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The influence of role models, self-efficacy, carreerexploration, mentorship, educational aspirations,and academic enrichment on career aspirations ofyouth of youth in a precollege enrichmant programJacqueline A. ScottClark Atlanta University
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Recommended CitationScott, Jacqueline A., "The influence of role models, self-efficacy, carreer exploration, mentorship, educational aspirations, and academicenrichment on career aspirations of youth of youth in a precollege enrichmant program" (2010). ETD Collection for AUC Robert W.Woodruff Library. Paper 154.
ABSTRACT
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP
SCOTT, JACQUELINE A. B.S. BETHUNE-COOKMAN COLLEGE, 1971
M.ED. UNIVERSITY OF CENTRAL FLORIDA, 1974
THE INFLUENCE OF ROLE MODELS, SELF-EFFICACY, CAREER
EXPLORATION, MENTORSHIP, EDUCATIONAL ASPIRATIONS,
AND ACADEMIC ENRICHMENT ON CAREER ASPIRATIONS
OF YOUTH IN A PRECOLLEGE ENRICHMENT PROGRAM
Advisor: Dr. Noran Moffett
Dissertation dated May 2010
The purpose of this study is to investigate the relationship of roles models, self
efficacy, career exploration, mentorship, educational aspirations and academic
enrichment on the career aspirations of middle school students in a precollege enrichment
program at a medical school. Through precollege outreach programs, multiple strategies
have been utilized in attempts to increase minority student interest and academic
preparation for health profession training at the postsecondary and graduate levels. A
mixed method design consisting of both quantitative and qualitative elements was
utilized in data collection. A survey, interview process, and document analysis provided
the data on factors influential in career aspirations of middle school students in a
precollege enrichment program. Stepwise Regression statistical analysis revealed that
educational aspiration was found to predict career aspirations. The findings provide
1
evidence that educational aspiration is key in the career development process. One
observation may be that educational aspirations are related to strong self-efficacy, high
self esteem and high educational aspirations which translate into attainment of career and
self satisfaction.
THE iNFLUENCE OF ROLE MODELS, SELF-EFFICACY, CAREER
EXPLORATION, MENTORSHIP, EDUCATIONAL ASPIRATIONS,
AND ACADEMIC ENRICHMENT ON CAREER ASPIRATIONS
OF YOUTH IN A PRECOLLEGE ENRICHMENT PROGRAM
A DISSERTATION
SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF CLARK ATLANTA UNIVERSITY
IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS
FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
BY
JACQUELINE A. SCOTT
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP
ATLANTA, GEORGIA
MAY2010
® 2010
JACQUELiNE A. SCOTT
All Rights Reserved
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
“For the LORD giveth wisdom: out of his mouth cometh knowledge and
understanding” (Proverbs 2:6 KJV). God has graciously given wisdom, knowledge and
understanding. Without His presence in my life I would not have been able to complete
this degree.
I thank my parents, Gertrude and Jimmie Atmore, who instilled the thirst for
knowledge in me, who always encouraged me and taught me the importance of
education. I acknowledge my family my husband, Charles and my two sons, Charles
Jr., and Cedric, and my grandson, Jeric, who have supported me through all my
endeavors and reassured me through all of my challenges.
To Dr. Noran Moffett, my committee chair, who provided counsel, guidance, and
encouragement through the research and final analysis of this dissertation and to Dr.
Shelia Gregory, who assisted me in galvanizing my thoughts to initiate the dissertation
process, thank you. I thank the members of my committee, Dr. Moses C. Norman and
Dr. Trevor Turner, for sharing their expertise in linguistics and statistics, respectively and
for asking probing questions that provided further insight into this project.
Many thanks to all my family members, circle of friends, co-workers, and
associates whose prayers, words of encouragement, offers of assistance, and love
provided the foundation, support, and inspiration for me to pursue and complete this
degree.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ii
LIST OF FIGURES vi
LIST OF TABLES vii
CHAPTER
INTRODUCTION 1
Background of the Problem 1
Precollege Science Enrichment Program 6
Purpose of the Study 8
Problem Statement 9
Significance of the Study 10
Research Questions 11
II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE 13
Introduction 13
Role Models 14
Self-Efficacy 14
Career Exploration 15
Mentors 16
Parent and Family 17
Educational Aspirations 18
Academic Enrichment 18
Internal Factors 19
111
Table of Contents (continued)
CHAPTER PAGE
External Factors 19
Overview of Career Decision Theories 20
III. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 24
Purpose of the Study 26
Definition of the Variables 26
IV. METHODOLOGY 29
Research Design 29
Population 29
Survey 30
Pilot Study 32
Focus Group Guide 32
Document Analysis 34
Data Collection 37
Data Analysis 38
Limitations of the Study 38
V. RESULTS 40
Demographics of Survey Participants 41
Definition of Terms 49
Correlation of CIS Scale Variables 50
Factor Analysis of Subscales 52
Research Questions 56
iv
Table of Contents (continued)
CHAPTER PAGE
FocusGroup.63
Document Analysis 71
Summary of Results 72
VI. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 75
Research Questions 76
Conclusions 85
Recommendations 87
APPENDIX
A. Survey Reviewers’ Correspondence 90
B. Parental Consent Form 93
C. ANOVA Table 96
D. Career Influence Survey 97
E. Focus Group Guide 102
F. Test for Skewness 103
G. Casewise Diagnostic to Reveal Outliers 104
REFERENCES 105
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE PAGE
1. Theoretical Framework 25
2. Gender of Participants 42
3. Science Grades of Participants 43
4. Mathematics Grades of Participants 44
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE PAGE
1. Instrument Reliability .36
2. Categories of Students by Standard Occupational Classification
of Career Aspiration 45
3. Instrument Before and After Reliability Study 46
4. Subscales with Final Number of Items and Reliability Coefficients 47
5. Pearson’s Correlation Coefficients for Career Influence Subscales 48
6. Descriptive Statistics for CIS Subscale Variables that Influence
Career Aspirations 53
7. Factor Loadings and Communalities Based on a Principle
Component Analysis with Varimax Rotation for Nine
Subscales of the Career Influence Inventory 55
8. Correlation of Variables which Influence Career Aspirations 58
9. Effect Size of Each Variable 60
10. Stepwise Regression Model of Demographic and CIS Variables
with Career Aspirations (Mean Annual Salary) as Dependent
Variable 62
11. Career Aspirations of Participants in the Focus Group 65
vii
List of Tables (continued)
TABLE PAGE
12. Most Influential Persons in the Career Aspirations of
Participants 68
viii
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Advances in medicine stimulated by technological advances have changed what
once were considered terminal illnesses to that of chronic illnesses and have made some
procedures, such as organ transplants, more routine and safer. Yet despite these medical
miracles, the health problems of the poor, disenfranchised and marginal members of
society are continuing to increase at an alarming rate (King, et a!., 2004; American
Association of Medical Colleges [AAMC], 2003; Friscella, Franks, Gold, & Clancy,
2000). In the United States, the issue of underrepresented minorities in the medical
profession further compounds the problem of health care delivery systems and will
require creative efforts to counteract the obstacles of anti-affirmative action movements
(Reede, 2003). Underrepresented minorities have been defined as racial/ethnic groups
whose numerical representation in medicine is less than their numerical representation in
the general population (AAMC, 2003).
Background of the Problem
The racial/ethnic composition of the U. S. physician workforce is not reflective of
the general population. In 2001, African Americans, Hispanics, and Native Americans
represented six percent of U. S. physicians, while their representation in the general
2
population was 25.7% (Reede, 2003). The problem of underrepresented minorities in the
physician workforce has not decreased despite the efforts by medical schools,
philanthropic foundations, professional organizations, and the federal government. The
issue of underrepresentation has been further exacerbated by growth in the minority
population and a decrease in minority admissions to medical school.
Minority physicians have been and will continue to be in demand (Reede, 2003;
Cohen, 2003; Carlisle, Gardner, & Liu, 1998). In 2000, minorities comprised
approximately 26% of the U. S. population (Census, 2000). It is projected that by 2050,
the minority population is expected to increase to approximately 50% of the total U. S.
population (Census, 2000). The increase in minority population could mean that
racial/ethnic minorities may no longer qualify as minorities. Powe and Cooper (2004)
posits that the socioeconomic future of the U.S. depends upon how well the workforce
reflects the population and that a diverse workforce brings value to better services and
better workforce functioning.
Various studies have amplified relationships that already exist between health
care and minority physicians. According to the Sullivan Commission’s report, African
American patients are more likely to receive their care from African American doctors
(Sullivan Commission, 2004). Better patient-reported outcomes are evident in studies
where the patients and their physicians have similar race/ethnic background and language
(Cooper-Patrick, et al., 1999; Cooper, et al., 2003; Lee, Batal, Maselli, & Kutner, 2002;
Perez-Stable, Napoles-Springer, & Miramontes, 1997). A culturally diverse workforce is
essential to meeting the health care needs of the population. Diversity in the medical
3
workforce is essential in eliminating health disparities. A culturally diverse physician
workforce would foster better communication and treatment between physician and
patient. Despite their small numbers, minority physicians participate in and foster
research in the areas of health disparities. Minority physicians provide leadership and
serve as mentors and role models to support underrepresented minorities as they pursue
medical careers (Sullivan Commission, 2004; Institute of Medicine of the National
Academies [IOM], 2004). Minority physicians provide primary care to a large portion of
the nation’s underserved population, which are predominantly African American,
Hispanic and Native American (Saha, Taggart. Komaromy, & Bindman, 2000; Keith,
Bell, Swanson & Williams, 1985; Moy & Bartmen, 1995). As major contributors to
health care services in the U.S., minority physicians are instrumental in developing
models of care that specifically meet the needs of minority communities.
In the U.S. health care system, the minority population has poorer health
outcomes when compared to the majority population. Despite education, insurance
coverage, and income, racial and ethnic minorities have less access to health care (Isaacs
& Schroder, 2004). The unequal access to health care demonstrates that US racial and
ethnic minorities suffer disproportionately from diseases such as diabetes, cardiovascular
disease, hypertension, cancer, and the human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immune
deficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS), experience a lower quality of health care delivery
services and are less likely to receive routine health maintenance services (Graham &
Richardson, 2006; Betancourt, 2006; Blumenthal & Kagen, 2002; Hood, 2001). As the
number of minority groups increases, there is also a subsequent increase in their need for
4
health care. The lack of diversity in the physician workforce has been the concern of
many (Petersdorf, Turner, & Nickens, 1990; Bureau of Health Professions [BHP], 1993;
JOM, 1994). The solution to the problem of health disparities is convoluted and cannot
be effortlessly solved. The epicenter of health care disparities is varied in source and
blame should not be attributed to any one entity (King & Wheeler, 2004). Health care
disparities may arise from complex interactions between health care systems, patients,
physician, institutions, and health care providers (Ayanian & Epstein, 1991; Johnson, et
al., 1993; Schulman, et al., 1999; Peterson, et a!., 1997). The source of which is difficult
to clearly provide explanation. Disparities in health care services cannot be blamed on
the medical system exclusively but rather from a broad spectrum of factors, more notably
including historic patterns of discrimination (Betancourt, 2006). These factors, which
have not been addressed effectively, are undermining patient health (Isaacs & Schroeder,
2004).
Studies have documented that African Americans and Hispanics are at a greater
risk than whites of not receiving the recommended health care needed (Asch, et al., 2006)
and that African Americans are less likely to receive life saving therapy when compared
to their white counterparts (Canto, et a!., 2000). Racial disparities were also documented
by the National Medicare 1998 Health Plan Employer Data and Information Set (HEDIS)
Survey. The results from this survey demonstrated that Blacks were significantly less
likely than whites to receive each of the HEDIS measured services, specifically breast
cancer screening, eye examinations for patients with diabetes, and beta blocker use after
myocardial infarction (Schneider, Zaslavsky, & Epstein, 2002).
5
Educational Pipeline Diversity
Naturally, a lack of diversity in the physician workforce can be linked to a lack of
diversity in the educational pipeline. According to the American Association of Medical
College’s (AAMC) FACTS- Applicants, Matriculants and Graduates (2006), only 7.2%
of all medical students are black; only 16% of medical students represent racial or ethnic
minority groups. Though the current percentages are low in comparison to the majority
population numbers, these figures do represent a slight increase in enrollment annually
between 2002 and 2006.
Many minorities do not pursue the medical degree due to such barriers as role
stereotypes, economic and financial barriers, gender biases, lack of direction from early
authority figures, feelings of unequal treatment due to race, and lack of mentors (Fruen &
Cantwell, 1983; Bright, Duefield, & Stone, 1998; Sullivan Commission, 2003). Unequal
access to medical education opportunities for minority students is still evident. Strategies
are needed to improve recruitment, matriculation, retention, and graduation rates of
minority students as they move through the educational pipeline (Cohen, et al., 2002).
There is a need to develop a health care workforce that is aligned with the racial
and ethnic diversity present in the population. One strategy to improve access and
quality of health care for the underserved is to increase the number of practitioners in
health and allied health professions (Cohen, Gabriel, & Terrell, 200~; Saha et a!., 2003;
Fiscella, Franks, Gold, & Clancy, 2000). It has been postulated that medical
professionals from disadvantaged populations are more likely to work in underserved
areas (Cooper-Patrick et al., 1999; Saha, et a!., 2000; Reede, 2003). Higher education in
6
its quest to contribute to a diverse health care workforce need to attract and retain
underrepresented minorities in the educational pipeline.
Precollege Science Enrichment Program
Program Description
The precollege science program, referred to as the Academy, is an academic
enrichment academy designed to stimulate the interest of minority elementary and middle
school students in pursuing degrees in biomedical research and health professions. The
Academy has a regular school component and a summer school component. The summer
component is a Summer Science Camp and the regular school component is a Saturday
Science Academy.
The goals of the Academy are (a) to develop an academic and educational
pipeline through which students between grades 4-12 can participate in science and
mathematics activities, (b) to increase the number of students enrolling in upper level
science and mathematics courses upon reaching middle and high school, and (c) to
provide linkages between elementary school, middle school, high school, college and
medical and allied health school.
