
Walker, R. (2010). Teaching the Pronunciation of English as a Lingua Franca. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Wall, D. (2000). The impact of high-stakes testing on teaching and learning: can this be
predicted or controlled?. System, 28(4), 499-509.
Wang, H. & Hill, C. (2011). A Paradigm Shift for English Language Teaching in Asia: From
Imposition to Accommodation. The Journal of Asia TEFL 8(4), 205‐232.
Widdowson, H. G. (1982). English as an international language II: what do we mean by
“international language”?”. English for international communication, 9‐13.
Widdowson, H. G. (1994). The ownership of English. TESOL Quarterly 28(2), 377‐389.
Page 83 of 105
Widdowson, H. G. (2009). 'The linguistic perspective', in Knapp, K. & Seidlhofer, B. (Hg.):
Handbook of Foreign Language Communication and Learning: Handbooks of Applied Linguistics,
Volume 6. Berlin and New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 193.
Wollam, J. (1992). Equality versus excellence – The South Korean dilemma in gifted education.
Roeper Review, 14(4), 212-217.
YouTube. (2000). Ban Ki-Moon: Extended Interview with Al Jazeera. [online] Available at:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sic1xodw3I0 [Accessed: 3 Sep 2013].
YouTube. (2000). Cross Cultural Etiquette - Mr. Baseball.mp4. [online] Available at:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bdeFdFEbuqk [Accessed: 3 Sep 2013].
YouTube. (2013). JOSE MOURINHO SPECIAL INTERVIEW 2013 PART 2. [online] Available at:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IBav6_R-21g [Accessed: 3 Sep 2013].
Young, C. (2003). 'You dig tree tree to NUS', in Ling, L. G: Teaching English to students from
China. Singapore: Singapore University Press, 94–106.
Page 84 of 105
Appendices
Appendix 1 – Sample Instruction Sheet & Teachers Survey (next page)
(Please note - This sample has been reformatted to fit formatting of this paper)
Alexander Walsh, (my home address). ([email protected])
Please return via cool messenger or email.
The focus of this questionnaire is to examine the extent to which Korean high school students are
prepared for international communication.
The answers you give will be used to complete my MA TESOL dissertation on this subject.
Your answers will be kept completely anonymous. It is extremely important you answer as accurately
as possible.
Thank you so much for taking the time out of your busy schedule to complete this for me.
If you have any concerns you can contact my MA TESOL tutor (Tutors Name) ([email protected])
Alex
Page 85 of 105
Section 1 – Personal Details Please fill in the personal details below. Your information will be kept completely anonymous.
Date Click here to enter a date.
Name (optional) Click here to enter text.
Number of years teaching in Korean High Schools Click here to enter text.
Contact email address Click here to enter text.
Section 2 – The Focus of Korean High School English Language Classes Below are a number of goals that may be used in English language classes. Please rate them 1 to 5 using the scale below to indicate: - How much time is spent on this goal in first and second grade high school English language classes. - How important you feel this goal is for student future communicative needs.
Very Low Low Average High Very High 1 2 3 4 5
Goal Current coverage in
English classes
Importance of this goal for future student needs
1) Developing an understanding of native English speaking cultures.
Choose an item.
Choose an item.
2) Developing an understanding of non-native English speaking cultures.
Choose an item.
Choose an item.
3) Improving students’ ability for spoken and written communication in native English speaking countries.
Choose an item.
Choose an item.
4) Improving students’ ability for spoken and written communication in non-native English speaking countries.
Choose an item.
Choose an item.
5) Understanding the differences between Korean culture and native English speaking cultures
Choose an item.
Choose an item.
6) Understanding the differences between Korean culture and other non-native English speaking cultures
Choose an item.
Choose an item.
7) Understanding the pronunciation of native English speakers Choose an item.
Choose an item.
8) Understanding the pronunciation of non-native English speakers
Choose an item.
Choose an item.
9) Exposing students to natural language as used by NS Choose an item.
Choose an item.
10) Exposing students to natural language as used by NNS Choose an item.
Choose an item.
Page 86 of 105
Is there anything you would like to add? Click here to enter text.
