THE NATIONAL POLICY ENVIRONMENT OF
SMALL, MICRO AND MEDIUM ENTERPRISES IN SOUTH AFRICA – AN
EMPRICAL STUDY
Dinesh C Jinabhai* Farida Kadwa Department of HR Management Department of Fashion Design Durban University of Technology Durban University of Technology South Africa South Africa
ABSTRACT
With unemployment levels in South Africa standing at 42%, the government’s
priority is to focus on economic transformation and SMME development. The
government hopes to fast track the development of micro and small business, allow
greater access to finance for people operating in the second economy and to reduce
the cost of setting up new business - all in a bid to stimulate jobs. In fact, South
Africa is lagging behind the rest of the world on several entrepreneurship indicators.
Of the 31 countries surveyed last year, total entrepreneurship activity was 8.8%,
while for developing countries it was 18.4%. South Africa’s total entrepreneurship
activity was 4.3% and the country was ranked 22. More alarming is that the rate is
dropping significantly year-on-year. In 2001 the rate was 9.4%, while in 2002 it was
6.5%. Focusing on the experience of the clothing industry, this paper reveals that the
picture in this sector is not particularly better either. A response rate of 52.29% was
obtained using the mail survey for the empirical investigation. A key finding was the
lack of government support for the continued growth of SMMEs. Similarly, it was
noted that recent shedding of jobs in the textile, clothing and mining sector is likely
to be a cause of instability on the labour front. All told, clear government policies
and goals are imperative in order to negate barriers for sustainable SMME
development and growth.
INTRODUCTION
As early as 1996 it was clear that political and economic changes in South Africa were
having a profound impact on the clothing retail sector (Harrison and Dunne, 1998:13).
Social and cultural changes in the country have led to huge changes in the market place.
Consumer awareness has increased through global exposure, advertising and the use of
multi-media technologies. Quality, design and image are becoming more important to the
upwardly mobile as income distribution patterns change within the South African society.
Moreover, sophisticated consumers are demanding increasing variety of product choices.
This, according to Salinger, Bhorat, Flaherty and Keswell (1998:6) is leading to shorter
product seasons, more rapid product cycle turnover, and smaller lot sizes. In support
Kaplinsky and Manning (1998:157) inform that the scope for SMMEs will strengthen as
per capita income increases and consumers are prepared to pay more for non-standardised
products manufactured (and sold) in smaller units. The key to unlocking the potential
growth of the SMME sector is clear policy mandates and enabling legislation. These
imperatives should be underpinned by concrete initiatives by government policy
interventions.
By international standards, South Africa’s unemployment and poverty levels are
disproportionately high for the country’s per capita income. Growth, job creation and
poverty alleviation are pressing priorities, both economically and politically (Driver,
Wood, Segal and Herrington, 2001:6). The Business Bulletin, (2001:2), further highlights
the situation in the country, “the unemployment level in South Africa is still rising. The
South African economic growth rate is expected to fall short of the anticipated 3% per
annum, again mainly because the SMME contribution/output is falling short. Although
the SMME sector is already carrying some 57% of jobs in the South African economy,
expectations are being pinned on the sector to create further jobs, because that is not
forthcoming from big business”. With as much as forty percent of the employable labour
force unemployed in some parts of the country, labour intensive development strategies
are key economic topics of discussion (Salinger et al. 1998:4). South Africa faces
important challenges in the area of targeted initiatives for SMME growth and employment
generation.
Against this background the paper seeks to achieve the following objectives: a) to
investigate the barriers influencing the SMME development in the clothing industry; b) to
ascertain the perceptions of small and medium manufacturers in procuring Government
tenders or contracts, and c) to evaluate the regulatory environment in which clothing
SMMEs operate.
THE ROLE OF SMMEs IN DEVELOPMENT IN SOUTH AFRICA
SMMEs in South Africa are not contributing to the growth of the economy, and to
employment generation as in other parts of the world. This is equally applicable to the
clothing industry in KwaZulu-Natal. The SMME sector in Europe, as an example, is
considered crucial to competitive development. It employs the majority of the European
labour force and commands two thirds of sales volume in the non-primary sector. Most of
the expansion of employment in Europe over the last decade has been in very small firms
(Mulhern, 1995:83). Inggs (2005:1) quotes Brian Brink the chief executive of the SA
Textile Federation when he states that “we need some sort of government support on
interest rates so that it would be easier for us to upgrade our technology” (Sunday Tribune,
Business Report, 23 January 2005:1). In a recent study Sewsunker (2004:2) reports that
South Africa is lagging behind the rest of the world on several entrepreneurship indicators.