The Academy provides enrichment for elementary and middle school students to
enhance their knowledge in science, mathematics, health and science. technology,
engineering and mathematics (STEM) fields. Students are involved in challenging hands
on activities while making the learning of science and mathematics fun. The students
also develop science and health projects, explore health careers and the contributions of
Africans and African Americans to science and medicine, and participate in educational
7
field trips and cultural activities. Some of the cultural activities in which students
participate include chess, African dance, Capoeira, gymnastics, and Kiswahili.
In 1994, the medical school received a grant from the Howard Hughes Medical
Institute to develop a series of pipeline programs to encourage and increase the number of
students from underserved backgrounds to pursue careers in medicine and biomedical
science. Along with the concept of a hands-on science enrichment program was also the
idea to name the program after a positive role model in medicine. With this in mind, the
director contacted a prominent pediatric neurosurgeon in November 1994 and requested
permission to use his name for the newly established program which would be housed at
the medical school. After receiving a favorable response, the Academy was initiated in
June of 1995 with the enrollment of 28 fourth and fifth grade students. In the 15 years
that the program has been in existence it has expanded to include middle school grades,
beginning with the middle grades in 1997, a Summer Science Camp and a Saturday
Academy. Additional funding from the program has been granted from the National
Science Foundation, Elementary Education Science Program, and Health Careers
Opportunity Program. Although funding for the program does not currently exist, the
goals and objectives for the middle school component remain the same.
The instructional methodologies inherent in the Academy’s program are hands
on, guided inquiry approaches. The National Science Education Standards report
considers inquiry to be the overarching goal of scientific literacy (National Research
Council, 1996). These approaches often begin with a question to engage the student.
Students then proceed to design a way to answer the question, collect the data, and
8
construct a possible answer that will presented to other students. The guided inquiry
usually begins with the students conducting an investigation, collecting the data, making
observations and explaining the outcomes. The students are then asked to design their
own experiment to solve a problem similar to the one in the guided inquiry session. The
classrooms are learner-centered where teachers respect and understand their students’
prior experiences and use these as a foundation on which to build new understandings
(Duckworth, 1987). By working together in small groups, the knowledge-centered
environment is achieved. Students begin to make connections among ideas in an
environment that promotes problem solving behavior (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking,
1999). The teacher’s role is to facilitate in development of the student’s understanding of
major ideas. Classes are not textbook-centered. Textbooks are not major features of
learning sessions and are used only as references.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to investigate career aspirations with respect to
several factors that are influential in the career decision making process. On the basis of
previous research, several factors were identified as impacting career aspirations. These
factors are the influence of role models, self-efficacy, career exploration, and academic
achievement. This study is designed to study the relationship of role models, self
efficacy, career exploration, mentorship, educational aspirations, and academic
enrichment (independent variables) on career aspirations (dependent variable) of middle
school youth in a health careers pre-college pipeline program.
9
The medical school has a Health Career Pre-College Pipeline Program whose
purpose is to increase the number of underrepresented minorities in the health
professions. The program is designed to increase diversity in the health professions and
subsequently eliminate health disparities. The results from the study can be used as an
indicator of the number of students who have participated in the program and have made
the decision to persist to a health career. Medical school personnel coordinating
community outreach programs will have data to assist in the development of instructional
enrichment programs that result in persistent academic achievement for African
American students toward a medical degree.
Problem Statement
The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Office of Minority Health
and the Health Resources and Services Administration, Bureau of Health Professions,
have funded grant awards for several years to increase minority and disadvantaged
representation in the health profession workforce. Through pipeline programs, multiple
strategies have been utilized in attempts to increase minority student interest and
academic preparation for health profession training at the postsecondary and graduate
levels. In particular, the Health Careers Opportunity Program (HCOP) has served as a
major funding source for higher education institutions to increase minority participation
in the health professions. The medical school has received HCOP funds since 1997. In
March 2006, the Office of Public Health and Science and the Office of Minority Health
published an annotated bibliography on the evaluation of pipeline programs. The
majority of the evaluation studies focused on students at the undergraduate, post
10
baccalaureate, graduate or medical school level. These programs are essentially at the
end of the pipeline and do not take into account precollege interventions.
The federal government has been the major sponsor of pre-college intervention
programs. Programs like the TRIO programs consisting of Upward Bound, Talent
Search, Student Support Services and Gaining Early Awareness and Readiness for
Undergraduate Programs (GEAR UP) have provided a range of opportunities for low
income students to access and persist through a college education. Similarly, the Health
Careers Opportunity Program (HCOP) program is designed to increase the diversity in
the health care professions. While billions of dollars in funding have been awarded to
these programs, there is little evidence that these programs are meeting their objectives.
There is a lack of evaluation data to demonstrate that health occupation pipeline
programs increase the number of minority physicians. The major problem is the lack of
rigorous evaluation data on these programs. Many programs are not well designed and
they do not lend themselves to a program evaluation that tests attainment of objectives. It
is very difficult to demonstrate the impact of these programs or determine, in the case of
HCOP sponsored programs, if the program is successful in increasing the number of
minority students choosing to become a medical doctor and persisting to obtain a
professional degree. This research study will identify several variables and determine
their influence on career aspirations.
Significance of the Study
The federal government is currently receiving criticism for its economic policies
and the propensity to spend tax payer dollars with a measure of accountability. This
11
study will have several implications for the HCOP program and other career development
programs with similar objectives. The results of this study will be translated into
practical interventions to facilitate students’ career aspirations and provide assistance in
counseling students to persistence to a health career. Systematic procedures will be
designed to assist students in making better career decisions. Parents, teachers,
counselors, and educational leaders will be able to guide students in creating a career path
that will lead to a health career.
Career academies have demonstrated success in engaging students in school,
although established partnerships with community based organizations and businesses
have been minimally involved in increasing career opportunities for students (Noguera,
2003). Delpit (1988) warns that discontinuities between the curriculum, the pedagogy,
assessment, culture and family influence may result in a lack of participation, lack of self
confidence and a disconnect with future goals. Unless educational leaders can identify
those factors that attract students to careers in health professions, the gap between career
aspirations and persistence to career attainment will continue to increase. This study will
add to the body of knowledge of variables that influence the career decision making
process and career aspirations.
Research Questions
RQ 1: Is there a significant relationship between role models and the career
aspirations of African-American youth?
RQ2: Is there a significant relationship between self-efficacy and the career
aspirations of African-American youth?
12
RQ3: Is there a significant relationship between career exploration and the
career aspirations of African-American youth?
RQ4: Is there a significant relationship between educational aspirations and the
career aspirations of African-Americar’ youth?
RQ5: Is there a significant relationship bet’~ een academic enrichment and the
career aspirations of African-American youth?
RQ6: Is there a significant relationship between mentorship and the career
aspirations of African-American youth?
RQ7: How significant were other external factors in the career aspirations of
African-American youth?
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Introduction
Career choice is the result of a series of many decisions. The career development
process is a life-long process. Choosing a career path generally begins during
adolescence and continues throughout high school. Many decisions are made that will
impact the career choice. There are many factors such as self-efficacy, role models,
career exploration, academic enrichment and parents and family that may be influential in
career aspirations of young people.
Theories abound on the factors that contribute to career choice. The decisions
that an individual makes along the career development pathway are grounded in the
individual’s gender, race, social class, skills, abilities, interests, and personal experiences.
Theories related to career choice are discussed at the end of the literature review.
Students in middle school, generally 10 to 14 years old, are developmentally at a
stage which demands a curriculum that encourages the child to investigate areas of
interest for deeper exploration. Students in middle school are also beginning to develop
attitudes and values about learning, work and adulthood. Career planning and career
guidance are very important parts of the middle school concept. Understanding those
factors that are influential in the career choice process of adolescents can help students
14
broaden their aspirations beyond the stereotypes of gender, socioeconomic status and
ethnicity.
Role Models
Brown (2006) posits that all young people should have adult role models to
provide guidance. He lists a cadre of role models and points out their less than perfect
lives but highlights their resiliency to succeed. Karunanayake and Nauta (2004) found
that students. 94% Caucasians and 81% African Americans, tend to have role models
whose predominant race was the same as their own. This study also revealed that there
was no difference in the number of career role models identified across groups. The
findings suggests in terms of making academic and career decisions both groups,
Caucasian and minority students have access to role models. Quimby and DeSantis
(2006), investigated self-efficacy and role model influence on career choice across
Holland’s career types Realistic, Investigative. Artistic, Social, Enterprising and
Conventional (RIASEC). These researchers found that self-efficacy and role model
influence accounted for significant variance in career choice in all six RIASEC types.
The findings provided support for the relationships between roles models, self-efficacy
and career choice.
Self-Efficacy
The career aspirations and trajectories of adolescents between the ages of 11 and
15 years were assessed (Bandura, Barbaranelli, Caprara, & Pasorelli, 2001). The results
showed that children’s aspirations and belief in their personal efficacy were significant in
career choice. The study determined the career path of influence by assessing perceived
15
efficacy and aspirations, level of academic achievement and perceived occupational self-
efficacy during year one of the study and career choice was assessed one year later.
African American adolescents demonstrated different results in terms of self-efficacy
(Alliman-Brisset, Turner, & Skovholt, 2004). This study demonstrated that for girls,
parent’s emotional support was the predictor of efficacy in career planning and
exploration, knowledge of self and others, career decision making and school to career
transitions. Parents’ career-related modeling was the predictor of boys’ self-efficacy in
these same areas. No treatment effects were found in an experimental study to assess
technical and scientific self-efficacy and career interest in seventh and grade students
(Dawes, Horan, & Hackett, 2000). Students were randomly assigned to a technology
education program or a controlled curriculum to determine the impact of performance
accomplishments on self-efficacy and career interest. There were differences in pre- to
posttest results.
Career Exploration
Originally, in career development theory, career exploration was assumed to
occur during the late years of adolescence (Ginzberg, Ginsburg, Axeirad, & Herma,
1951; Super, 1957, 1963). Career exploration is part of the developmental process of
middle school youth and is usually prominent during late adolescence. It now is viewed
as a dynamic process that occurs throughout the life span and occurs at all ages and
stages of development (Super, 1990).
Career exploration has been examined to determine the impact on career decision
making. Gibbons, Borders, Wiles, Stephan, and Davis (2006) surveyed ninth graders
16
regarding educational and career plans and the resources used in career decision making.
The study showed a discrepancy between career plans and accurate information on
college costs. The study also provided information on preparation for the world of work.
Many students surveyed had researched information about a specific career or talked to
someone in their family, but many had never taken a career interest inventory or been
involved in classes related to the career interest. Dziuban, Tango, and Hynes (1994)
tested college students in terms of career exploration and indecisiveness. Students first
indicated their career intentions and then were placed in a treatment and control group.
The treatment group was given the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and the Strong Interest
Inventory for career interests. The treatment group received their result and was told to
use the results as “effects” and to write perceived causes that resulted in their personality
and vocation profiles. Decision shifting in terms of career intent was shown in the
treatment group but not in the control group. This study provides support for the need for
career exploration experiences in the career decision process. Middle and high school
students were examined to determine the impact of career exploration on career certainty
(Schulenberg & Vondracek, 1993). The study demonstrated that during adolescence,
career exploration and vocational identity searching supports higher career certainty and
a greater consideration of work values.
Mentors
There is a growing genre of research that indicates that mentoring can have an
impact on youth and is instrumental in fostering personal and professional growth and
development of young people. Dappen and Isemhagen (2005) urge the use of research-
17
based best practices to contribute to a successful mentoring program. Student
perspectives on their mentors in a community science outreach program were collected
by MacDonald and Sherman (2007). Students viewed their mentor as flexible in content,
timing and ways of relating to the student and making them see the significance in
science using both real world problems and interdisciplinary connections. The mentors
inspired the students and fostered an interest in science. Mentors were found to be most
helpful through role modeling, verbal encouragement, personal support and providing
career guidance in a study of Mexican American students conducted by Flores and Obasi
(2005).
Parent and Family
Usinger (2005) examined parental perceptions of adolescents enrolled in low
achieving school. This longitudinal study revealed although parents wanted their
children to do well in the future, 66% of the parents were distanced from the student’s
concept of the future career by indicating a lack of participation in the child’s career
decision. Jacob, et al. (2006) found that parents play an important role in their children’s
career aspirations and that career choices are gender typed based on parental
expectations. Fisher and Padmawidjaja (1999) investigated parental factors that
influence career development among Mexican and African-American college students.
For both groups, parents played a major role in encouragement, educational expectations,
critical life e~ ents and work identity.
18
Educational Aspirations
Early studies of educational attainment provided evidence that education
aspirations were indications of future plans of students (Sewell, Hauser, & Wolf, 1970;
Campbell, 1983). Howley (2006) in a comparative study of rural and non-rural children,
found that rural children were just as likely as urban children to aspire to education at the
post secondary education. The major difference in rural and non-rural children was the
educational aspiration at the graduate level. Rural children were less likely than non-
rural children to aspire to graduate level education.
In a study of high school students in North Carolina school districts, the results
reported that a majority of the students planned to attend a four year undergraduate
institution and perceived their parents also aspired for them to go to college (Gibbons,
Borders, Wiles, Stephan, & Davis, 2006). Aspirations are an important part of the goal
setting process. Students with educational aspirations approach their education with the
expectation of reaching higher levels.
Academic Enrichment
Academic enrichment support is defined as instructional services that are
designed to increase academic performance, such as summer programs, after school
programs, Saturday programs, tutoring, test preparation, and enrichment courses. For
first generation students enrolled in college, who participated in a precollege invention
program for academic enrichment, the motivation to enroll was associated with expected
improvement in social, economic and occupational standing (Ayala & Striplen, 2002).
19
Precollege intervention programs place emphasis on academic development,
attitudes, and beliefs about higher education. These programs are important in off-setting
the negative effects of school or community influences by providing elements that are
important for success (Gullatt & Jan, 2003).
Academic enrichment provides many benefits to African-American youth. These
programs often disrupt developmental processes that are negative. Academic failure and
student drop outs are less likely with students involved in academic enrichment.
Enrichment programs give children an opportunity to experience success by supporting
student learning and strengthening skills. Many academic enrichment programs espouse
the philosophy that college is not out of reach.
Internal Factors
There are several internal factors that motivate people in the career choice
process. People orientation, career certainly, cultural context of careers, altruism,
aptitude, career beliefs, sense of belonging, and community reciprocity or giving back to
the community (Schulenberg & Vondracek, 1993; Naylor & Krumboltz, 1994;
Harrington, 1998). Internal factors are more personal in nature. Conflict in values,
religious beliefs, lack of confidence, fear and decisions about career paths due to a
potential for several careers are internal factors that need to be resolve before the career
decision process is completed.
