THE MIDDLE AGES• Began when Roman Empire collapsed in the 6th century AD and
ended sometime during the 14th-15th centuries• Historians once believed they were a long and bleak era of violence,
superstition, and ignorance– Big step backwards from achievements of the Ancient World– Called them the “Dark Ages”
• But Middle Ages were not completely “dark”– Ancient civilization had reached a ceiling in terms of what it
could accomplish– Middle Ages represented a new civilization• By mingling what was best of the ancient heritage with new
Germanic and, later, Arab traditions• Capable of further growth and progress
Western sphere was hodgepodge of loosely-
organized kingdoms that became even more fragmented and decentralized as time went
on
CHARLEMAGNE
• Frankish ruler Charlemagne (Charles the Great) attempted to overcome this chronic disunity around 800 AD– Temporarily created an empire that stretched from France
into Eastern Europe– Invented title of “Holy Roman Emperor” for himself to
underline his attempt to resurrect the unity of the old Roman Empire
BREAKUP
• Empire broke up after his death – Due to incompetence of
his descendants– His failure to set up an
administrative system that would keep the empire together without him
– New barbarian invasions
MAGYARS
• Magyars – From Central Asia– Raided Germany for decades• Hit, destroyed, and left
– Defeated when they tried to invade France and settled in what is now Hungary• Descendants of modern-day Hungarians
VIKINGS• From Scandinavia• Travelled in low-slung ships
which displaced little water• Raids began around the time of
Charlemagne’s death– Escalated with time– Favored attacking the weak
and defenseless• Ultimately established bases in
Normandy and England– Thereby exposed to
civilization and Christianity
A POLITICAL MESS
• End result was a hopelessly complex jigsaw puzzle of small states– Each with its own ruler• Often with title of
“duke” or “count”– Nominally owed
allegiance to men who retained the title of king but this allegiance was more theoretical than real
PROBLEMS• Long distance trade virtually
disappeared• Currency fell into disuse
– People reverted to barter system
• Cities shrank dramatically in size and sometimes disappeared altogether
• With the exception of isolated monasteries, educational standards declined to such a point that even kings were illiterate
• Only form of unity was the Church– But its intellectual standards
decline due to the prevalent ignorance of the time
FEUDALISM• Feudalism developed in
response to need of local warrior-aristocrats to protect and administer their territory in the absence of any sort of effective central authority
• It was the grant of a piece of land (fief) by a lord to a subordinate (vassal) in exchange for the vassal’s promise to provide the lord with military service for a specified period of time
Subinfeudation
FORM OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT
• Also a decentralized form of government– As long as a vassal met
his obligations to his lord, he was supreme within his fief• Made his own laws• Enforced them as he
saw fit• Settled dispute of
the people under his jurisdiction
PEASANTS• Vast majority of Europeans
were peasants– Small-scale subsistence
farmers who devoted their lives to growing enough to stay alive and meet their obligations
– Did not participate at all in the political feudal system• Were not lords or
vassals– Lived an worked on manors• Economic sub-units of
fiefs
LAND USAGE
• Typical manor consisted of village surround by arable land– Always divided into three fields,
each in a different state of cultivation• Three field system of rotation• Given the lack of animal fertilizer
and lack of knowledge of scientific fertilization, this was the only way to avoid soil exhaustion
– Fields divided into narrow strips• Each family had certain number
of strips scattered throughout the fields
SERFS• Peasants paid a portion of their annual
harvest to their lord as rent– Also worked a certain number of days
per week on lord’s land– Had to bring legal disputes to lord’s
court and pay fee for decision– Had to pay fee to use lord’s
monopolies– Even had to pay lord a fee for
permission to get married• Peasants were legally “serfs”– Bound to the manor and its lord for
life
GOD’S PLAN• Peasants had to pay 10% of harvest to
Church (tithe)• Later, they also had to pay royal taxes• Even though the peasant theoretically
received the military protection of their lord in exchange for their obligations, their life was an endless round of backbreaking labor, deep poverty, complete lack of personal independence, and resigned and hopeless desperation– But they accepted this unfair system
because• They could think of no alternative• The Church taught that it was God’s
plan
BIG CHANGEAfter the year 1000, cities began to grow in both size
and beauty; local and international trade revived; and kings began to break down the feudal system and create
nation-states with centralized institutions of government
Notre Dame (Paris) Chartres
REASON
• Population began to grow after 1000– After centuries of decline and/or
stagnation– Caused by increase in food
production• Prompted by increase in
amount of arable land–Made possible by draining
of swamps and forest clearance by monasteries in Central and Eastern Europe
REVIVAL OF LOCAL TRADE
• Population growth created surplus people in countryside that manors could not support– They moved to long
dormant towns to find new ways to support themselves
– Sparked revival of local trade and manufacturing• Created demand for
locally produced agricultural products and manufactured items
CRUSADES• Launched in 1095 by Pope Innocent III• Purpose in theory was to reconquer the
Holy Land from the Moslem Turks who had taken the region over earlier– This goal was never permanently
achieved despite at least seven Crusades sent to accomplish it
– Main result was a tremendous amount of human and property destruction
• Crusaders did develop a taste for Middle Eastern luxury products– Spices, silk, steel products, coffee, tea– Wanted these things even after they
had returned to Europe
COMMERCIAL REVOLUTION• Ex-Crusaders were wealthy men
who would pay anything to get what they wanted– Provided incentive to northern
Italian merchants to re-establish trade contacts with Middle East• Risks were high but
potential rewards were even higher
• Revival of local and international trade create Commercial Revolution– Gave birth to modern
capitalism
RISE OF THE NATION-STATE• William I (“the Bastard) of England and
Philip Augustus of France painfully created alternative administrative systems which allowed them to bypass the unreliable feudal nobility and exert direct control over their realms– Never tried to do way with the feudal