Section 3 – The Communicational Abilities of Korean Students Please indicate in each situation:
- - 1) To what extent are Korean high school graduates prepared to deal with similar situations. -
The situations revolve around Mr Kim, a native Korean university student studying abroad. Please consider the context of Mr Kim’s situation, what Mr Kim is trying to achieve and the sort of language he will need to use. Please note that students are not expected to be in exactly the same situations as Mr Kim, but rather situations that require similar language abilities. Please rate each 1 to 5 using the following scale: Strongly Disagree Disagree Average Agree Strongly Agree 1 2 3 4 5
1) Students are prepared for similar situations.
1) Mr Kim is discussing (face to face) a time and place to meet with a Brazilian team member. Due to the difference in accents they are finding it difficult to understand each other, however they have to come to an understanding of when and where they will meet.
Choose an item.
2) Mr Kim is at a party chatting with a group of friends from around the world. In the conversation he wants to use an English idiom, but he can’t remember the exact usage. He still wants to try and use the idiom, but he will have to do so in his own words.
Choose an item.
3) Mr Kim has been set a university assignment to complete with a French speaker of English. The French speaker is much younger than Mr Kim and speaks very casually to Mr Kim even when late for appointments, even though this is normal for students in France, Mr Kim is getting upset.
Choose an item.
4) Mr Kim is studying at a university in Sweden, he has got in serious trouble with his tutor who is visibly upset and questioning Mr Kim about his behaviour. His tutor wants an explanation, but Mr Kim is standing silently looking at the ground.
Choose an item.
Page 87 of 105
5) In completing a project Mr Kim is trying to explain his opinion on the project, some of the team members are finding it difficult to understand his vocabulary choices, Mr Kim needs to adapt his English to make it easier for them.
Choose an item.
6) One of the other project members is explaining their opinion, Mr Kim is finding it difficult to understand and wants to indicate this to the speaker in a polite manner.
Choose an item.
7) Mr Kim is involved in a group discussion, many people are talking and he wants to give his opinion in the discussion.
Choose an item.
8) Mr Kim gives his opinion, but he notices some of the other students are finding it difficult to understand his pronunciation, Mr Kim wants to adapt his pronunciation to make it easier for them.
Choose an item.
Is there anything you would like to add?
Click here to enter text.
Section 4 – The following have been identified as possible challenges teachers face when preparing students for international communication (communication in English with both native and other NNS). To what extent do you believe Korean high school teachers face these challenges? Please rate each 1 to 5 using the following scale: Strongly Disagree Disagree Average Agree Strongly Agree 1 2 3 4 5
1) Reading comprehension and grammar based examinations.
Choose an item.
2) Large class sizes
Choose an item.
3) Lack of appropriate materials in textbooks.
Choose an item.
4) Lack of time to prepare additional materials.
Choose an item.
Page 88 of 105
5) Students attitude towards non-native English.
Choose an item.
6) Students English proficiency.
Choose an item.
7) Students lack of motivation to improve their ability for international communication.
Choose an item.
8) Lack of training in appropriate teaching methods.
Choose an item.
9) Are there any you challenges I have missed?
Click here to enter text.
Part 2
Could you share any strategies you use successfully to prepare your students for international communication?
Click here to enter text.
Is there anything you would like to add?
Click here to enter text.
As I stated, the opinion of Korean public school teachers is extremely important to me and this research. If I need to ask any more questions, would it be possible to speak face to face about the issues covered in this questionnaire?
Choose an item.
Once again, thank you so much for taking the time to answer these questions accurately, it really is
appreciated. If you would like a copy of the finished research project please feel free to ask via
([email protected]) or cool messenger.
Alex
Page 89 of 105
Appendix 2 – Examples of Textbook Evaluation Categorisation
Example 1 – Curriculum Goal 1 & 2: Developing an understanding of native/non-native
speaker cultures
This activity was deemed to meet goals 1 & 2 as it presents students with knowledge regarding
the traits of both native and non-native speaking cultures. However, this was not deemed as developing
an appreciation for these cultural traits as it does not encourage students to form an opinion on them
or shed them in either a positive or negative light.