External Factors
Each individual lives and operates in an environment that has an individual level,
interpersonal level and a sociocultural level (Cook, Heppner & O’Brien, 2002). Further
20
research into the factors that make up and interact within this ecological system is
important (Flores, Spanierman, & Obasi, 2003). These factors include critical incidents,
significant others, structural factor in family, role conflict, economics of the
neighborhood, opportunity for higher education located in the local area, and industry
provisions for students. Jackson and Nutini (2002) identified several external barriers
that impacted career related learning among multicultural middle school students. These
included lack of a safe and nurturing environment, low income, stereotyping,
discrimination and lack of social support.
Overview of Career Decision Theories
There are many potential variables that may influence student success and
persistence to career attainment. Today there is no single factor or single theory that fully
explains the career decision process. Career decision making is a process that develops
over a lifetime. Several theoretical models can be applied to explain this development.
Three models in particular lend support to the lifelong development: (a) Ginzberg,
Ginsburg, Axelrad, and Herma theory (1951), (b) Super’s Theory of Vocational Choice
(1954), and (c) Holland (1973). Other theories provide the bases for the motivation for
making the decision and may serve to explain various factors influential in the care
decision process.
Ginzberg’s, et al. (1951) theory is based on the premise that it is a development
path that leads to career choice. The theory looks at the whole individual and the
development of a career decision across time. According to Ginzberg, et al., the career
decision-making process occurs in three phases, each occurring at a specific
21
developmental stage: (a) fantasy stage—childhood, (b) tentative stage preteen through
high school, and (c) the realistic stage mid adolescence through young adulthood.
During these periods, the individual makes a series of decisions that gradually reduces the
number of choices left. The individual makes a compromise with each choice that is
made.
Super’s (1954) theory of vocational choice is a developmental self-concept theory
and it considers the changes that an individual goes through over time. The theory takes
into account that self-concept changes as a result of personal experiences. A key aspect
of the model assumes that people choose occupations that permit them to express their
self-concepts.
The personality-contingent model of career development (Holland, 1959) is a
model that is established though heredity and the individual’s life history of interacting
with environmental demands. Holland personality theory classifies persons into types
based on their propensity toward a certain work environment. The basic premise of this
theory is that an individual will select a career similar to their type of personality fit.
Holland’s theory classifies the person or personality as realistic, investigative, artistic,
social, enterprising or conventional (RIASEC), which also represents the six types of
environments.
Krumboltz’ s social learning theory varies from the theories of Super and
Ginzberg, et al. in that Krumboltz’s theory is a learning theory rather than a
developmental theory. Krumboltz ‘s theory brings into play several attributes such as
social learning, environmental conditions and events, genetic influences, and learning
22
experiences. The theory is based on the assumption that personality and behavior
interacts to form the self-concept (Krumboltz & Mitchell, 1990).
According to Krumboltz, there are four factors which influence career
development. These are (a) genetic influences or endowments race, sex, disabilities,
talents, (b) environmental conditions number ofjoh opportunities, nature of training
opportunities, rate of economic return, social policies (diploma, testing policies),
(c) learning experiences associative-cognitive connections, stereotypes and
instrumental, which produce consequences, act on environment, and (d) task approach
skills such as setting and self-observation (Krumboltz & Mitchell, 1990).
Self-efficacy, expectancy, and values are outgrowths from the social cognitive
theory. Self-efficacy has been at the center of the social cognitive theory in its
application to career development. Krumboltz’s theory is grounded in Bandura’s (1977)
theory of self-efficacy. Self-efficacy can be defined as the belief in one’s capabilities to
produce or attain. Krumboltz’s theory of career decision making and development is
based on social learning.
People are motivated to achieve based on fulfilling a need. Maslow’s (1943)
hierarchy of needs states that as one need is satisfied, beginning with the lowest level,
then another need emerges. Career decisions are often based on expectant outcomes.
Expectancy theory involves estimations of the likelihood of success, the likelihood that a
behavior will result in a specific outcome, and the positive or negative value that is
placed on each outcome (Vroom, 1964). Locke’s (1968) Theory of Goal Setting involves
23
a relationship between how difficult a goal and people’s performance of a task. The more
specific a goal, the better the task is performed.
A theoretical relationship between personal and environmental factors in the
career choice of youth is the foundation of this literature review. Many of the theories
fail to take into account race and ethnicity. Studies conducted to support theories often
do not include African Americans. The overall literature review is deficient in research
on factors that are influential in the career choice decision of African-American youth.
Academic enrichment has been shown to provide elements that are important for success
such as increased academic achievement. Educational aspirations and self-efficacy
beliefs were significant in career choice. In terms of making career decision, African-
American youth have access to role models. Mentors were found to be effective in
personal support and career guidance. Parents provide significant influence in
educational expectation and work identity. Career exploration and vocational identity
lead to higher career certainty and greater consideration of work values in adolescents.
However, more career exploration and information about careers are needed for the
decision making process. Many studies pointed out the importance of cultural
considerations and how they impact the career aspirations of African-American youth.
CHAPTER III
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
The career aspirations model used in this study was developed and grounded in
Krumboltz’s (1990) Career Decision Making Theory and is based on a combination of
internal and external factors influencing the decision making process. Krumboltz
proposed that people develop beliefs about the careers and their role in life based on the
consequences derived from learning experiences. A positive learning experience with a
career develops into a positive belief about self in that career. Whether realistic or not,
career choices are influenced by these beliefs. Observational learning experiences
derived from models also have an influence on career choice. The role models may be
parents, teachers, artists, civic leaders, clergy, doctors, or other professionals. Positive
role models, reinforcement and rewards are likely to lead to career planning skills.
Figure 1 is a schematic of the career aspirations model. It displays the various
components of the study perceived to be influential in the career decision making
process. The medical school Precollege Health Careers Pipeline Program was devised
with several perspectives of career goals in mind. The program was designed to begin
with students at age nine or ten and continue with students who are age 14 to 15. The
entry age range supports the concept of early intervention and the importance of goal
setting during adolescence.
24
25
Figure 1. Theoretical Framework
The model shows that career choice may be the action of one variable or the
interaction of several variables. The external variables are career exploration, role model,
parental influence, academic enrichment, and mentor influence. The internal variables
are self-efficacy and educational aspirations. Any or all of these variables may be
Personal Variables
26
moderated by gender and socioeconomic status. These variables are influential in the
career decision making process. The interaction of the internal and external variables
during the career decision process results in the identification of career aspirations.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to investigate career aspirations with respect to
several factors that are influential in the career decision making process. On the basis of
previous research, several factors were identified as impacting career aspirations. These
factors are the influence of role models, self-efficacy, career exploration, mentor,
educational aspirations and academic enrichment. This study is designed to show the
relationship of role models, self-efficacy, career exploration, mentor, educational
aspirations and academic enrichment (independent variables) on career aspirations as
measured by anticipated annual mean salary (dependent variable) of middle school youth
in a health careers precollege pipeline program, the Academy. Internal and external
variables influential in career aspirations will be investigated in a focus group setting.
Role models, self-efficacy, career exploration, informal mentorship, educational
aspirations and academic enrichment are components of the Academy, the program from
which the participants will be extracted.
Definition of the Variables
Career Aspirations A chosen occupation or profession to which a student
aspires.
27
Role Model An individual who is an example for others; an individual who
represents the standard; persons who are emulated (Pleiss & Feidhusen, 1995); a person,
either living or deceased, who is admired and whose behavior is imitated.
Self-Efficacy A person’s belief in his or her ability to succeed in a particular
situation (Bandura, 1977).
Career Exploration Those activities, tools, seminars, resources, games, lessons
in which an individual engages to increase their knowledge of career options and skills
needed to prepare a specific career.
Academic Enrichment Support Instructional services that are designed to
increase academic performance, such as summer programs, after school programs,
Saturday programs, tutoring, test preparation, and enrichment courses.
Educational Aspirations The level of education that the student hopes to secure.
The levels may be classified as completion of high school, attend a vocation or technical
college, attend community college, attend four year college, attend graduate school, and
attend profession school such as medical school or school of pharmacy.
Mentor A person who provides academic, social, emotional, and career
development support.
Parental Influence The construct of parental or familial support, assistance in
performance accomplishment, emotional support, encouragement, concern, attitude,
reinforcement patterns, expectations, income, and education.
Internal Variables Variables that are personal or have attributes that are
personal.
28
External Variables Variables that have attributes that are linked to the
environment, such as lack of a role model.
The dependent variable, career aspirations, was measured by the United States
Bureau of Labor Statistic anticipated annual mean salary for careers identified.
Respondents identified the career aspirations, their anticipated career, which was
assigned the code based on the Bureau of Labor Statistics Standard Occupational
Classification. The independent variables were measured by responses on the Career
Influence Survey with Likert type scale measures.
CHAPTER IV
METHODOLOGY
Research Design
The research design proposed for this study was a mixed method design
consisting of both quantitative and qualitative elements. A survey, semistructured
interview, and document analysis provided the data on factors influential in career
aspirations of middle school students in the precollege enrichment program. The mixed
method research design was chosen because it adds a level of legitimacy through the
utilization of multiple approaches to answer research questions (Johnson &
Onwuegbuzie, 2004). The mixed method research design allowed for triangulation of
data to answer research questions involved in this case study of students from a single
program.
Population
The target population in this study consisted of 97 African-American middle
school students, ranging in age from 11 to 15 years old, with an approximately equal
number of males (46) and females (51), who are participants in a precollege enrichment
program. Parental consent was required for students to participate in the study. Students
who had attended the program for a minimum of one summer and two semesters were
allowed to participate in the study. The population consisted of rising seventh, eighth,
and ninth graders enrolled in the precollege program, a component of the health careers
29
30
pipeline program. Less than one percent of the students have been identified as learning
disabled in the program. To participate in the program, students must be motivated and
interested in learning science/health principles. Students were from school districts in the
metro-Atlanta area including public, private and home schools. The study was controlled
for errors by a 100% response rate of the target population.
Survey
A survey was used as one of the data collection methods. The survey, Career
Influence Survey (CIS), was developed with a multi-item scale with four to six items per
scale to measure influence on career aspirations. A review of the literature on factors
influential in career aspirations was conducted to select items that have been tested and
are reliable. Additional items were developed by the researcher. The survey instrument
contained 7 subscales with 5 to 14 statements of influence grouped under each subscale.
The subscales were Mentor, Career Exploration, Parent and Family, Role Models,
Educational Aspirations, Self-efficacy and Academic Enrichment. The subscales were
developed to observe general patterns for questions that measure the same trait, variable,
or construct. The CIS contained three sections. Section one of the survey consisted of
eleven demographic items which focused on the respondents’ personal characteristics
such as gender, grade level and educational levels of family members. Section two of the
survey ascertained information about the factors which were influential in the selection of
the respondents’ career aspirations as measured by anticipated annual mean salary.
Section two contained 73 career item statements with a five point Likert scale to
determine level of influence of each item in the subscale. Values for levels of agreement
31
with statements were: I = Strongly Disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Undecided, 4 = Agree,
and 5 = Strongly Agree. Section three of the survey instrument had two parts, one which
contained a list of 13 individuals or persons, such as classmate, father, and the other part
consisted of 7 additional factors which may be influential such as TV show or high
salary. Section three utilized a five point Likert scale to determine level of influence with
numerical values. These values are: 1 — Not Influential, 2 = Somewhat Influential, 3 =
Not Applicable, 4= Influential, and 5 = Very Influential.
The Department of Educational Leadership conferred with the researcher to
validate the instrument and to evaluate item convergence and item discrimination. Item
convergence determined if the statements within each subscale were related and item
discrimination determined if items in different subscales were measuring two different
constructs. Construct validity was determined by conducting item convergence and item
discrimination analysis (Schmitz, et al., 2004; Van Roy, Veenstra, & Clench-Aas, 2008).
This procedure established interobserver reliability. Items that have a low correlation
with its scale were removed. Middle and high school language arts and science teachers
reviewed the instrument for face validity, construct validity, clarity, and readability
(Appendix A). Content and face validity of the instrument was determined through the
SPSS Reliability procedures. Cronbach’s coefficient (Cronbach, 1951) alpha for the
survey instrument was determined.
Pilot Study
The Career Influence Survey instrument was piloted with African-American
middle school students who did not participate in the study. These students were
32
enrollees at a local middle school in an adjacent county. Further improvements, clarity
and readability of the survey instrument resulted from the pilot study. Middle school
students participating in the pilot test were asked to evaluate the survey instructions,
demographic elements, and survey statements for clarity and readability. The Career
Influence Survey was further refined based on data collected from the pilot test. CIS
statements which were ambiguous were eliminated. Pilot testing of the survey allowed
for examination of frequencies of responses and items with many missing responses were
eliminated. Upon completion of the pilot test, and to establish content validity, students
participating in the pilot study were asked whether they felt the statements on the CIS
addressed career aspiration variables that were important to them. Revisions were made
to the CIS following the pilot test with middle school students.
Focus Group Guide
The interview questions were developed to be used in a focus group session of ten
middle school students. The interview questions were designed to gather information
about students’ career aspirations and the factors contributing to those aspirations, the
person influential in the career decision, internal and external factors related to the career
aspirations. A total of eight questions were developed. The interview questions were
evaluated by a panel of three teachers to assess clarity. The focus group consisted often
participants, who had already completed the CIS survey. The focus group questions
revolved around other external and internal factors which may also contribute to the
career aspirations of African American youth. The focus group interview followed the
33
methods of Bogdan and Bikien (2003). The following questions were used in the focus
group session. The researcher probed as needed after each major question.
1. What are your career aspirations?
2. How did you make the decision to choose this career?
3. Who had the most influence on your career aspirations?
4. What had the most influence on your career aspirations?
5. How effective were people, resources and tools in helping you make a career
decision?
6. Were there internal factors that were influential in your career aspirations?
7. Were there external factors that were influential in your career aspirations?
8. How would you improve your career decision-making process?
Participants were notified in advance of the date for the focus group. Informed
consent and permission to participate were collected prior to the focus group session.
During the focus group, participants were given the (a) purpose of the focus group,
(b) statement of confidentiality, (c) permission to tape record the session, and (d)
permission to follow-up by phone if clarification was needed. Rules were given for the
focus group such as only one person will speak at a time and responses are neutral, with
no right or wrong answers.