Of the 31 countries surveyed last year, total entrepreneurship activity was 8.8%, while for
developing countries it was 18.4%. South Africa’s total entrepreneurship activity was
4.3% and the country was ranked 22. More alarming is that the rate is dropping
significantly year-on-year. In 2001 the rate was 9.4%, while in 2002 it was 6.5%
(Sewsunker, 2004:2).
The NCMA Report (1999) indicates that employment in the Clothing Industry reached its
peak in 1990. In the greater Durban area, some 45 000 employees were employed by 450
companies. During this period, protectionism was offered to manufacturers because
quantitative customs permits controlled clothing and fabric imports. Only 7% of garments
sold by retailers were imported. The effect of this protectionist policy has been to make
domestically produced and imported goods more expensive in South Africa, than they
would have been in the absence of these policies. Secondly, it made South African
exports more expensive on international markets, because of the higher cost of inputs
(Salinger et al. 1998:1). This resulted in the clothing industry being inwardly focused,
rather than being export oriented.
Table 1 Tariff phase done under the World Trade Organisation Description
1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 19991 2000 2001 2002
Textiles
30.1 33.8
31.8
24.9 23.4
21.9
20.3
18.7
17.3
Clothing
73.7 73.6 68.2 54.6 50.5 46.4 42.4 37.7 33.2
Electrical Machinery
11.0 6.1
6.0
5.8
5.7
5.7
5.7
5.7
5.7
Source: Cassim, R. and Onyango, D. 2001. (Adapted). South Africa's Trade
Reform and the World Trade Organisation: Background and Progress. Trade & Industry Monitor, Vol. 19, Page 3.
The Department of Trade and Industry (DTI) indicated that while the tariffs (Table 1)
were being reduced, some supply side measures would be introduced. This was intended
to offset the higher cost of imported inputs and thereby replace local sales with export
sales. For this restructuring exercise to work it was essential that the Customs and Excise
department enforced and policed tariffs at the various points of entry. Custom and Excise
failed to provide this short-term protection and are therefore blamed by clothing
manufacturers for contributing to the job losses presently being experienced (NCMA
Report, 1999:4). In an attempt to compensate exporters for the Rand’s overvaluation, the
South African government introduced the General Export Incentive Scheme (GEIS) in
1990. This strategy was further augmented by other general schemes, which allowed duty
exemptions or rebates on goods imported for the production of exports (Salinger et al.
1998:8).
GEAR STRATEGY: The Growth, Employment and Redistribution (GEAR)
macroeconomic strategy, announced in mid 1996, showed that the government of South
Africa recommended a conservative fiscal and monetary programme to dampen inflation
and stabilise the domestic currency (Rand). Although strongly supported within the
government, the GEAR strategy was criticised for raising domestic interest rates, curbing
economic expansion, and thereby exacerbating unemployment, in a country where
employment patterns are already highly skewed (Salinger et al. 1998:8).
UNEMPLOYMENT: The GOVZA Economy Report (2002:33) highlights that
unemployment remains South Africa's most formidable economic challenge. Statistics
South Africa (2001) announced in September 2001 that the country's official
unemployment rate stood at 26,4% for February 2001. In February 2000, it stood at
26,7%. Government is focusing on the formal sector and small-business growth, and
supporting development sector initiatives to create more jobs. Patrick Craven (2005:1)
spokesperson of the Congress of Trade Unions in South Africa warns that “thousands
more jobs will be lost if the industry collapses, which will be a tragedy for the South
African economy, which would have lost a major part of the manufacturing industry
(Inggs, 2005, Sunday Tribune, Business Report, 23 January 2005:1). According to the
GEM Report (2001:46), the general consensus is that small business development is seen
as high priority for policy at national government level. However, putting this
commitment into practice has proved complex in terms of both the general policy
environment and programmes aimed specifically at supporting small enterprises. This
sentiment is echoed by the Business Bulletin (2001:2) “the back-up, especially from other
central government departments also dealing with the SMME sector, is lacking. It is as if
at central government level the role-players are fiddling around, not knowing exactly what
and how to do, let alone provide clear directions and encouragement”. Government
officials lacking business experience have little understanding of the varied and complex
needs of entrepreneurs (GEM Report, 2001:48).