Page 90 of 105
Example 2 – Curriculum Goal 4: Developing an Appreciation of non-native English speaking
cultures
I chose to provide the above example as it represents one of the more difficult decisions that
was made in the process of counting activities and deciding whether they meet curriculum goals. In this
example, we can see that the activity is drawing students’ attention to perceived cultural traits of
African culture, and, in my opinion, trying to portray them in a positive manner. However, there are a
number of issues. The first is that it presents a generic stereotype of culture in the whole of Africa,
secondly it is questionable as to whether the images shown are an accurate portrayal of modern
‘African’ culture, and thirdly it can be considered to be reinforcing negative stereotypes of ‘African’
culture. However, it was decided that although they are extremely important issues that need
researching and documenting in their own right, with regards to this study, this activity does ‘develop
an appreciation’ for a non-native speaking culture.
Page 91 of 105
Example 3 – Curriculum Goal 6 (&2): Understanding the difference between Korean
culture and non-native English speaking cultures.
Activity D shows an example of students being asked to compare Korean culture with that of
Finland, this can be considered to meet Goal 6. In this evaluation it happened to be that all the activities
that met either Goal 5 or 6 were preceded by an activity that met Goal 1 or 2. However, for an activity
to meet Goal 5 or 6 it was not considered a prerequisite that it should, or would, also meet Goal 1 or 2.
For example, if an activity had asked students to, from their own background knowledge, consider a
cultural trait of Chinese people and compare this to a cultural trait of Korea, this would not have been
considered ‘developing’ their knowledge of the culture as the students already held the knowledge. It
would however be considered to be developing students’ knowledge of the difference between Chinese
and Korean culture by stimulating that thought process.
Furthermore, while the teacher briefly mentions the effect Finnish culture has on the
pragmatics of their language use, the activities miss an important opportunity to draw students’
awareness to this. Therefore it cannot be regarded as developing students understanding of the
relationship between culture and language.
Page 92 of 105
Example 4 – Curriculum Goal 12 – Developing students’ ability to share South Korean
culture.
Goal 12 was one of the easiest to assess. However, to qualify as ‘developing students’ ability’ the
activity had to either provide students with language or techniques they could use to share South
Korean culture or provide them with the opportunity to practice sharing South Korean culture. In the
example above we can see in Activity A students were provided with useful language, while in Activity B
they were given an opportunity to practice describing Korean cultural events in English.
Page 93 of 105
Appendix 3 – Sample Consent Form
The Use of English as a Lingua Franca and Inter-Cultural Communication Teaching Strategies in
Preparing Students for International Communication The Preparation of South Korean High School
Students for International Communication
Supervisors: Dr. Paul Knight
Researcher: Alex Walsh
1. Purpose
To examine the extent to which South Korean high school students are being prepared for international
communication in South Korean high schools.
2. Method and amount of time required
(1) Questionnaire, about 20 minutes
3. Benefits to the participant
This research will contribute to the improvement and development of English Education in South Korea
by providing insight into the needs of students and how the education of South Korean high school
students can be improved.
4. Risks to the participant
There is no mental or physical risk to the participant by participating in the research.
5. Confidentiality and anonymity
The questionnaires will be kept for the purpose of analysis; they, however, will not be leaked to
outsiders. All the information will be used for research purpose only and all the records will be
destroyed after writing up the thesis. All information will be kept completely anonymous.
6. Voluntary participation
The participation in this research is voluntary, and if you do not participate or withdraw your
participation, it will not bring you any disadvantages.
If you have any questions about this questionnaire and paper, please contact Alex Walsh
Thank you very much in advance for your cooperation.
I have read this consent form and was given the opportunity to have enough explanation, and followed
the gist of the research. Based on that, I agree to participate in this research.
Page 94 of 105
Participant’s signature
Date
* You do not need to fill in the blanks below.