Ten students who completed the Career Influence Survey were randomly selected
to participate in the focus group interviews. An equal number of males and females were
selected. An opening script for the facilitator was established and confidentiality
statement signed by subjects and facilitator.
34
Document Analysis
Document analysis was the final method that was used to collect data for the
study. There were three primary document sources: information from program annual
reports, student essays which include rationale for program participation, and reports
obtained from program database. These documents were analyzed to obtain detailed
information related to factors concerning career aspirations. A list of careers to which the
middle school students aspired was developed. A document analysis worksheet was
developed which lists the identification of the document: type of document, author, date
published and the rationale for use of the document in the study. Each document was
reviewed for indicators of career aspirations and factors that contribute to the aspirations
and any internal and external factors which may have contributed to career aspirations.
Pilot Study Results
The Career Influence Survey initially consisted of 98 items with 9 categories:
academic enrichment, career exploration, people, parent/family, role model, self-efficacy,
mentor and other. A panel of four reviewers, one middle school science teacher, one high
school science teacher and two language arts teachers responded with feedback on the
CIS. One of the middle school language arts teachers is also a reading specialist and the
other language arts teacher teaches high school English. The teachers reviewed the
survey to determine if the items within each subscale were related and if items in
different subscales were measuring two different constructs. They were asked to respond
to the following questions in reference to the survey: Do the survey items appear to be
measuring the constructs? Is there evidence that one concept is different from other
35
closely related concepts? Is there evidence that different measure of the same concept
yield similar results? Are there any extraneous content in the survey? Are the survey
items representative of the property that is to be measured? Are important aspects of the
construct covered? Does the measure employed assess the theoretical concept? The
responses are listed in Appendix A.
The teachers agreed that the items measured the constructs and that each category
of independent variables was different from the other measures. They agreed that the
survey items were representative of the property that was to be measured and that the
items measured the theoretical concept.
Student reactions to the CIS were: there were too many questions, they were
confused about what to do if they did not have an answer, the survey was not kid
friendly; it was difficult to place the “X” in the boxes, and many did not know the
vocabulary such as efficacy, praise, influential, and inclined.
All items were entered into analysis to determine instrument reliability and
reliability of each survey subscale. Nineteen items were eliminated from the Career
Influence Survey. The results are presented in Table 1.
36
Table 1
Instrument Reliability
Final
Before Instrument
Item Pilot Cronbach’s Items Cronbach’s
Reduction Survey Subscales Items Alpha Deleted Alpha
Total Survey 95 .061 .068
Mentor 8 .026 5,6,8 .676
Career Exploration 11 .601 14,15 .682
Self-efficacy 17 .485 53,56,58 .703
Parent/Family 8 .499 22,25 .556
Academic
Enrichment 8 .182 66,69,73 .641
Educational
Aspirations 14 .515 40,44 .705
Role Model 7 .278 29,31,32 .561
People 13 .224 75 .767
Other 9 .814 0 .814
After Item
Reduction Total Survey 76 .838
The teachers who reviewed the Career Influence Survey did not identify any items
on the survey that should be deleted. Three items were eliminated from the survey based
37
on student comments. Following the pilot study, student comments and the reliability
analysis, the number of items was reduced from 95 to 76 and Cronbach’s alpha was .838.
Originally 12 students were expected to participate in the pilot testing of the
Career Influence Survey. Of the 100 CIS surveys that were submitted for pilot testing, 53
were returned and 47 were usable. The number of students in the pilot test was far
greater than anticipated.
Data Collection
Administration of the Career Influence Survey instrument took place in the
science and mathematics classes during the second week of the summer science program.
Teachers were given instructions on CIS administration prior to administration of the CIS
survey to their classes. The students were given an hour and a half to complete the CIS
instrument. The number of middle school participants was 115 students.
Demographic information was collected from the precollege program data base
for middle school students participating in the study. The database contains variables
including gender, socioeconomic status as determined from free and reduced lunch
certification, family structure, number of siblings, and family income.
Data were collected from the focus group interview through two methods. The
interview session facilitator and observer took notes during the interview and the
interview was also audio-recorded. The observational notes included the group’s mood,
body language, silent agreements, quotes, who was speaking and other observations. The
focus group participants (10) were randomly selected from those students who had
completed the CIS instrument.
38
Documents from the participant’s application and essay, program annual reports,
report cards, and documents from the program data base were used to collect data on
indicators of career aspirations. Career aspirations were measured by anticipated annual
mean salary.
Data Analysis
The data from this study were analyzed in several ways. The Statistical Package
for the Social Sciences (SPSS) package was used to analyze the data collected. First,
correlation coefficients were computed to determine the relationship between career
aspirations as measured by annual mean salary and each variable. Multiple regression
analysis was conducted to measure the relationship between the independent variables
and their contribution toward the variance in explaining career aspirations, the outcome
variable, as measured by annual mean salary. The prediction equation measured the
amount of variance in career aspirations that can be explained by role model, career
exploration, self-efficacy, mentor, parent, educational aspirations, and academic
enrichment. Stepwise regression analyses were conducted to investigate the relationship
between each variable and career aspirations. Data from the focus group and document
analysis were triangulated to further identify influence of variables on career aspirations.
Limitations of the Study
This research has a mixed method case study design. The results of the study are
limited in its generalization to the population of students in the precollege health careers
pipeline program. Recommendations will be made to the medical school administration
and program coordinators. The limitations were:
39
1. Students in the program have an opportunity to attend the program for a
maximum of five summers and five fall and spring sessions. The subjects in
the study consist of middle school students who have participated in the
program for at least two years which constitutes two Saturday sessions (fall
and spring), and a summer session.
2. The study was limited to those middle school students who were present and
responded to the CIS during the science and math classes. Other students,
rising ninth graders, who were participating in the high school program, were
attending a program in the next level of the pipeline.
3. A survey instrument, the CIS, was developed to collect data on contributors of
career aspirations. The survey instrument was a self-report instrument to
determine which factors contributes to career aspirations.
4. The results of the study were interpreted as associations or correlations. The
study was limited in terms of causality.
CHAPTER V
RESULTS
The purpose of this study was to identify variables which were influential in
determining career aspirations of middle school students to investigate perceived career
aspirations with respect to several factors that are influential in the career decision
making process. These factors are role models, self-efficacy, career exploration,
mentorship, educational aspirations, parent/family and academic enrichment
(independent variables) on career aspirations as measured by annual mean salary
(dependent variable) of middle school youth in a health careers precollege pipeline
program. The analyses in this chapter were designed to illustrate relationships among
perceived factors which were influential in predicting anticipated career choice. The
study sought to identify those variables which were influential in determining the
perceived career and vocational aspirations of the study participants. A mixed-method
design was employed in the collection of data. A survey was developed, the Career
Influence Survey (CIS), and a focus group with ten students who completed the survey
were conducted to assess other external variables perceived to be influential in the career
decision process.
Significant levels of 0.05 and 0.01 were used for statistical tests. The data were
analyzed by the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS), versions 16.0 and
17.0. To determine the correlation between survey items, Pearson’s product moment
40
41
correlations were calculated. Factor analyses were used as the data reduction method to
reduce the number of items and to explain correlations among multiple outcomes that are
the results of a few factors. To answer the research questions, correlation and regression
analyses were used. Cronbach’s alpha was used to test for internal consistency of items
and summated subscales of the CIS.
Demographic data are described in the first section of the chapter. The second
section describes the results of the pilot study. The next section will describe the
independent and dependent variables and address the research questions. The research
questions will be answered in the fourth section. The last section lists the responses from
the focus group session to further identify variables, either external or internal that
influenced career aspirations.
Demographics of Survey Participants
Survey Responses
One hundred CIS surveys were distributed to seventh and eighth grade classes of
the summer program. Only those students who had been in the Academy at least one
year and a summer were included as survey respondents. Each seventh and eighth
summer camp teacher was given a list of students who met this criterion. Teachers were
given instructions on administration procedures for the survey. The research coordinator
of the high school research program was given 15 CIS surveys, along with instructions
for completing, and requested to give rising ninth grade students the survey. Of the 115
surveys distributed, 97 usable surveys were returned from the seventh and eighth grade
respondents and two from the ninth grade students.
42
Participants
There were 97 students from the Academy who completed usable Career
Influence Surveys. The parents of all of these students had signed the Parental Consent
Form (Appendix B) required for participation as a survey respondent. The grade levels
of students responding consisted of 45.4% seventh graders, 52.6% eighth graders and
2.1% ninth graders. Science and mathematics traditionally have been viewed as male
dominant fields. In the study, there were slightly more females than male participants,
with 47.4 % male and 52.6% females (Figure 2). Research shows that while the number
of African Americans preparing to participate in higher education is diminishing, the
number of males making the same preparation is spiraling downward at a faster rate when
compared to females. The Academy appears to be serving a double need. It is
encouraging females to enter the fields of science and mathematics and it is motivating
males to stay in school. The program structure and culturally sensitive pedagogy may
reflect the safe and nurturing environment which is often necessary for African-
American students to increase their self esteem and self-efficacy in academics.
515049484746454443
Fern aleMale
Figure 2. Gender of Participants
43
Participants were asked to include their current mathematics and science grade in
the demographic section of the survey instrument. While grades in these content areas
are not determining factors in career aspirations, they are more reflective of a student’s
personality rather than level of academic achievement. Students who earn high grades
may view the grades as a guiding factor in future academic achievement. Students may
also view the discipline that is required to earn high grades as a predecessor to other
levels of achievement. The distribution of grades from the participants’ cohort showed
that in science, 48.5% earned an A, 37.1% earned a B, 7.2% earned a C, 1.0% earned a D
and 6.2% not reporting a grade for science (Figure 3). In terms of mathematics, the
grades were similar, 45.400 earned an A, 39.20o earned a B, 9.3°o earned a C, 1.0%
earned an F, and 5.2° o not reporting any grade for mathematics (Figure 4).
1% 6% -~
7°Io :.~
\III~JB
490./0 •cDO
37% DNR
Figure 3. Science Grades of Participants
44
1% 5%
Figure 4. Mathematics Grades of Participants
•cDFDNR
The study participants were middle school students in a summer science camp at
the time of the data was collected. Rising grade level classification showed that 45.4 %
were rising seventh graders, 52.6% were rising eighth graders and 2.10/0 were rising ninth
graders. All the respondents were classified as African Americans, with 90.7% attending
public school. The respondents ranged in age from eleven (8.2%) to 14 (20.6%) years
old. The majority of the respondents were 13 years old (41.2%) followed by age 12
(29.9%).
Students were asked to identify their career aspirations, what they would like to
be when they become adults. The responses were subdivided into three categories:
health-related occupations, semi-health related occupations and non-health occupations
(Table 2). Thirty seven percent of the students select non-health related, 22% chose
semi-health related, and 40% chose health related occupations as their career aspirations.
Females more often than males chose an anticipated career in the health occupations
domain. Career aspirations for the majority of males were for careers in the
entertainment and sports domain.
Categories
Health-Related
Occupations
Subtotal
Semi-Health Related
Occupational
Subtotal
Non-Health Related
Occupations
Subtotal
Total
BLS SOC Domains
Health Care Practitioners and
Technical Occupations
Computer
Architecture and Engineering
Life, Physical, Social Science
Community and Social Services
Protective Service Occupations
Food Preparation
Personal Care and Services
Management
Legal
Education Train and Library
Occupations
Art, Design, Entertainment,
Sports, and Media Occupations
10 28 38
5 0 5
5 1 6
1 2 3
0 1
1 2 3
2 0 2
0 1 1
14 7
2 3
0 5
16 7 23
19 16 35
43 51 94
Table 2
Categories ofStudents by Standard Occupational Class~fIcation ofCareer Aspiration
45
Male Female Total
10 28 38
21
5
5
46
Results of the Pilot Study
A total of 100 Career Influence Surveys were sent to a local middle school for
pilot testing with sixth and eighth grade students. The classroom teachers were given
written instructions on the administration of the survey. Of the 100, 53 surveys were
returned and 47 were usable. Item conversion and item discrimination analyses were
conducted on the 47 usable survey instruments.
Instrument Reliability Results
The original instrument, Career Influence Survey, consisted of 95 items prior to
the pilot study, with a reliability coefficient of .061 (Table 3). The final survey was
considered to be highly reliable (Number of items = 76; alpha .838). After piloting, the
instrument was subjected to data reduction to create subscales and to test for reliability.
To create the subscales in SPSS, the transformlcompute and compute a new variable
methodology were utilized and those items that did not have consistency with the rest or
were given a higher alpha if the items were omitted and removed before the subscales
were created.
Table 3
Instrument Before and After Reliability Study
Number of Items Cronbach’ s Alpha
Before Pilot 95 .061
After Pilot 76 .838
47
To further reduce the number of items for data analysis, transformation of items
was conducted by taking the average score of all of the items and creating one composite
scaled score. Each composite score that was created was saved as a variable and given a
subscale name. The subscale scores were retested for reliability following the omission
of items (Table 4). The aiphas for the subscales are lower than the alpha for the entire
instrument, giving the subscales of the instrument a moderate to high reliability (Table 5).
Composite scores for the career influence subscales were computed based on the means
of the items identified as relating to that subscale.
Table 4
Subscales with Final Number ofItems and Reliability Coefficients
Subscales Number of Items Reliability Coefficient
Mentor 5 .676
Career Exploration 9 .682
Self-efficacy 14 .703
Parent/Family 6 .556
Academic Enrichment 5 .640
Educational Aspiration 12 .705
Role Model 4 .561
People 12 .767
Other 9 .814
48
Table 5
Pearson ‘s Correlation Coefficients for Career Influence Subscales
Mentor
Career Exploration
Parent! Family
Role Model
Educational Aspirations
Self-efficacy
Academic Enrichment
People
Other
Career
Mentor Exploration
.286**
.266*
.199
.031
.212*
.023
.299**
.137
-.082
.274**
.262 * *
.166
.044
.174
.038
Parent!