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND DESIGN
Sekeran (2000:265) states that surveys are useful and powerful in finding answers to
research questions, but they can do more harm than good if not correctly targeted. The
research methodology for the study provided both primary and secondary data. The
primary data collected formed the investigation using a structured questionnaire. The
scope of the SMMEs concentration was delimited to the Kwa-Zulu province of South
Africa. The target population meeting the criteria was extracted from The Industrial
Council list of Clothing Firms and the 2000 Clofed (Clothing Federation) Handbook.
Initially, the probability sampling method using simple random sampling (SRS) was found
to be the most appropriate for the present study. The selection criteria adopted to form the
target population included the following:
Small businesses located in KwaZulu-Natal; and
Businesses whose employee composition was less than two hundred employees or
who stipulated owning less than two hundred sewing machines.
SAMPLE SELECTION AND DATA COLLECTION: Both the lists were composed of
large as well as small manufacturers. A screening procedure was used to eliminate those
firms who were not members of the group under study. The literature highlights various
probability and non-probability sampling methods, as well as randomisation using
numbers from tables (Bless and Higson-Smith, 1995; Melville and Goddard, 1996;
Welman and Kruger, 2001). For this study it was initially decided to draw numbers out of
a jar, using the simple random sampling technique. Mixing the numbered slips and
returning them between every selection ensured that every element in the sampling frame
had an equal chance of selection (Welman and Kruger, 2001; Cooper and Emory, 1993;
Melville and Goddard, 1996). According to Cooper and Schindler (2003:185) this serves
as an alternative to selecting a random sample with the aid of computer software, a table
of random numbers or a calculator with a random number generator. Care had to be taken
not to duplicate firms that appeared in both the lists. The Industrial Council list showed
that approximately 100 firms had ceased to exist. The final total of Clothing SMMEs in
the two lists was 109 firms (N=109). It was decided to use the survey method and target
the entire sample frame because of its small size. The precoded questionnaires were
initially mailed and constant follow ups with gentle reminders saw the collation of some
57 returns equating to a 52.29% response rate. The response rate seemed adequate to draw
meaningful inferences when compared to the results depicted in the following surveys:
The response rate of 29.6% in a study conducted by Sullivan and Kang (1999)
explains that this return rate is comparable with other published studies of apparel
manufacturers.
Wijewardena and Tibbis (1999) attribute the low response rate of 28.4% of their
study with the nature of small firms and the response usually associated with most
mail surveys.
For similar reasons an 18.3% response rate to an SMME study conducted in Kobe,
Japan (1995) was considered adequate (Wijewardena and Cooray, 1995).
ANALYSES OF THE DATA
Once the data were edited and cleaned they were captured on the computer by the
researcher for statistical analysis (Babbie and Halley, 1994). The questionnaires were
collated and numerically referenced to facilitate the process of data capturing. The
relevant statistical techniques were then applied to test the various hypotheses.
Descriptive statistics facilitates initial data analysis, but the researcher is also interested in
making statistical inferences about the population from the sample (Babbie, 1991;
Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill, 2000). Hence, the use of inferential statistics is introduced
to present the data in statistical format so that important patterns, relationships and
analysis become more meaningful (Bailey, 1994; Babbie and Halley, 1994).
The Microsoft Word and Excel programmes were used to present the graphics. For this
study the use of descriptive statistics as well as the less robust tools of non-parametric
tests were also used to analyse the empirical data.
KEY FINDINGS AND RESULTS
The statistical programme used for the analyses and presentation of data in this paper is
the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) Version 11.0 for Windows. This
section consists of descriptive statistics which uses frequency tables and display charts to
provide information on key demographic variables in the study. The nature of the data
accessed in this study was in a nominal and ordinal form. The descriptive statistics of the
sample profile and its characteristics facilitate integration with the more pertinent
findings of the research hypotheses. The analysis of the empirical findings shows strong
support for the hypotheses tested. Meaningful results are also conceptualised within the
context of the study. In order to enhance the quality of the research, significant trends
emerging in the data analysis are also highlighted. The following section uses inferential
statistics for the presentation and analyses of the empirical data. The analyses involved
the use of non-parametric tests, utilising chi-square and binomial methods where
applicable.
SKILLS TRAINING: There is a significant difference in perception towards skills
training provided by Government and the targeted growth of the SMME clothing sector.
