The Spanish-American War and the
Root Reforms
The problem in Cuba . . .
• Significant U.S. economic interests in Cuba.• Revolution (off and on) in Cuba since 1868.
– Resumes in 1895
• U.S. interests want stability.• 1896: General Valeriano Weyler sent to
suppress the rebellion.– Weyler’s methods were brutal.– Reconcentrado policy
The problem in Cuba . . . the U.S. “war faction”• Humanitarians• “Jingoists”• Elements of the Republican Party• Expansionists
. . . and the “Yellow Press”
Joseph PulitzerThe New York World
William Randolph HurstThe New York Journal
January 1898, USS Maine arrives in Havana
The slide toward war . . .
• McKinley was opposed to war.• 9 FEB, Hurst publishes “DeLome Letter”
“. . . McKinley is weak and a bidder for the admiration of the crowd besides being a would-be politician who tries to leave a door open behind himself while keeping on good terms with the jingoes of his party”.
18 February 1898 USS Maine blows up.
The slide toward war . . .• 25 February: Roosevelt instructs Navy to attack
Philippines in the event of war.
• 11 April: McKinley calls for intervention in Cuba.– Approved 20 April
• 20 April: Teller Amendment Teller Amendment.
• 23April: Spain declares war on the U.S.
1 May 1898 Battle of Manila Bay
22-24 JuneUS troops land in Cuba
Hawaii annexed 7 July
Sanford Dole
Queen Lili‘uokalani’American businessmen took over Hawaii in 1893.
• 17 July: Santiago surrenders to General William Shafter
• 12 August: Spain signs armistice
• 13 August: US troops capture Manila
Costs . . .
• $250,000,000• 5,462 Americans dead
• 385 KIA• 5,077 of disease• 1,604 WIA
Results . . . The Treaty of Paris, 1898• Cuba would become independent
• Temporary American occupation• Platt Amendment
• Spain would assume Cuban debt.• U.S. acquires:
• Puerto Rico• Guam• Philippines (for $20 million)
The American Empire, 1898
The American Empire, 1898
Election of 1900
• Imperialism the major issue.• McKinley wins. 295 to 155• 6 September, 1901 McKinley shot.
“That damn cowboy’s President!”
The Filipino-American War
The Filipino-American War1898-1902(?)
• Vicious and brutal (both sides).• Significant American war crimes.• Aguinaldo eventually captured.• Taft’s teachers.• Roosevelt declares war over 4 July 1902.
• Americans and Filipinos eventually develop a close relationship.
Summary . . .
• Spanish-American War makes U.S. an international power.
• America’s new role accepted by most Americans.
• The Navy’s performance reinforced the ideas of Mahan.
• The Army’s performance left much to be desired.
China Relief Expedition1900-1901
• Commander, BG Adna Chaffee • 9th and 14th Infantry Regiments• Detachment, 6th Cavalry• Battery F, 5th Artillery• Battalion, U.S. Marines
China Relief Expedition
• British• French• Italian• Russian• German• Austrian• Japanese
Multinational force,19,000 troops.
Americans worked with:
The “Root Reforms”
• Army’s performance in the war with Spain had been poor.– Outdated organization; Staff and Line– Archiac equipment– No real planning capability
• Elihu Root become Secretary of War, 1899.– a corporate lawyer
The “Root Reforms”
• Elihu Root become Secretary of War, 1899.– a corporate lawyer
The “Root Reforms”
• Weapons improvements:– 1903 Springfield replaces the Krag– Knife bayonet replaces rod bayonet– Smokeless powder replaces black powder– New 3 in. artillery field piece– Experimentation begun with machine guns– .45 M1911 Colt pistol replaces the .38 caliber
revolver
3-inch M1902 field gun
Colt
Lewis
Hotchkiss
S&W .38 Special1898
Colt M1892
The “Root Reforms”• The General Staff Bill
– Root reads Upton’s
Military Policy of the United States
– LTC William Carter helps convince him– Congress passes the bill in 1903.
The General Staff
G -1A d m in is tra tion
G -2In te llig en ce
G -3O p era tion s
an d Tra in in g
G -4L og is tic s
C h ie f o f S ta ff
Improved education . . .
• Army War College• General Staff and service College• Service Schools:
– Artillery– Engineer– Submarine Defense (mines and torpedeos)– Cavalry and Field Artillery– Medical Corps– Signal Corps
Regulars vs. the Militia• Militia Act of 1903, “Dick Act” reforms the militia
– “Organized Militia” National Guard– Reserve Militia
• Federal $$ made available to National Guard• Drills twice a month• Annual training• Regulars could be detailed to the Guard• President could proscribe length of Federal service• President could appoint all officers while in Federal
Service.
Higher Echelon Organization
• Largest peacetime organization = regiment.• 1910, General Staff draws plans for divisional
organization.• Provisional division formed in 1911.
• Average strength of the Army 1902-1911 = 75,000• Average installation strength = 700
The Army continued its non-military functions.
• Provided governmental services in American colonies.
• Projected American power in “operations other than war.”– “Little Wars”
• Built the Panama Canal
Then came Mexico . . .and war in Europe.
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