Family
.-064
.064
-.0 19
-.005
.041
.054
Role
Model
.189
.288**
.220*
.166
.082
Self- Academic
Efficacy Enrichment People Other
Educational
Aspirations
374* *
.065
.158
.013
Mentor
Career Exploration
Parent/Family
Role Model
Educational Aspirations
Self-efficacy 1
Academic Enrichment .270**
People .306** .319**
Other .113 .215* .511~~
**Coii.elation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)
*Coffelation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed)
49
Definition of Terms
The following section reviews the definition of terms used in the study.
Academic Enrichment Support: Instructional services that are designed to
increase academic performance, such as summer programs, after school programs,
Saturday programs, tutoring, test preparation, and enrichment courses.
Career Aspirations: A chosen occupation or profession measured by anticipated
annual mean salary.
Career Exploration: Those activities, tools, seminars, resources, games, lessons
in which an individual engages to increase their knowledge of career options and skills
needed to prepare a specific career.
Educational Aspirations: The level of education that the student hopes to secure.
The levels may be classified as completion of high school, attend a vocation or technical
college, attend community college, attend four year college, attend graduate school,
attend profession school such as medical school or school of pharmacy.
External Variables: Variables that have attributes that are linked to the
environment, such as lack of a role model.
Internal Variables: Variables that are personal or have attributes that are
personal.
Mentor: A person who provides academic, social, emotional, and career
development support.
50
Parent and Family: The construct of parental or familial support, assistance in
performance accomplishment, emotional support, encouragement, concern, attitude,
reinforcement patterns, expectations, income, and education.
Role Model: An individual who is an example for others; an individual who
represents the standard; persons who are emulated (Pleiss & Feldhusen, 1995); a person,
either living or deceased, who is admired and whose behavior is imitated.
Self-Efficacy: A person’s belief in his or her ability to succeed in a particular
situation (Bandura, 1977).
The dependent variable, career aspirations, was measured by the anticipated annual
mean salary associated with the prospective occupation chosen as identified by the
Bureau of Labor Statistics. Respondents identified the career aspirations which were
assigned a code based on the Bureau of Labor Statistics Standard Occupational
Classification. The independent variables were measured by responses on the Career
Influence Survey with Likert type scale measures.
Correlation of CIS Scale Variables
Nine groups of variables were assessed and analyzed as subscales from the Career
Influence Survey: mentorship, career exploration, parent and family, role model, self
efficacy, academic enrichment, educational aspirations, people, and other variables. The
correlations demonstrate the degree of relatedness of the subscales to each other.
Significant correlations were found among having a mentor and career
exploration (r 0.286; P<.01; N 91) and having a mentor and parent/family influence
as factors in career aspirations (r 0.266; P< 0.05; N 91). Students who talk to adults
51
about their careers are more likely to have identified a career interest compared to
students who do not talk to adults. The question of “what do you want to be when you
grow up?” often emerges as a basic inquiry in adult and children interactions. Even more
influential are the presence of work-based mentors who provide an opportunity for
students to explore various career pathways in order to make informed career decisions.
Career exploration also correlated significantl3 with educational aspirations (r
0.262; P<0.01; N = 97) and with having a role model (r =.274; P<0.01; N = 97). There
was a positive correlation between the qualities that are considered important in a role
model and self-efficacy (r 0.288; P<0.01; N = 96). Self-efficacy and academy
enrichment displayed significant correlations with two other subscale variables from the
Career Inventory Survey. Self-efficacy correlated with academic enrichment (r = 0.270;
P<0.01; N = 95) and the People subscale (r = 0.306; P<0.01; N 95). Academic
enrichment had a positive correlation with the People subscale which represented people
outside the family (r = 0.319; P<0.01; N = 95) and Other Influence subscale variables
such as labor market trends, television show, opportunity to change socioeconomic (SES)
level, recognition, and rewards (r 0.215; P<0.05; N = 95).
Additional significant correlations among the subscale of the CIS were academic
enrichment and role model (r = 0.220; P .05; N 95). Self-efficacy correlated
significantly with the mentor subscale (r 0.2 12; P<0.05; N — 91).
52
Factor Analysis of Subscales
Traditionally, factor analysis has been used as a data reduction procedure. The
purpose of conducting factor analyses in this study was not to reduce the data or variables
any further but to look for patterns among the variables.
The relationship among the independent variables was examined through
correlation analysis to measure and interpret the strength and direction of the relationship
between the variables. The Career Influence Survey initially consisted of 98 items.
Following the pilot study of the CIS, the number of items was reduced 95. Through
reliability studies the number of items was further reduced to 76. The major data
reduction strategy utilized was reliability analysis. Concomitantly, factor analyses
allowed for the examination of linear correlations among variables, and to identify
homogeneity among groups of variables.
Nine variables associated with influence on career aspirations were factor
analyzed. To ensure that the variables are meritorious for factor analysis, they were
assessed against each other. The descriptive information about the factors is presented in
Table 6. Five of the nine subscales of career influence correlated at least 0.3 with at least
one other subscale. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure of sampling adequacy was .603
which is greater than the recommended value of .5, and the Bartlett’s test of sphericity
was significant (Chi square = 112.963, P<.00l), which supports the factorability of the
correlation matrix. This means that the inter-correlation matrix is not an identity matrix.
53
Table 6
Descriptive Statisticsfor CIS Subscale Variables that Influence Career Aspirations
Career Aspirations ( as measured by Mean Annual Salary)
Std.
Mean
114928.77
3.64
3.59
3.17
4.19
4.37
4.17
3.30
3.62
3.57
Deviation
60395.00
.84
.65
.58
.73
.44
.51
1.01
.81
.80
Range
26610 - 262850
1.00-5.00
2.11-5.00
2.17-5.00
2.25-5.00
2.73-5.00
1.67-5.00
1.20-5.00
1.33-5.00
1.67-5.00
The career aspirations as measured by anticipated mean value for annual salary
(M 114928.77, SD = 60395) suggest that the students reported high paying occupations
as the type of career to which they aspire. The skewness and kurtosis for each variable
were investigated and all the variables were within the normal distribution with no
outliers. Only two career influence subscales, educational aspirations and self-efficacy,
produced absolute values greater than 1.0 for skewness and kurtosis. Students reported
items on the subscales of educational aspirations (M 4.37, SD .44) role model (M —
CIS Subscales
Mentor
Career Exploration
Parent/Family
Role Model
Educational Aspirations
Self-efficacy
Academic Enrichment
People
Other
54
4.19, SD =.73) and self-efficacy (M —4.17, SD .51) as influential in perceived career
aspirations. Items on the Parent Family subscale had the lowest mean in terms of
influence on the perceived career aspirations of middle school students. The mean and
standard deviation are given for the subscales of the Career Influence Inventory. The
independent or predictor variables are Mentor, Career Exploration, Persons or Family
Members, Role Model, Educational Aspiration, Self-Efficacy, Academic Enrichment,
Other variables, and Influential People. The students’ career aspirations is the dependent
or criterion variable and is linked to the career to which the students aspire. Through data
reduction, the items on the Career Influence Survey were reduced to subscales variables
in SPSS. The mean was highest for subscales related to educational aspirations (M =
4.37, SD .44), role model (M = 4.19, SD .73) and self-efficacy (M = 4.17, SD = .51).
Principal component analysis with Varimax rotation was used to identify career
aspiration scores for the factors associated with the Career Influence Survey. The initial
eigenvalues showed that 26.97° o of the variance was attributed to the first factor, 14.73%
was attributed to the second factor and 13.97% of the variance was attributed to the third
factor, with remaining variance associated with factor components four through nine. A
cumulative variance of 55.68% was attributed to the first three factor components (Table
7).
55
Table 7
Factor Loadings and Communalities Based on a Principle Component Analysis with
Varimax Rotationfor Nine Subscales ofthe Career Influence Inventory
Loadings
Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Communality
Educational Aspiration .666 -.065 .011 .448
Career Exploration .66] -.080 .203 .485
Self-efficacy .620 .395 -.055 .544
Role Model .619 .260 -.060 .454
People .169 .790 .174 .683
Other -.161 .777 .161 .655
Academic Enrichment .264 .577 -.3 14 .501
Mentor .304 .193 .745 .684
Parent and Family -.093 -.007 .74] .557
Eigenvalue 2.428 1.326 1.258
% of Total Variance 26.974% 14.736°o 13.975%
Total Variance 55.685%
The career influence subscale variables that contributed to variance loaded on a
factor component with a loading of .5 or above. There was no cross loading among any
of the career influence subscale variables. All of the career influence subscales were
retained in the analysis.
56
To summarize, the nine career influence subscale variables were reduced to three
factors. The three factors contributed to 55.69% of the variance among the variables.
Factor 1 appears to measure efficacy. Efficacy in self, education, and career coupled with
the concept that self-efficacy is developed when a student has a role model who is
accomplished in a career to which the student aspires. Factor II appears to measure
environmentalfactors such as significant individuals outside the family such as teacher or
counselor, other influences such as labor market trends or opportunity to provide a
service or change socioeconomic level linked with academic enrichment in the
environment. Factor III is related to afamily core. These three factor components were
labeled as the extracted factors and were saved for further comparisons.
Research Questions
The research questions were analyzed by correlation and regression analyses. The
descriptive statistics for the dependent and independent variables are presented in Table
6. The dependent variable is career aspirations as defined by anticipated mean annual
salary of the student and the independent variables represent composite scores of the
subscales from the Career Influence Survey and other demographic variables. The
annual salaries and perceived career choice codes were taken from the Bureau of Labor
Statistics Standard Occupational classification and the Occupation Employment
Statistics, May 2008 National Occupational Employment and Wage Estimates for the
United States.
57
The research questions that were to be answered by this study are:
RQ 1: Is there a significant relationship between role models and the career
aspirations of African-American youth?
RQ2: Is there a significant relationship between self-efficacy and the career
aspirations of African-American youth?
RQ3: Is there a significant relationship between career exploration and the
career aspirations of African-American youth?
RQ4: Is there a significant relationship between educational aspirations and the
career aspirations of African-American youth?
RQ5: Is there a significant relationship between academic enrichment and the
career aspirations of African-American youth?
RQ6: Is there a significant relationship between mentorship and the career
aspirations of African-American youth?
RQ7: How significant were other external factors in the career aspirations of
African-American youth?
None of the variables correlated strongly or was significant in relationship to the
dependent variable, career aspirations. Career exploration, having a role model,
educational aspirations, and self-efficacy, all correlated positively with career aspirations.
The other independent variables having a mentor, parent/family, academic enrichment,
people, and other—correlated negatively with career aspirations (Table 8).
All variables were entered into a regression analysis. The enter method was used
in the initial analysis. There was only one regression model reported from the analysis.
58
Table 8
Correlation of Variables which Influence Career Aspirations
Career ParentJ Role I Education
Variable Mentor Exploration Family Model Aspirations
Career Aspirations -.081 .159 -.109 .006 .118
Mentor .286** .266* .199 .031
Career Exploration -.082 .274” .262”
Parent/Family -.064 .064
Role Model .189
Educational Aspirations
Self-Efficacy
Academic Enrich
People
Self- Academic
Variable Efficacy Enrichment People Other
Career Aspirations .118 -.052 -.05 7 -.032
Mentor .212* .023 .299** .137
Career Exploration .166 .044 .174 .038
Parent/Family -.019 -.005 .041 .054
Role Model .288* .220* .166 .082
Educational Aspirations .374” .065 .158 .013
Self-Efficacy .270” .306** .113
Academic Enrichment .319” .215*
People .511”
59
This model reported 6.8% of the of variance in the dependent variable, career
aspirations, was accounted for by the independent variables from the CIS instrument,
mentor, career exploration, parent/family, role model, educational aspiration, self-
efficacy, academic enrichment, people, and other (R2 = .068, p> .05, df 96). This
means that 93.2 % of the variance resides elsewhere and cannot be determined by the
variables from the CIS. There are unmeasured variables that may share common
variance with the independent variables specified in the model. These unmeasured
variables may account for more than the 6.8% produced by the independent variables
entered into the analysis. The model is not a strong model based on these variables.
There was a low correlation between the observed and predicted values of the dependent
variable, R = .26 1. The ANOVA table (Appendix C) shows the P .8 14, which is
greater than Pc05, which renders the model insignificant.
The multiple regression analysis was conducted to predict the influence of the
following variable on perceived career aspirations as measured by mean annual salary
expected from a certain career: mentor, career exploration, parent/family, role model,
educational aspiration, self-efficacy, academic enrichment, people, and other.
To answer the research questions, all variables were entered simultaneously into
the analysis (Culpepper & Austin, 2006). Career exploration (f3 = .172, P = .142),
educational aspiration (13 .045, P = .38 1), self-efficacy (f3 = .140, p = .252), and other (13
.024, p = .844), were positively related, although not significant, to the career
aspirations of the middle school students as defined by annual mean salary. The
remaining independent variables were negatively related to the outcome, annual mean
60
salary: mentor (13 = -.106, P = .38 1), parent/family (13 -.063, P .572), role model (13 —
-.048, P = .67 1), academic enrichment (13 -.063 P .581), and people (13 -.084,
P =.528) (Table 9).
Table 9
Effect Size ofEach Variable
Multiple regression weights
Career aspirations, (as measured 13 b P
by Mean Annual Salary) (constant) 60869.43
Career exploration .172 15129.39 .142
Self-efficacy .140 14925.45 .252
Mentor -.106 -7361.52 .381
People -.084 -5741.33 .528
Parent/Family -.063 -5972.60 .572
Academic enrichment -.063 -3476.19 .581
Role model -.048 -3707.58 .671
Educational aspiration .045 5525.23 .381
Other .024 1691.08 .844
The regression equation for this model can be written as follows:
Career Aspirations (Ann Mean Salary) = 60869.43 +15129*Career Exploration +
14925.45*Self~Efficacy - 7361.52*Mentor ~5741.33*People - 3476.19*
Parent/Family - 3476.19*Academic Enrichment - 3707.58*Role Model +
5525.23 *Educational Aspirations + 1691.08 * Other
61
To investigate the influence of other independent variables and their influence on
career aspirations as measured by annual mean salary, other variables were introduced
into the model to determine if these variables accounted for more than 6.8% of the
variable in the dependent variable.
Unmeasured variables included mother’s level of education, math grade, mother’s
standard occupational code, student standard occupation code, father’s standard
occupational code, science grade, father’s level of education, mother’s mean annual
salary, and father’s annual mean salary were correlated with student’s career aspirations
as measured by annual mean salary. These variables were subjected to stepwise
regression (Lease, 2003) to determine if any of these variables would increase the amount
of variance contributing to the dependent variable, career aspirations.