Table 2 Provision of training support (n=57)
SMME Response
Frequency %
Yes 22 38.6
No 35 61.4
Total 57 100%
Table 2 reveals that 61.4% of the respondents were negative in the belief that government
had provided support with regard to skills training. Only 38.6% of the sample had
received training support. A binomial test produced a non-significant result (p=0.112)
for SMMEs who had receiving training support. These data may imply that SMMEs see
a role for government in facilitating and promoting provision of skills training. The
World Bank survey (2001:26) survey conducted by Chandra, Moorty, Nganou,
Rajaratnam and Schaefer (2001) shows that while around 40% of firms face difficulty in
finding skilled labour, less than 25% of firms engage in any form of training. Due to
resource constraints within SMMEs, it is not surprising that most firms perceive they are
not able to adequately respond to a skills shortage without some government assistance.
Government has to determine what role is most appropriate, and how best to ensure that
the gains from training efforts are realised quickly, and focused on efforts to achieve
faster growth at the SMME level. Rogerson’s (1999) study found that emerging
enterprises do most of their employee training in house but that 40% of established firms
used external courses linked to Training Boards. These Training Boards have since
ceased to exist and have been replaced by the Sector Education and Training Authorities
(SETAs). Martins and Tustin (1999) found that just over two-thirds of SMMEs in their
survey indicated that they needed training, of which management training is perceived as
most important, followed by book-keeping and marketing. The same survey pointed out
that, business advisors should visit owners/managers to help with implementation of
training. According to Autio and Klofsten, (1998) a gap often exists between the actual
business support delivered and how the firms themselves perceived this support.
MENTORING ASSISTANCE: There is a significant relationship between mentorship
assistance and the productive growth of SMMEs in the clothing sector.
Table 3 Provision of mentorship support (n=57)
SMME Response
Frequency %
Yes 9 15.8
No 48 84.2
Total 57 100%
Table 3 indicates that only 15.8% of the sample had received mentorship support. 84.2%
of the respondents did not receive mentorship support. A binomial test yielded a highly
significant result (p<0.001) for non-support. Many organisations have set up formal
mentoring programmes often as part of their affirmative action or orientation efforts. In
the case of SMMEs the mentor may provide coaching by suggesting work strategies,
which will result in productivity improvements. The KZN MAC previously (DUMAC)
advertises a Mentorship Programme to SMMEs (DUMAC News, 2001:7). The
newsletter indicates that the pool of experts available to them, are hands on and get
directly involved in the business. The net result is that the entrepreneur develops the
capacity to deal with business related challenges with more confidence. According to the
August 2001 statistics in the DUMAC newsletter, 23% assistance was offered to the
clothing and textile industries. This assistance is based on subsidised projects. Clients
are requested to fill in a subsidy matrix for which points are scored. Factors taken into
consideration are turnover, number of workers, new company etcetera. Based on the
points scored the KZN MAC will pay a percentage to the service provider and the client
will pay the balance. For example, if the KZN MAC pays 70% then the client has to pay
30%. Service providers offered by the KZN MAC to SMMEs are for productivity
improvement, marketing, human resources development, skills training, access to finance
and quality systems.
TARIFFS ON IMPORTED INPUTS: There is a significant relationship between duty
levels imposed on SMMEs and their ability to generate employment and growth. Textile
manufacturers are unable to meet the local demand of clothing manufacturers as noted in
Table 4. This inadequacy on the part of the textile mills forces clothing manufacturers to
import fabric inputs. 82.5% of the respondents in Table 4 agreed that the duty levels
have adversely affected the SMME clothing manufacturer. This yielded a highly
significant result (x²=62.842, df=2, p<0.001) for inefficiencies caused by duties resulting
in higher garment costs. By imposing high duties on fabric inputs, protection is offered
to the local textile mills and this will have the opposite effect on job creation in the
clothing firms.
Table 4 The detrimental effect of high duty levels on imported inputs (n=57)
Response to duty levels Frequency
%
Yes 47 82.5
No 8 14.0
CMT firm therefore not applicable 2 3.5
Total 57 100%
GOVERNMENT TENDER CONTRACTS: There is a significant relationship between
application rates for Government tender contracts by SMMEs and policy initiatives to
build capacity among SMMEs in the clothing sector. Table 5 reveals that only 3.5% of
sample respondents tendered for government contracts. A chi-square test pointed to a
highly significant result of (x²=49.281, df=1, p<0.001) for SMMEs that had not applied
for government contracts. Supporting SMMEs in the tendering process is the mandate of
Tender Advisory Centers (TACs). SMMEs in the World Bank Survey (2001:44)
indicated that increased contracts from government and large firms were needed for them
to expand their employment.