system– Instead did an end run around it by
developing new ways to administer local areas and raise troops that did not require cooperation of feudal strongmen• Created national institutions of
government
William I of England
EXAMPLE: ENGLAND UNDER WILLIAM I
• Former Duke of Normandy took throne of England in 1066– Rewarded vassals but knew he
couldn’t trust them in the long run
– Divided England into districts (“shires”), each administered by an appointed official called a “Shire-reeve” (sheriff)• Used them to collect taxes,
enforce the law, and raise troops
THE CHURCH
• Authority of Roman Catholic Church greater than that of any king– Sophisticated administration– Tremendous wealth– Owned large percentage of
land in Europe• Popes contended with kings on an
equal basis, using their powerful spiritual weapons– Excommunication– Interdict
CRISIS OF THE LATE MIDDLE AGES
• High Middle Ages were a period of progress and prosperity– Cities grew in size and
beauty– Trade revived– Kings reasserted their power
over their realms– The Church was at its peak of
power and prestige• Then it all came crashing down
in the 14th century– Crisis of the Late Middle Ages
CRISES IN THE CHURCH• Babylonian Captivity– 1309-1372– French king gained control of papacy– Forced popes to move to southern
France (Avignon)• Great Schism– Two, and then three, men claimed to
be pope at the same time– Threw Church into confusion– Things were finally resolved in 1415,
with one pope headquartered in Rome• But many Christians were left
confused and/or cynical
Papal palace in Avignon
100 YEARS WAR• Sparked by dispute over the French
throne between the king of England and French claimant to the throne– Escalated into a war that last over a
century• 1337-1453
• Entire war fought in France– England had the upper hand for the
first 75 years of the conflict– But France would eventually win
and England forced to evacuate territory it had occupied in France
– Involved such famous characters as Edward the Black Prince and Joan of Arc
REPERCUSSIONS I
• Longbow introduced by English– Could pierce armor from a
distance of 100 yards– Rendered heavily armored
and armed feudal knight obsolete• And also the system that
had developed to support him
• Light infantry, recruited from towns and cities, became key to military success
REPERCUSSIONS II• Hundreds of thousands of people
killed during the war– Decimating the population after
centuries of growth• Heavy taxation needed to finance war
intensified the misery of peasants– Often pushed them beyond the
breaking point– Sparked peasant uprisings
(jacqueries) in France and England– None of the revolts succeeded but
they illustrated deep peasant resentment of social and economic system• No longer passively accepted it
BLACK DEATH I
• Also known as bubonic plague• Excruciatingly painful, extremely
contagious, and always fatal disease– Attacked lymphatic system• Causing horrendous
swelling– Also cause body extremities
to decay while person was still alive
– Carried by fleas and by contact with infected person
BLACK DEATH II• Started in China in 1331– Carried by merchants and soldiers
across Asia to Black Sea ports• Picked up by Italian merchants
and carried back to Europe• Spread from Italy to France,
Germany, Low Countries, Spain, and even England by June 1348
– Europeans could not treat it or prevent it from spreading• If you caught it, you were
doomed to die a horrible, often lonely, death
BLACK DEATH III• 25% of European population
killed in two years– Contributing to further
population decline• Some cities lost 80% of their
population– Disrupting trade – Plunged Europe into a
century-long depression• Generated urban
unemployment, waves of business failures, more peasant unrest, and an increase in crime and violence
Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse
Danse Macabre
People thought they were
living through the end of the
world
Talk of the Day of Judgment
was widespread
Most popular piece of literature
was Book of Revelations and
most popular artistic images
were Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse and Danse Macabre
JUSTINIAN AND THEODORA
High point of history of Byzantine Empire was during the reign of Justinian and Theodora (527-565)
Re-conquered Italy, southern Spain and North Africa in vain attempt to recreate old Roman Empire
Collected Roman laws and organized them into “Justinian’s Code”
Built largest church in the world in Constantinople: the Sancta Sophia
JUSTINIAN’S CONQUESTS
Most of his conquests would be lost shortly
after his death
SANTA SOPHIA
Exterior
Interior
IMPORTANT ROLE
• Empire would be renown for its wealth, power, and military strength for the next 500 years– Numerous Byzantine emperors would
dominate the Church, the nobility, and common people• Served by huge bureaucracy
– Army would throw back or at least weaken wave after wave of would-be invaders• Persians, Arabs, Seljuk Turks• Incidentally protected Western
Europe from these invaders
MISSIONARY WORKEmpire also civilized barbarian tribes living on the fringes of
Europe by converting them to Christianity
Byzantine missionaries, led by St. Cyril, converted a Slavic tribe
know as the Russians to Christianity
In order to translate the Bible into their spoken language, he invented the alphabet they still use today—the Cyrillic alphabet
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN EAST AND WEST
• Byzantine emperor retained control of the Church in the East– Through his puppet, the
bishop of Constantinople– He appointed all bishops
and settled theological disputes
– Church was closely connected to the state in the East—not independent from it as it was in the West
SCHISM
• Religious difference between East and West led to growing tension between pope and bishop of Constantinople– Tension escalated until 1054
when a minor theological dispute snowballed to the point where the pope and bishop excommunicated each other
– Created two Christian churches• Roman Catholic Church• Eastern Orthodox Church
• Byzantine Empire became smaller and smaller as time went on– Lost Western European possessions, North Africa,
Mediterranean Middle East, and finally Greece to various invaders• By 1200, it only included Constantinople and a little adjoining
territory
FALL OF CONSTANTINOPLE
• Ottoman Turks breached walls of the city, killed last Byzantine emperor, and took over city– In 1453– Took advantage of
technological advances in artillery to breach walls
– Renamed city Istanbul and made it capital of their new empire
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