The first step of the analysis produced one model which was significant, R2 =
37.9%, P<.05, and df= 44. Father’s level of education (P<.05) was the variable that
appeared to be significant in contributing to the variance in the career aspirations of
middle school students. During steps two and three, no variables were entered into the
analysis through the step wise method. During step four, the amount of variance
increased and educational aspirations (P = .04) and mother’s level of education (P = .03)
were significant independent variables in the model (R2 = 55%, P = .08, and df= 42).
Educational aspirations (P .02) was the only independent variable entered into step five
of the regression analysis. The statistics for step five of the regression analysis are
11.9%, P<.05, and df= 42. The regression equation is as follows: Career Aspirations
(Annual Mean Salary) 100443.76 + 50840.27*Educational aspirations.
62
A review of Table 7 (Factor Loadings and Communalities Based on a Principle
Component Analysis with Varimax Rotation for Nine Subscales ofthe Career Influence
Inventory) accounted for 55% of the variance from the factor loadings. It appears that
similar results were produced in step four of the stepwise regression model (Table 10).
Educational aspirations and mother’s level of education positively associated with career
aspirations. The father’s level of education regressed negatively with career aspirations.
There is a negative relationship between father’s level of education and career
aspirations. If there is an increase in father’s level of education, there is a decrease in
career aspirations.
Table 10
Stepwise Regression Model ofDemographic and CIS Variables with Career Aspirations
(Mean Annual Salary) as Dependent Variable
Step in the Regression
Model Variables in the Model R2 P<.05 B
Father’s Level of 3 7.9% Yes -.404
Education
2. No variables entered
3. No variables entered
63
Table 10 (continued)
Step in the Regression
Model
4.
Focus Group
All of the students were attentive as the overview and purpose of the focus group
was given. Students were told they could decline participation and ask to be excused if
they did not want to participate (Scanlon, et al., 2008). The students were told that the
focus group session was voluntary and parents had given prior permission for each of
them to participate. All responses are reported anonymously.
There were ten participants randomly selected to participate in the focus group.
These students completed the Career Influence Survey prior to participating in the focus
group. The students were also told that responses and comments would be recorded.
Observations
1. Students readily raised their hands to respond to questions. Students were
enthusiastic about answering questions.
2. Thoughtfulness was evident as they responded. The students were
enthusiastic about sharing their career aspirations.
Variables in the Model R2 P<.05 B
Educational Aspiration 55% No .381
Mother’s Level of
Education .429
5 Educational Aspiration 1 1.9% yes .344
64
3. One student seemed disengaged, uninterested. There was no real response to
the first two questions or subsequent questions. The student was asked if
dismissal from the group was preferred and the response was no. The student
preferred to remain in the group.
4. Students were very honest in sharing personal facts related to their career
aspirations.
5. Students were listening and attentive as others responded.
6. Some students were uncertain about question being asked. Reframing the
question relieved the uncertainty. Some students provided very mature and
thoughtful answers.
7. Some students started laying heads on desk toward the end. The length of
study probably was just right to keep students engaged, about one hour.
Overall students were very comfortable answering the focus group questions and
were eager to share their responses. The responses to proposed career varied from
physician, nurse, artist/basketball player/dancer/singer, fashion designer/artist,
mathematician, pediatrician, pharmacist, obstetrics gynecologist, and civil engineer to I
do not know.
Table 11 displays the career aspirations of students in the focus group session.
Half of the students indicated they were interested in a health-related occupation. Two
students were interested in semi-health related careers: mathematics and civil
engineering. The remainder of the students aspired to non-health related occupation in
art and fashion design.
65
Table 11
Career Aspirations ofParticipants in the Focus Group
Categories BLS SOC Domains Career Total
Health Related Health Care Practitioners Pediatric Cardiovascular
Occupations Surgeonand Technical Occupations
Nurse5
Pediatrician
Pharmacist
Obstetrics /Gynocologist
Semi Health Related Computer Mathematician
Occupational Architecture and Engineering Civil Engineer 2
Life, Physical, Social Science
Community and Social
Services
Protective Service Occupations
Food Preparation
Personal Care and Services
Non Health Related Management Artist
Occupations Legal Fashion Designer
Education Train and Library
66
Table 11 (continued)
Categories BLS SOC Domains Career Total
Occupations 2
Art, Design, Entertainment,
Sports, and Media Occupations
No Response
Total 10
Students were asked, “Why are you interested in this particular field?” The
students who chose health care careers overwhelmingly indicated that they like to help or
enjoy helping people. Students who indicated a field outside of health indicated that they
were interested in their chosen career field because they were gifted or had skills in the
area. One student stated that he wants to be a civil engineer because he likes designing
bridges and that he is really good in geometry. The student who selected the career
choice of artist/basketball player/dancer/singer has a definite interest in the sports and
entertainment area and has developed an interest because of his passion for those areas
and hobbies of the student. Other students who indicated their career aspiration is to
become an artist or fashion designer and chose these areas because they like to spend
time designing or painting. Their interest developed from a hobby.
Student responses for how they went about making the career decision ranged
from reading a book about a leading person in the field, viewing paintings of a famous
artist, through career exploration, excelling in the subject area such as mathematics,
enjoyment in working with children, my sister’s friend is going into pharmacy, my
67
mother works in a hospital. One student indicated that his mother worked in a related
area. He enjoys art and geometry so he put the two fields together and decided on civil
engineering.
Responses to “Who had the most influence on your career aspirations?” included
family members. Responses included:
My brother because every time at first, this program because he started with this
program. It was great. Since my brother wants to be a brain surgeon man, then I
would be the heart guy. My aunt inspired me the most because when she was a
little girl, her parents were on drugs and she grew up to be the dean of John
Hopkins and I kind of thought that working in the hospital would be nice so I
started thinking about being a doctor but I thought doctors would be a little bit too
much so I brought it down just a little bit to be a nurse.
My grandmother because like when she was in college she dropped out and she
influenced all her grand kids to finish college and follow their dreams and I would
say teachers too, because we really did projects and research on things that we
really wanted to be.
My dad; he is also gifted in math and he would like me to go on and be a
mathematician, he said strive for dream and I will follow that.
My sister inspired me to be a pharmacist, because she is going into it but she also
kept helping me go for my goals and that is one of my goals.
68
My sister, because she is going to be a pharmacist also.
My mom inspired me. She was going to become a doctor but she could not deal
with blood, so she would always told me about all of these different kinds of
doctors.
The most influential persons were family members (see Table 12). Grandparents,
brother, sisters, aunt, brother, dad and mothers were most influential in the career
aspirations of focus group members. One student did not respond to any of the questions
but did not want to be excused from the group. He was told that the group was voluntary
and he could be excused if he did not want to participate. He did not leave the group and
probably wanted to stay and learn from what the other group members had to share.
Table 12
Most Influential Persons in the Career Aspirations ofParticipants
Family Member Reason
Brother He wants to be a brain surgeon and so do I.
Aunt My aunt’s parents were on drugs and she succeeded in
spite of her situations.
Grandmother My grandmother was a college drop-out and she wants me
to complete college.
Grandparents They think I have a lot of talent and they inspire me to be a
fashion designer and artist.
Dad My father is gifted in mathematics and so am I.
69
Table 12 (continued)
Family Member Reason
Sister My sister is going to be a pharmacist and I want to be a
pharmacist also.
Sister She is going to be a pharmacist and I will follow in her
footsteps.
Mom My mom wanted to be a doctor but did not like to deal
with blood.
Mother My mother has a job like my career interest
No Response No Response
How effective were people, resources and tools in helping you make a career
decision? Twice as many students indicated that people verses tools, were effective in
helping them in their career aspirations. The students indicated family members as the
people who were influential in inspiring them towards the career to which they aspire.
Tools and resources identified by students included books, TV shows, visits to hospitals,
art classes, web sites and research tools on careers.
Student responses to internal motivation for the selected vocational aspirations
were as follows:
I just like helping people and I like, I really like helping people and that is one of
my internal motivators. My internal thing would be how can I put this? I think
that my mom likes helping people so I watched her from a distance I thought that
70
it looks kind of fun so I said I want to help people when I grow up. Something
influential, I really don’t know. My mom, she really pushed me to do well in
school. Really so I can be able to get to my career and basically pay her back her
money. I would not call it internal really but I just have a thing for fashion and
drawing, my family members inspired me so. I don’t know, I don’t have an
internal influence on becoming a mathematician. For me, internally, I feel there
are so many kids out there that need help from other people cause their families
may not be able to support them as well as our families may be able to do. My
mom has really helped me. She has gone on three mission trips to Africa. My
grandmother recently died of cancer but the doctors really did not know what was
wrong with her and they were giving her all kinds of medicines and they didn’t
know what the effect would have on her so I’m so I guess that is why I want to
become a pharmacists so that it doesn’t happen to anyone else’s family member. I
really don’t know of what my internal influence is. My dad died when I was a
baby. I know what his career was so I am going to do the same.
External motivational factors influencing career aspirations include hearing a
famous doctor speak, visiting John Hopkins, attending an art show and viewing many
types of drawings, sketches, paintings and sculptures, talking to people who are in the
fashion design business, talking to a pediatrician about her experiences in medical school.
One student could not think of any external motivators.
71
Document Analysis
Three sets of documents were examined for information on career aspirations:
annual report, student applications, and the precollege health enrichment program
database. The annual report lists the number of Academy students who completed health
career posters and the number of student who completed health or science projects.
Annual reports for the past five years, 2004-2008 were reviewed. There were 340
science and health career posters created during the five year period: pediatric
neurosurgeon (115); orthopedic surgeon (35); nurse (75); pharmacist (25); pediatrician
(50) pediatric neurosurgeon (115); orthopedic surgeon (35); nurse (75); pharmacist (25);
pediatrician (50); engineer (18), mathematician (5), computer science (17).
The new student application process includes the development of a narrative
essay on why the student wants to be a participant in the Academy. Essays of new
applicants from 2004-2008 were reviewed and 209 (83%) of the new applicants indicated
they wanted to become a medical doctor. The high percentage of students with career
aspirations to become a medical doctor may be using the career as a means of securing a
position in the Academy.
A random sampling of 250 students from the Academy database files revealed
that projected occupations included: doctor (97), dentist (14), youth correctional officer
(1), orthopedic doctor (9), model (3), marine biologist (3), teacher (4), basketball player
(7), football player (4), fashion designer (2), rapper (3), veterinarian (10), engineer (5),
pediatric nurse (9), pediatrician (62), dermatologist (2), lawyer (4), and computer
programmer (11). The diversity in anticipated careers is not surprising. Many students
72
are at the beginning of the career development process and may change their goals as
they explore other careers.
Summary of Results
RQ 1: Is there a significant relationship between role models and the career
aspirations of African-American youth?
• There was no significant relationship between career aspirations and
having a role model.
• There is a significant relationship between academic enrichment and
having a role model.
RQ2: Is there a significant relationship between self-efficacy and the career
aspirations of African-American youth?
• There is no significant relationship between career aspirations and
possessing self-efficacy.
• There is a significant relationship between self-efficacy and having a
role model.
• There is a significant relationship between self-efficacy and
educational aspirations.
• There is a significant relationship between self-efficacy and academic
enrichment.
RQ3: Is there a significant relationship between career exploration and the
career aspirations of African-American youth?
73
• There is no significant relationship between career exploration and
career aspirations.
• There is a significant relationship between career exploration and
having a mentor.
RQ4: Is there a significant relationship between educational aspirations and the
career aspirations of African-American youth?
• There is a significant relationship between educational aspiration and
career aspirations.
• There is a significant relationship between educational aspirations and
career exploration.
RQ5: Is there a significant relationship between academic enrichment and the
career aspirations of African-American youth?
• There is no significant relationship between academic enrichment and
career aspirations.
• There is a significant relationship between academic enrichment and
the people subscale of the Career Influence Survey.
RQ6: Is there a significant relationship between mentorship and the career
aspirations of African-American youth?
• There is no significant relationship between mentorship and career
choice.
• There is a significant relationship between mentorship and career
education.
74
• There is a significant relationship between mentorship and
parent/family subscale of the Career Influence Survey.
RQ7: How significant were other external factors in the career aspirations of
African-American youth?
• There is a significant relationship between father’s educational level
and career aspirations.
• There is a significant relationship between mother’s educational level
and career aspirations.
• There is no significant relationship between mother’s and father’s
annual mean salary and career aspirations.
CHAPTER VI
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The purpose of this chapter is to present a summary of the findings of the study,
to state the conclusions derived from those findings, and to make recommendation related
to the problem. The goal of this study was to investigate career aspirations with respect
to several factors that are influential in the career decision making process. On the basis
of previous research, several factors were identified as impacting career aspirations and
career choice. These factors as reported in the literature are the influence of role models,
self-efficacy, career exploration, and academic achievement. This study is designed to
study the relationship of role models, self-efficacy, career exploration, mentorship,
educational aspirations, and academic enrichment (independent variables) on career
aspirations (dependent variable) of middle school youth in a health careers precollege
pipeline program. This chapter includes conclusions derived from the findings,
recommendation for middle school educators and recommendation for further research.
The main purpose of this study was to identify variables that are associated with
career aspirations of middle school students participating in a precollege science and
health enrichment program. This inquiry was considered important because (a) there are
sparse studies on African-American middle school students and (b) there is a need to
identify variables that can be associated with career aspirations of middle school students.
75
76
A clearer understanding of career aspirations and the factors which are perceived to
influence career aspirations may be helpful in designing programs with career
interventions. Although career aspirations is well-defined as a construct, the link
between career aspirations and how this link translates into higher socioeconomic status,
greater and fulfilling rewards and subsequent job satisfaction is not well known. The
purpose was achieved by reviewing the literature on career aspirations of middle school
youths, developing a survey to measure those variables identified in the literature as
contributing to career aspirations, and piloting the survey with African American middle
school youth, administering the survey, conducting a focus group session, conducting
document analysis and analyzing the data from these procedures.
Research Questions
RQ 1: Is there a significant relationship between role models and the career
aspirations of African-American youth?
During the testing of variables that would have a significant relationship with
career aspirations of students, there was no significant relationship between having a role
model and career aspirations.