Researcher’s signature
Date
Page 95 of 105
Appendix 4 – Textbook Analysis Form
Textbook Analysis
Nationality of
Characters
Instances
Variation of Accents
Number
Location of Dialog
Korea Inner-Circle
Outer-Circle
Expanding Circle
Multitude
Fictional Unknown
Instances
Communication
Participants (based on
NS-NS NS-NNS (K)
NS – NNS (NK) +
(K)
NS – NNS (NK)
NNS (K) – NNS
(K)
NNS (K) – NNS (NK)
IC – IC OC – OC EC - EC
Page 96 of 105
variation of accent)
Instances
Syllabus
Goal 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Instances
Syllabus Goals
1) Developing an understanding of native English speaking cultures. (p.42/p.43/p.44/p.55/p.60) 2) Developing an appreciation of native English speaking cultures. (p.42/p.43/p.44/p.55/p.60) 3) Developing an understanding of non-native English speaking cultures. (p.42/p.43/p.55/p.60) 4) Developing an appreciation of non-native English speaking cultures. (p.42/p.43/p.55/p.60) 5) Understanding the differences between Korean culture and native English speaking cultures. (p.43)/(p.63) 6) Understanding the differences between Korean culture and other non-native English speaking cultures. (p.43)/(p.63) 7) Ability for students to effectively communicate in everyday life with native English speakers. (p.43) 8) Ability for students to effectively communicate in in everyday life with non-native English
Page 97 of 105
speakers. (p.43) 9) Ability for students to understand the natural speech of native English speakers (p.45/p.60) 10) Ability for students to understand the natural speech of non-native English speakers (p.45/p.60)
Page 98 of 105
Appendix 5 – Pilot Textbook Analysis Form
Textbook Analysis
Nationality of Characters
Instances
Number of words from
each country
Number
Location of
Dialog Korea Inner-
Circle Outer-Circle
Expanding Circle
Multitude Fictional Unknown
Instances
Communication Participants
NS-NS
NS-NNS (K)
NS – NNS
(NK) + (K)
NS – NNS (NK)
NNS (K) – NNS
(K)
NNS (K) – NNS (NK)
IC – IC OC – OC
EC - EC
Instances
Syllabus Goal 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Page 99 of 105
Instances
Syllabus Goals
1) Understanding the necessity to communicate in English 2) Being able to effectively communicate in daily life about general topics. 3) Developing an understanding of native English speaking cultures. 4) Developing an appreciation of native English speaking cultures. 5) Developing an understanding of non-native English speaking cultures. 6) Developing an appreciation of non-native English speaking cultures. 5) Ability for spoken and written communication in native English speaking countries. 6) Ability for spoken and written communication in non-native English speaking countries. 7) Understanding the differences between Korean culture and native English speaking cultures 8) Understanding the differences between Korean culture and other non-native English speaking cultures 9) Understanding the pronunciation of native English speakers 10) Understanding the pronunciation of non-native English speakers 11) Exposing students to natural language as used by native speakers 12) Exposing students to natural language as used by non-native speakers
Page 100 of 105
Appendix 6 – Pilot Teacher Survey
Section 1 – Personal Details Please fill in the personal details below. Your information will be kept completely anonymous.
Date Click here to enter a date.
Name Click here to enter text.
Number of years teaching in Korean High Schools Click here to enter text.
Contact email address Click here to enter text.
Section 2 – The Focus of Korean High School English Language Text Books Below are a number of goals for Korean high school English education taken from the Ministry of Education’s National Syllabus (2008).
- 1) How much coverage do you feel the textbook you use give to each goal? 2) How important do you feel this syllabus goal is to meet students’ future communicational needs in English? Please rate each 1 to 5 using the following scale: Very Low Low Average High Very High 1 2 3 4 5
Syllabus Goal Current coverage in textbooks
Importance of this goal to meet future student needs
1) Understanding the necessity to communicate in English
Choose an item. Choose an item.
2) Being able to effectively communicate in daily life about general topics.
Choose an item. Choose an item.
3) Developing an understanding of native English speaking cultures.
Choose an item. Choose an item.
4) Developing an appreciation of native English speaking cultures.
Choose an item. Choose an item.
5) Developing an understanding of non-native English speaking cultures.
Choose an item. Choose an item.
6) Developing an appreciation of non-native English speaking cultures.
Choose an item. Choose an item.
5) Ability for spoken and written communication in native English speaking countries.
Choose an item. Choose an item.
Page 101 of 105
6) Ability for spoken and written communication in non-native English speaking countries.
Choose an item. Choose an item.
7) Understanding the differences between Korean culture and native English speaking cultures
Choose an item. Choose an item.
8) Understanding the differences between Korean culture and other non-native English speaking cultures
Choose an item. Choose an item.
9) Understanding the pronunciation of native English speakers
Choose an item. Choose an item.
10) Understanding the pronunciation of non-native English speakers
Choose an item. Choose an item.
11) Exposing students to natural language as used by native speakers
Choose an item. Choose an item.
12) Exposing students to natural language as used by non-native speakers
Choose an item. Choose an item.
Is there anything you would like to add? Click here to enter text.