Table 5 Clothing SMMEs tendering for Government contracts (n=57)
SMMEs tendered for contracts Frequency %
Yes 2 3.5
No 55 96.5
Total 57 100%
Low application rates for tenders were also noted in the World Bank Survey (2001:42),
which were in contrast to the high importance that SMMEs attached to increased
government support for their growth through improved procurement policies. Only 5-6%
of SMMEs obtain business from government in the World Bank Survey (2001:44).
These data suggests that improved efforts to expand procurement to SMMEs and build
entrepreneurial capacity among SMMEs in the clothing sector for government tenders
should be accelerated. However, low application occurs perhaps because firms are either
not aware of the programs, or find the application process tedious, or because some (such
as post-apartheid or Black firms) may lack business expertise, or find inadequate
government support systems (World Bank Survey 2001:42). This suggests that
government promotion and procurement policies could be improved to boost growth in
the SMME level, as could efforts to promote networking and sub-contracting
arrangements between large firms and SMMEs. In this respect contracts given to large
firms could specify subcontracting to SMMEs.
CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS
The findings arising from the empirical evidence have been contextualised within the
broader framework of the study. The findings clearly indicate that Government’s
intentions for SMMEs development as a vehicle for job creation have not materialised.
Programmes need to be rationalised and advertised to reach the SMME. Reducing the
administrative burden of compliance for established small firms will encourage
businesses to enter the formal sector. High priority areas needing attention as indicated
by respondents were access to finance, control of imports, trade union interference, cost
of raw materials and the quality of labour.
The implications of the foregoing for SMMEs in South Africa can be summarised as
follows:
• South Africa’s SMME sector is expected to fulfill a number of roles ranging
from poverty alleviation and employment creation to international
competitiveness. These are very different policy objectives and the policy
instruments introduced to meet these objectives can be equally different,
ranging from literacy training to skills training, from productivity
improvement to technological advice. Therefore, determining clear
government policies and goals is imperative to negate barriers for sustainable
SMME development and growth.
• After many years of isolation South Africa has rejoined the family of nations.
Commitments have been made by South Africa to the World Trade
Organisation that quantitative barriers be removed and tariffs be reduced.
Trade liberalisation and tariff reduction on ready-made apparel has impacted
on the growth of clothing SMMEs. While many firms are concerned and fear
for their future survival others are being proactive and taking the necessary
steps to reorganise, retrain and modernise production to meet international
standards. Numerous firms have indicated their desire to expand into
international markets to increase their market share. However, government
objectives are too broad and over ambitious. In this respect government
programmes need to be targeted to offer focussed support to assist in the
growth and development of these enterprises.
• The priority areas for accelerating SMME growth need to be identified for
government decision-makers if success is to be achieved. Survey results
indicate that the two major areas of concern for clothing SMMEs are access to
affordable finance and clothing imports. Following in close proximity, in
ranking order of concerns are: the trade union movement with its stricter
labour policies; duty levels on imported inputs; raw material costs; and the
quality of labour. According to the respondents of this study, lack of financial
assistance and legislation are seen to be the two most important factors
contributing to failure of clothing SMMEs. Evidence in this report indicates
that SMMEs have received minimal support from the Government to grow
their businesses. There is an urgent need to sustain the survival of SMMEs in
the long run so that they can make a meaningful contribution to economic to
economic growth. Narrowly targeted programmes such as the National
Manufacturing Advisory Centre programme tend to be more focused on
productivity improvement and are more successful. It is important that these
programmes remain targeted and do not come under pressure to deliver on
broader fronts, thus undermining the source of their original success.
• Empirical evidence suggests that insufficient demand for SMME products
(that is, market conditions); legal and illegal imports, labour and capital
market constraints were key reasons for a decrease in employment growth.
Shortage of skilled labour, labour legislation and labour market regulation
were seen as deterrents to employment creation. Lack of access to capital and
high interest rates to SMMEs were reasons for the diminishing growth of
SMMES. Evidence indicates that SMMEs would like Government to provide
cheaper financial assistance, increased government promotion of SMMEs,
followed by more contracts from government and large business.
FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS
Future research can also examine the extent of procurement activities offered to SMMEs
to date. Decisions with regard to resource allocation and the commitment of Government
to SMME development in South Africa could also be further scrutinised. It would also be
useful to conduct a parallel study of SMMEs in the footwear industry. This industry is
also prone to the volatility of exchange rates, dumping, tariffs and duty as well as
government support interventions for encouraging sustainable development of SMMEs.
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