Through informal conversations that have taken place with program participants,
many students consider role models to exist in the media such as sports figures,
entertainers, rappers, actresses or actors. A large number of students watch many hours
of television which accounts for the high interest in athletes, fashion designers, models,
singers and entertainers as selected role models. Through the use of curriculum
materials, which highlights the contributions of Africans and African Americans to
77
science, mathematics, health, engineering and technology, the Academy has attempted to
shine the spotlight on males and females in academia and STEM careers, who can serve
as role models.
While students feel that having a meaningful relationship with adults in the form
of role models is important, many middle school students may not use these adults in
addressing information concerning career aspirations. African-American students faced
with stereotypes may use role models with successful coping strategies to deal with
frustrations (Assibey-Mensah, 1997; Hackett & Byars, 1996). Role models have been
shown to provide a roadmap for youth who are searching for meaning and direction in
their lives, and through a relationship with a role model, new life perspectives and be
inspired (Brown, 2006). The current research showed a lack of significance between role
models and career aspirations. One explanation may be that while the presence of a role
model may not be a strong predictor in the career aspirations of middle school students,
the lack of a role model may serve as a barrier to career attainment. The nonsignificant
relationship was surprising since the role model subscale had a mean of 4.15 and a SD =
.74. The contention is that for many African-American students, having a role model or
someone to look up to is critical for the development of African-American youth,
whether virtual, familial or non-familial.
RQ2: Is there a significant relationship between self-efficacy and the career
aspirations of African-American youth?
78
During the testing of variables that would have a significant relationship with
career aspirations of students, there was no significant relationship between self-efficacy
and career aspirations.
The goal for inclusion of self-efficacy questions on the CIS was to determine if
self-efficacy beliefs, the belief in one’s ability to perform various tasks, were functioning
in career aspirations. Self-efficacy beliefs have an influence on actions and feelings and
they function in the choices that are made and in decision making processes. Research
strongly suggest that efficacy beliefs exert a strong, direct influenced on career decision
making and career choice and self-efficacy significantly affects the development of core
vocational choice predictors such as interests, values, and goals (Bandura, 1986; Betz &
Hackett, 1986; Hackett & Lent, 1992).
While students felt that self-efficacy was influential as a social construct,
surprisingly, they did not perceive self-efficacy as being influential in career aspirations
(M 4.15, SD .5 3). When compared with other career influence variables, self-efficacy
recorded the third highest mean score in terms of influence. These students have a strong
sense of self-efficacy and believe they have the capabilities to achieve established goals.
Students may believe that task goals are positively related to expectancy beliefs and self
regulation. Students currently may not be able to translate currently these beliefs into the
career development process. The self-efficacy model has been shown to predict certain
career decision making attributes (Bandura, 1977, 1982, 1986). The results of this study
do not confirm previous research which found that self-efficacy contributes to
adolescents’ ability to find meaningful careers and to value goal attainment (Smith &
79
Fouad, 1999). Similar to this study, Luzzo and Ward (1995) questioned self-efficacy
value in predicting certain career development behaviors.
RQ3: Is there a significant relationship between career exploration and the
career aspirations of African-American youth?
There was no significant relationship between career exploration and career
aspirations of African-American youth.
Career exploration encompasses a diverse group of activities to enhance
knowledge of the self and the external environment to foster career development. Career
exploration is important in the career and decision making process and has been used in
the program to demonstrate vocational opportunities in the STEM and health areas. The
program participants are rising seventh and eighth graders who are at a career
developmental stage where they are too young to begin specializing and not old enough
to cormect what they are learning in school to the world of work. These students are at
the awareness stage in career exploration and the direct link between career exploration
and career aspirations may not be apparent. In a study by Perrone, Webb, and Jackson
(2007), these authors found an indirect relationship between parental career-related
encouragement and support and parental attachment relationships to career exploration.
The students need information about personal interests and abilities, career, vocational
and educational opportunities. Factor analysis results showed that career exploration
loaded on the first factor, which was labeled efficacy, along with educational aspiration,
self-efficacy and role model. Factor 1, efficacy, accounted for 26.97% of the variance in
career aspirations. This demonstrates that career exploration, not significant in predicting
80
career aspirations as defined by annual mean salary, is an important variable in career
aspirations.
RQ4: Is there a significant relationship between educational aspirations and the
career aspirations of African-American youth?
There was no significant relationship between academic enrichment and career
aspirations of African-American youth.
Academic enrichment through after school programs, Saturday academies and
summer camps of the Academy are believed to meet the needs of African-American
youth. There is evidence that enrichment programs can reverse the failing trend for
African-American males in the society at large (Ascher, 1991). While the Academy
focuses heavily on academic enrichment, it also serves to build self-esteem, self-identity
through cultural awareness, provide a safe and nurturing environment for learning and an
opportunity to succeed in the educational system as well as society.
Academic enrichment had a significant correlation with self-efficacy (R = .270,
P<.01) and having a role model (R = .220, P<.01), when the independent variables were
correlated. Correlation of academic enrichment with annual mean salary (R = -.057)
produced a negative value but maintained a significant correlation with self-efficacy
(R = .270, P<.01). The negative correlation between academic enrichment and career
aspirations may suggest the following; as academic enrichment increases, self
confidence increases and there is less reliance on any specific career aspirations because
now the student feels confident with attempting any career desired.
81
RQ5: Is there a significant relationship between academic enrichment and the
career aspirations of African-American youth?
There was no significant relationship between having a mentoring relationship
and career aspirations.
There are many diverse roles of mentoring. These include the process of one
person sharing, giving a bit of the essence of self, to another so that person might grow
closer to their capabilities. A mentor is one who guides the mentee who is seeking
advice, takes time to develop the career and personal aspects of a student, shares
expectations, and makes a difference in another’s personal and professional growth and
development. The results of this study showed no significant relationship with career
aspirations and access to a mentor. When correlated with annual mean salary, mentoring
had a negative correlation (R = -.08 1). Mentoring also loaded with Parent and Family on
Factor 3, family core, with a value of .745. One interpretation of the negative correlation
between mentoring and annual mean salary is students may not have developed a
mentoring relationship to the point that career opportunities and salaries have been a
focus of discussion. Students seem to confine the mentoring relationship to help with
academics through tutoring.
The majority of the mentoring relationships of students in the precollege
programs for middle school students are informal in nature. One main problem that has
plagued the Academy is how to maximize the effect of the mentoring relationship.
Students, with parental consent, who request a mentor are assigned one from a cohort of
undergraduate and graduate program volunteers and the relationship operates within the
82
confines of the program. The mentoring relationship begins with a tutoring session to
provide academic support. The relationship continues as long as the student remains in
the program and the mentor continues to matriculate at an institution in the local
university center. While some facets of the mentoring relationship are strengthened,
others require more time for development. Seldom is there opportunity to work toward
establishment of goals and explore career options. The mentoring relationships
established in the Academy have similar tenets of the mentoring programs researched by
Randolph and Johnson (2008). These authors found that school-based mentoring
programs were effective in providing students with needed extra support in school, which
primarily consisted of providing academic success and establishing positive social
behaviors.
RQ6: Is there a significant relationship between mentorship and the career
aspirations of African-American youth?
There was a significant relationship between educational aspiration and career
aspirations.
Educational aspiration was the only independent variable from the CIS to produce
a significant correlation with career aspirations as defined by mean annual salary. It
accounted for 11.9% of the variance in the dependent variable. In the fourth step of the
regression model, educational aspiration and mother’s level of education accounted for
55% of the variance in career aspirations. Educational aspiration, along with career
exploration, self-efficacy, and role model, loaded on Factor 1, self-efficacy, with a value
.666. Educational aspirations had the highest mean score (4.37, SD = .44). One
83
observation may be that educational aspirations are related to strong self-efficacy, high
self esteem and high educational aspirations in the home. The findings suggest that it is
educational aspiration that is associated with annual mean salary. Murdock, Anderman,
and Hodge (2000) found that African-American adolescents had higher expectations of
attending college than those students who perceived economic limitations to education.
Students who are aware of scholarship availability for higher education would not
perceive economic limitations to education. As expected, higher levels of postsecondary
schooling is significantly related to greater levels of occupational status and attainment
(Finn & Rock, 1997; Sewell, Hauser, & Wolf, 1980). These findings are consistent with
research that has noted that individuals who have high career aspirations also have high
educational aspirations and may be less dependent on mentors, role models, and family.
Parental expectations and support appear to be a key variable influencing the educational
aspirations of African-American students (Hossler & Maple 1993). Mau (1995) also
found that parental expectations were influential in middle school students’ educational
aspirations. Parents with high levels of education expect their children to have aspirations
for higher education. The relationship between parental level of education and
educational aspirations was confirmed in this study. There may be the perception among
African-American families regarding the importance of education and how these
perceptions have an impact of the students’ views of future vocational opportunities.
RQ7: How significant were other external factors in the career aspirations of
African-American youth?
84
Focus Group
The focus group methodology was used to gather further insight into additional
internal and external variables that may impact career choice. Ten students were selected
to participate in the focus group. One theme that continued to emerge through the focus
group session was the importance and influence of family, a family member or a member
from the community on career aspirations. Various family members, brother, aunt,
grandmother, dad, sister and mom, had the most influence on their career aspirations.
These family members often served as mentors and role models for the students and were
strong sources of encouragement for academic success. Students, although participants
in a science, math and health enrichment program, had varied career aspirations, that
ranged from fashion design to pediatric neurosurgeon.
Students who were interested in careers in medicine, health, mathematics and
science talked about college as a career trajectory after high school. These students were
future oriented with college as the first step and the understanding of the need for further
studies. Students who were interested in entertainment, art, and design had occupational
goals that were related to skill development. These students associated these careers with
their personal skills and abilities.
Career exploration experiences for the students in the focus group were varied.
All of the students appear to have family, school and community support in the
exploration of careers. Some shadowed health care professionals in hospitals, attended a
fashion show, visit an art exhibit, viewing TV shows, and reading a book. These
experiences were also seen as external motivators for career aspirations. Internal
85
influences on career aspirations included altruism, personal interest and abilities, prior
experience and the desire to give back and provide a service to the community. None of
the responses were pragmatic such as motivation for money, security, and rewards. The
lack of pragmatic motivation for money, security and rewards provides some insight into
the lack of association of independent variables with annual mean salary as an outcome
of career aspirations.
Conclusions
The selection of a career is an important benchmark in the lives of adolescents.
Many variables have been identified as playing a role in the career aspirations. The
outcomes in this study revealed that educational aspirations significantly influenced
career aspirations. Mentoring, academic enrichment, role model, self-efficacy, career
exploration and parents/family did not significantly influence career aspirations. These
findings have implications for the Academy. The results from this study indicate that the
Academy had its largest impact on the students’ educational aspirations. The other
independent variables were ineffective in predicting career aspirations. The information
obtained from these results provides some evaluative data in terms of reassessing the
program’s components. Additional questions will need to be proposed: Is the type of
mentoring relationship effective with this age group? Should academic enrichment
become the overarching goal? Is the program having an effect on self-efficacy? Is career
awareness during career exploration sufficient for this age group, or should other areas be
the object of investigation? Are there student success-building factors that would better
serve middle school students? In this study, these tested independent variables and their
86
perceived abilities were not reflected in significantly higher career aspiration as defined
by mean annual salary. These findings suggest that, as a consequence of the Academy,
students had greater educational aspirations that will ultimately lead to a higher mean
salary.
Although, mother’s and father’s level of education showed significance in the
stepwise regression model, they did not significantly influence career aspirations when
considered jointly, however educational aspirations, and mother and father’s level of
education were most influential in career aspirations. In terms of the theoretical
framework, only one independent variable, educational aspirations, had an influence on
career aspirations. Moderator variables, socioeconomic status and gender did not impact
the relationship between the independent variables and career aspirations as defined by
annual mean salary.
These finding are limited in the ability to generalize but there are still implications
for students who are in the career development stages. Additional limitations of the study
involve the correlation design of the study. The design prevents the assumption of a
causal relationship between the predictor variables and annual mean salary, the criterion
variable. These variables do no directly influence career choice. The results may be
limited by sampling procedure. The students were all participants in an academic
outreach program in science, health and mathematics. The results may be different for
students in other types of programs. The sample was restricted in terms of race and
ethnicity. All of the participants were African Americans.
87
Recommendations
Further work is needed to reveal an understanding of variables which influence
career aspirations. It is recommended that further studies be conducted by counselors,
precollege administrative staff and guidance professionals to identify other factors and
confirm that the factors used in this study are influential in career aspirations of
adolescents. Siblings, which have not been examined and may exert influence on the
career decision process.
Precollege program administrators should repeat the study on students in the high
school program and who are more certain about a career in the health science area.
Qualitative studies that focus on how various individuals support career development
might provide insight into the role of perceived influences. Future research should
examine various aspects of role models and mentors, the nature of the relationship and
stages of the relationship. School counselors and educational leaders need to provide
further opportunities for self-exploration and access to information about the world of
work to foster career expectations that are realistic and likely to lead to satisfaction.
Educational leaders should encourage the formation of informal mentoring
programs. These types of programs facilitate role modeling and organization
commitment of teachers and other staff members. Career exploration should be tied to
objectives shared with the students. Career exploration activities should be linked to the
world of work. Students should be able to make the connection with career exploration
activities and how the activities are related to career aspirations.
88
It is important for career counselors to develop interventions that build minority
students self confidence, self-efficacy and self understanding. A clear understanding of
one’s self is the first step in career exploration.
School counselors should assist students in understanding the positive and
negative influences that may have an effect on their career aspirations. School counselors
can then begin to construct a career developmental guidance program that positively
impacts students’ career aspirations that subsequently lead to informed career choices.
Counselors and teacher began to assist student in selecting realistic careers and
identify ways to help them move from the fantasy stage to tentative and realistic stages as
proposed by Ginzberg, et al. (1951). There should be congruency among the students’
career aspirations, abilities, interests, and educational preparation. The career exploration
process is a developmental process and should span the K-12 curriculum. Counselors
and teachers need to current knowledge about students developmental needs, cultural
values, labor market trends and postsecondary educational options. Collaboration
between counselors and teachers in the development of a curriculum should take place
whereby subject content areas are applied to career options. Precollege administrators
can create class projects that will allow student to research an occupation and apply
course content to that occupation.
Precollege program administration and educational leaders should work with
community-based organizations to identify resources that would help students improve
their career self-efficacy and career-related skills. Parents should be included in the
interventions since they are influential in the career aspirations of adolescents.