Section 3 – The Communicational Needs of Korean Students Please indicate in each situation:
- - 1) To what extent to which Korean high school graduates are prepared to deal with similar
situations. - - 2) How important do you believe preparing Korean students for similar situations should be in
Korean high schools? The situations revolve around Mr Kim, a native Korean university student studying abroad. Please rate each 1 to 5 using the following scale: Very Low Low Average High Very High 1 2 3 4 5
1) Students are prepared for similar situations.
2) How important should preparing students for similar situations be?
1) Mr Kim is discussing (face to face) a time and place to meet with a Brazilian team member, due to the difference in accents they are finding it difficult to understand each other, however they have to come to an understanding of when and where they will meet.
Choose an item. Choose an item.
Page 102 of 105
2) Mr Kim is at a party chatting with a group of friends from around the world. In the conversation he wants to use an English idiom, but he can’t remember the exact usage. He still wants to try and use the idiom, but he will have to do so in his own words.
Choose an item. Choose an item.
3) Mr Kim has been set a university assignment to complete with a French speaker of English. The French speaker is much younger than Mr Kim and speaks very casually to Mr Kim even when late for appointments, even though this is normal for students in France, Mr Kim is getting upset.
Choose an item. Choose an item.
4) Mr Kim is studying at a university in Sweden, he has got in serious trouble with his tutor who is visibly upset and questioning Mr Kim about his behaviour. His tutor wants an explanation, but Mr Kim is stood silently looking at the ground.
Choose an item. Choose an item.
5) In completing a project Mr Kim is trying to explain his opinion on the project, some of the team members are finding it difficult to understand his vocabulary choices, Mr Kim needs to adapt his English to make it easier for them.
Choose an item. Choose an item.
6) One of the other project members is explaining their opinion, Mr Kim is finding it difficult to understand and wants to indicate this to the speaker in a polite manner.
Choose an item. Choose an item.
7) Mr Kim is involved in a group discussion, many people are talking and he wants to give his opinion in the discussion.
Choose an item. Choose an item.
Page 103 of 105
8) Mr Kim gives his opinion, but he notices some of the other students are finding it difficult to understand his pronunciation, Mr Kim wants to adapt his pronunciation to make it easier for them.
Choose an item. Choose an item.
Is there anything you would like to add?
Click here to enter text.
Section 4 – Helping students improve their ability to communicate in English with people from around the world. As part of this project I will be making recommendations as to how Korean students can be better prepared for global communication. It is very important to me that I have the opinions of Korean teachers in the proposals. I would like to ask you two things: - Which of the following do you currently use supplementary materials for to help prepare students for global communication? - What strategies do you believe could be realistically used in Korean classrooms to help prepare students for global communication?
Part 1
Do you currently use supplementary materials for this?
Do you think this type of activity is possible in Korean high schools and why?
1) Incorporating listening activities that use a range of both native and non-native accents from around the world.
Choose an item. Click here to enter text.
2) Listening activities that use difficult accents and ask students to pick out words they can understand then use these to guess meanings.
Choose an item. Click here to enter text.
3) Dictation activities that require students to
Choose an item. Click here to enter text.
Page 104 of 105
work together to understand each other’s scripts encouraging easy to follow pronunciation. 4) Showing students examples of cultural misunderstandings through video and analysing how and why the misunderstanding occurred.
Choose an item. Click here to enter text.
5) Listening to group conversations and asking students to pick out how speakers begin and end their speech so students understand how this differs in different languages.
Choose an item. Click here to enter text.
Part 2
Could you share any strategies you use successfully to prepare your students for global communication?
Click here to enter text.
What factors prohibit you from supplementing textbook material?
Click here to enter text.
Is there anything you would like to add?
Click here to enter text.
As I stated, the opinion on Korean public school teachers is extremely important to me and this research. If I need to ask any more questions, would it be possible to speak face to face about the issues covered in this questionnaire?
Choose an item.
Page 105 of 105
Appendix 7 – Using context and background information to identify the nationality of
characters
In this activity there was no mention of the male speaker’s nationality in the listening and due to the use
of voice actors it was not possible to tell his nationality from his accent. However, in the images we can
see the Statue of Liberty in the background and so, in this case, it was presumed that the speaker was
intended to be American and therefore marked as such.
Top Related