89
The subscales of the Career Influence Survey demonstrated satisfactory
psychometric properties and may have important applications in additional research. The
scales factor structure should be further validated with another group, possibly high
school students. The subscales utility in predicting students’ career aspirations should be
further validated by the Precollege program coordinator.
In conclusion it is important to identify factors influencing career aspirations of
middle school youth. Investigation of these predictors will put school counselor,
educators and parents in a better position to provide appropriate and meaningful
interventions for students at the middle school level. The findings of this study illustrate
the importance of identifying the factors or variables that influential in the career
aspirations of middle school youth. The interrelations of these factors are not static, but
dynamic and intervention strategies should consider this complex relationship. The goal
is to develop and implement a program that will facilitate the career development process
for young people.
APPENDIX A
Survey Reviewers’ Correspondence
Career Influence Survey
After Completing Survey Students Stated:
• There were too many questions• Confused about what to do if they didn’t have an answer• Was not kid friendly, difficult to place x’s in the boxes• Unknown vocabulary: efficacy, praise, influential, inclined
My Notes
• Mentor section: Are these questions describing BCSA mentor?Might be informative if there was a section on Friends/Peers;
Example:o Peers have similar goals?o Is it important for peers to be popular?o Do peers encourage positive choices? Negative choices?
School Community
• Ask students about their experiences at school; many friends? Like their teachers?Like being at school?
Cyniqua Goddard
90
91Appendix A (continued)
June 6, 2009
I sampled some students and the results were good! They appeared to answer all
questions and they finished the survey in a timely fashion. I used all 6th males.
For 6th grade, the word “occupation” is not widely used; also, some students were not
sure of their parents Educational Background. (Again this was 6th grade)
Sorry, I am home for the summer. Above are the results from the survey. Please send
me a mailing address, and if I am by the school before August, I will mail them. Have a
great summer vacation!
Mrs. Harriet Gordon
Career Influence Survey Feedback
I found this survey to be appropriate and beneficial to those of the middle school
age group. It appears easy to understand and contain appropriate vocabulary. I like how
it asks questions about the careers of their parents as well as the feedback that they
receive from their parents. Both of these make a big impact on children of that age. The
survey also flows well and covers important areas. One thing that I noticed is that
question #21 is repeating itself. I think another area that may add to the survey is a
section where students can write any additional comments or ideas that may help them
reach their goals in the future. This can help provided a better understanding of the areas
in which the students need more support. This survey definitely touches all areas as far
92Appendix A (continued)
as who may influence them in their years to come, and I believe that it will encourage the
students to think about their future goals concerning their education and careers.
Kristen Charles
May 27, 2009
Ms. Scott,
I have reviewed your survey and I made comments in red. Please let me know if you
have any questions. This is an interesting survey; I am interested to find out the results.
Jennifer E. Johnson
APPENDIX B
Morehouse School of Medicine
The purpose of this letter is to tell you about a survey we are conducting and to ask yourpermission for your child to participate by completing a survey about those factors thatare influential in career choice.
The survey will help us to determine whether our program has been beneficial in assistingyour child in career decisions. Information collected from the students will be added toreports to funding agencies. This will allow us to provide supportive data to fundingrequests and to reform our program to meet the needs of the students. No identjfyinginformation will be collected at the time of the survey and therefore no ident~j54nginformation will be stored in the database.
KNOWLEDGE • WISDOM • EXCELLENCE • SERVICE720 Westview Drive, S.W. Atlanta, GA 30310-1495 Telephone (404)752-1843 Fax (404) 752-1008
Parental Consent Form
Office ofCommunity Relations & Special Projects
Dear Parent/Guardian:
May 13, 2009
93
94
Appendix B (continued)
What do the surveys ask?
The student survey assesses to what degree does several factors, such as participation incareer exploration activities influence their career choice.
What does participation involve?
Student SurveyStudents will complete the survey during the second week of the summer camp. Thesurvey will take approximately 60 minutes to complete. Your child’s name will not bewritten on his/her survey. Importantly, all responses made by your child are treated asstrictly confidential.
Focus GroupApproximately 12 students will be selected to participate in a focus group session. In thefocus group we want to explore the degree to which various factors, not listed in surveyinfluence career aspirations. We want to understand what factors are important in the careeraspirations and career choice of students.
INFORMED PARENTAL CONSENT FORM
Description: This study will examine those factors that adolescents feel are influential in careeraspirations. Your child will complete a survey by responding to their level of agreement to eachstatement on the survey. After completing the survey, several students will be randomly selectedto participate in a focus group interview to further discuss career aspirations. Your child’sinterview will be recorded for use in standard research procedures (e.g. analysis of responses,presentation at professional conferences, funding source reports, etc.). Your child’s identity willnot be revealed to anyone but the principal investigator(s) and her designated research associates.
Confidentiality: Children’s answers will not be associated with their name. Rather, each childwill be given an identification number for the survey and on the interviewer’s sheet.
Freedom to Withdraw or Refuse Participation: I understand that my child has the right to stopthe survey at any time, or to refuse to answer any of the interviewer’s questions without prejudicefrom the investigator.
Grievance Procedure: If I have any concerns or am dissatisfied with any aspect of this study Imay report my grievances anonymously if desired to the Human Subjects Institutional ReviewBoard, do John Smith, Sponsored Research Administration, Morehouse School of Medicine,(404) 752-1973.
Questions? Please feel free to ask the investigator any questions before signing the consent formor at any time during or after the study.
95
Appendix B (continued)
Principal Investigator: Jacqueline Scott, Admissions and Student Affair, Morehouse School ofMedicine, 720 Westview Drive, SW, Atlanta, GA 30310-1495, (404) 752-1590. Please return theinformed consent to this address.
Informed Consent Statement
I, ____________________, give permission for my child, _______________________ to participatein the research project entitled, “The Influence Of Role Models, Self-efficacy, CareerExploration, Educational Aspirations and Academic Enrichment On Career Aspirations of YouthIn The Benjamin Carson Science Academy.” The study has been explained to me and myquestions answered to my satisfaction. I understand that my child’s right to withdraw fromparticipating or refuse to participate will be respected and that his/her responses and identity willbe kept confidential. I give this consent voluntarily.
Signature Date
APPENDIX C
ANOVA Table
ANOVAb
Sum ofModel Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
1 Regression 1.981E10 9 2.201E9 .575 .814a
Residual 2.720E11 71 3.831E9
Total 2.918E11 80
a. Predictors: (Constant), OtherSubscale9, CESubscale2, PFamSubscale3,AcadEnSubscale7, EdAspSubscale5, RolMdSubscale4, MentSubscale 1, SelfEffSubscale6,PeopleSubscale8
b. Dependent Variable: Annual Mean Salary
96
APPENDIX D
Career Influence Survey
This survey is part of a study to collect data on factors which affect or influence student’scareer choice. There are no right or wrong answers to any of the statements. Your honestresponse to all statements will help in the evaluation of our program. Your responses willbe kept confidential. Thank you for taking the time to complete this survey.
Section 1: Demographic Information
Please provide the following information.
a. Grade Level: (Fall 2009)b. Gender: Male Female_____c. What is your career aspiration? (What would you like to be when you grou
up?
d. What is your father’s occupation?e. What is your father’s highest level of education? (check one)
Less than high school______High school graduate or GED____Graduated from community college_____Graduated from four year college_______Completed graduate school_______Completed professional school_____Other (please specif~’)_______________
f. What is your mother’s occupation?g. What is your mother’s highest level of education? (check one)
Less than high school______High school graduate or GED_____Graduated from community college_____Graduated from four year collegeCompleted graduate school_______Completed professional school_____Other (please specify)_____________
h. Name of school you will be attending (Fall 2009)i. Name of school systemj. Current science grade current math gradek. Number of brother Number of sisters__________
97
98Appendix D (continued)
Section 2: Read each statement and mark your level of agreement or disagreement witheach statement by placing an X in the box under your response.
Use the scale below to respond to each statement:
SA Strongly Agree A Agree U UndecidedD Disagree SD Strongly Disagree
Mentor SD D U A SA1. My_mentor_listens to_my_needs.2. My_mentor helps_me_with_my_academics.3. My_mentor_was_influential_in_my_career choice.4. When I need guidance and input from my mentor, I
receive_it.5. I wish my mentor would ask me more about what I
think.6. My mentor has a career like the career the one I
have chosen.7. I have a mentor who has discussed with me my
career goals.8. I wish my mentor knew me better.
Career Exploration9. The motivational speakers/lectures/presentation and
scientific materials presented are really exciting.10. The career exploration activities helped me to
understand the best career options for me.1 1. To learn more about careers, I have used a computer
or completed some research on-line.12. I understand how to match my selection of classes
to fit my career goals.13. I have attended or participated in a career day or
career_fair.14. I have participated in a program that focused on a
particular_career_field.15. Access to information on African and African
American contributions to various career fields hasbeen_important_in_my_career choice.
16. I understand how my interests, skills, personality,and_values_relate_to_career choice.
17. I took a test that told me about myself, interests,and_personality_andlor how I make decisions.
18. I have visited a professional school, such as acollege of veterinarian that is associated with mycareer goal.
99
Appendix D (continued)
Career Exploration SD D U A SA19. 1 have learned how to explore career options
through field trips, informational sessions, andmotivational_speakers_in_various career fields.
Parent and Family20. My parent(s) encourage me to go to college.21. My family_praises_me when I do well.22. Family_members_help_me with_my_school_work.23. My family does not reward me if I do well in
school.24. I_want to_have_an_occupation_like_my_father.25. My parents know what kind ofjob I will probably
have_at age_30.26. I_want to_have_an_occupation_like_my_mother.27. My family’s income will determine if I can reach
my career goal.Role Models
28. My role model has a good moral reputation.29. The most important quality in a role model is his/her
popularity. — —
30. My role model has made significant contributions tosociety. — — — —
31. An important quality I look for in a role model istalent and success in their career.
32. An important quality I look for I a role model isgenerosity and selflessness, helps other people. — — — —
33. An important quality I look for in a role model iswell respected. — — — —
34. My role model and I belong to the same race. — — — —
Educational Aspirations — — — —
35. Iplantoapplyto college. — — — —
36. It is important to me to have a career. — — — —
37. It is important to get ahead and be promoted on ajob.
38. My parents have discussed college with me. — — — —
39. I know how much education I will need to reach mycareer goal. — — — —
40. When I graduate from high school, I will go to acommunity college. — — — —
41. I intend to continue in full time education after age16.
42. My family has encouraged me to go to college. — —
43. I plan to attend a technical school after graduatingfrom high school. — —
44. It is not important for me to finish high school inorder to achieve my career goal. —
100
Appendix D (continued)
EducationalAspirations SD’ D U A SA45. 1 work hard in my course work because it is
important to achieve my career goal. —
46. If I_work_I_will_be_able to_succeed_in_life.
47. Becoming employed after high school is animportant
48. After I graduate from high school, I will to a fouryear college.
49. On the whole, I am satisfied with myself.Self-efficacy
50. I feel that I have a number of good qualities.51. I am able to do things as well as most other people. — —
52. I feel I do not have a lot of which to be proud. — —
53. 1 certainly feel useless at times.54. I feel that I’m a person of worth, at least on an equal
plane with others. I feel that I’m a person of worth,at least on an equal plane with others.
55. I wish I could have more respect for myself. —
56. All in all, I am inclined to feel that I am a failure.57. I take a positive attitude toward myself. — —
58. I am not good at problem solving. —
59. I feel good about myself. — —
60. I am good at most subjects in school. — —
61. I can usually work things out when I am presentedwith a challenge.
62. I am confident that I can be victorious withunexpected events. — —
63. 1 believe that I can achieve any goal that I set. — —
64. It is easy for me to set my goals and accomplishthem.
65. I am confident that I can achieve my career goals. — — —
66. My participation in leadership activities such asstudent government and honor has increased myknowledge and academic level. — — — —
Academic Enrichment67. I am involved in academic clubs that build skills in
science, mathematics, robotics and engineering. — — — —
68. I participate in activities such as band andcheerleading. — — —
69. Participation in athletics has helped me to become abetter student.
70. I have received tutoring in one or more academicsubjects. — —
71. I have attended a Saturday Academy. — —
101Appendix D (continued)
Academic Enrichment SD D U A SA72. I have attended an academic camp during the
summer.73. Participating on yearbook, newspaper and
community service committee teaches meresponsibility.
Section 3: Use the following scale to rate the extent to which these persons influenceyour career choice.
VI Very InfluentialI = InfluentialNA Not ApplicableSI Somewhat InfluentialNI = Not Influential
The one who has been most influential in my career choiceis: NJ SI NA I VI
74. My_father75. My_mother76. Older brother_or_sister77. Another family member (aunt, uncle, cousin,
grandparent)78. Family_friend79. Teacher80. Guidance Counselor81. Principal82. Mentor83. Adult professional84. Classmate85. Minister86. Girlfriend or boyfriend
Other factors that may have influenced my career choice:87. Labor market trends88. Occupational outlook report89. Magazine_article90. Television_show91._Internet92. Opportunity to_provide_a_service93. Opportunity to change my socioeconomic level —
94. Highsalary —
95. Recognition and rewards —
Thank You!
APPENDIX E
Focus Group Guide
FOCUS GROUP MAJOR TOPICS
• What is your career choice?
• How did you make the decision to choose this career?
• Who had the most influence on your career choice?
• What had the most influence on your career choice?
• How effective were people, resources and tools in helping you make a careerdecision?
• Were there internal factors that were influential in your career choice?
• Were there external factors that were influential in your career choice?
• How would you improve your career decision-making process?
102
APPENDIX F
Test for Skewness
Factor Analysis on Subscale
KMO and BartletCs Test
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy. .603Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity Approx. Chi-Square 112.963
Df 36Sig. .000
103
300000
250000
~a 200000U,
150000
•8
100000•C
50000
0~
APPENDIX G
Casewise Diagnostic to Reveal Outliers
Histogram
Dependent Variable: Annual Mean Salary
Regression Standardized Residual
Meen —2.436.17Std. 0ev. —0.942
N —81
Scatterplot
Dependent Variable: Annual Mean Salary
00 0
0 00 00 0~3~O 0
0 0
_0
0 0
08 0
Regression Studentized Deleted (Press) Residual
104
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