Terminologies
• Concept• Construct• Proposition• Operational Definition• Variable• Law
• Hypothesis• Model• Research problem• Theory• Paradigm• Framework
Concept
• A Concept is a generally accepted collection of meanings or characteristics associated with certain events, objects, conditions, situations, and behaviors
• Concepts are created by classifying and categorizing objects or events that have common characteristics beyond the single observation– Spreadsheet, warranty card
• We abstract such meanings from reality and used words as labels to designate them– We see a man passing (running, walking skipping, crawling or hop
ping)
-- Cooper & Schindler, 8th Ed.
Concept
• A generalized idea about a class of objects, attributes, occurrences, or processes that has been given a name
• Concept abstract reality• Concepts are our building blocks
-- Zikmund
• A (theoretical) concept must be tied to observable operations that any person can observe or perform.
--McBurney
Sources of Concepts
• Concepts have been developed over time through shared usage– Different society may use many of the same concepts– Some concepts are unique to a particular culture
• Concepts can be borrowing from other fields– Strategic weapon, gravitation, distance, threshold, velocity
• Borrowing is not always practical, so we need to – Adopt new meanings for words– Develop new label for concepts
ConceptsAbstract Level
Empirical LevelObservations of Objects and Events (Reality)
Concepts Are Abstractions of Reality
Concept
• Expresses an abstraction formed by generalization from particulars
• Examples– Weight, mass, energy, force, achievement, intel
ligence aggressiveness, conformity, honesty– Weight expresses numerous observations of thi
ngs that are more or less “heavy” or “light”
--Kerlinger
Vegetation
Fruit
Banana
Reality
A Ladder of Abstraction for Concepts
Incr
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Abs
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Construct• A construct is a concept
• Construct has the added meaning, however, of having been deliberately and consciously invented or adopted for a special scientific purpose
• An example (Intelligence)– Enter into theoretical schemes and is related in various way
s to other constructs. – “Intelligence” is so defined and specified that it can be obs
erved and measured
-- Fred N. Kerlinger
Construct• A construct is an image or idea specifically for a
given research and/or theory-building purpose• We build constructs, which are more complex, by
combining the simpler concepts, especially when the idea or image we intend to convey is not directly subject to observation
• There is no sharp demarcation between concepts and constructs
-- Cooper & Schindler
Syntax
Vocabulary
Spelling
Manuscripterrors
Typingspeed
FormatAccuracy
“ Language Skill Construct ”
“ Job Interest Construct ”(Components unknown by analyst)
“ Presentation Quality Construct ”
Mostabstract
Most concrete
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ConstructsComposed ofConcepts in a JobRedesign Example
Proposition
• Statements concerned with the relationships among concepts
• The logical linkage among concepts
• Assert a universal connection between properties
• State that every event or thing of a certain sort either has a certain property or stands in a certain relationship to other events or things that have certain properties
-- Zikmund
Proposition
We define a proposition as a statement about concepts which may be judged as true or false if it refers to observable phenomena -- Cooper & Schindler
Theories
Propositions
Concepts
Theory Building Is a Process of Increasing Abstraction
Observations of Objects and Events (Reality)
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Operational Definition
• A statement of the precise meaning of a procedure or concept within an experiment
--McBurney
• Assign meaning to a construct or a variable by specifying the activities or “operations” necessary to measure– A constitutive definition defines a construct with oth
er constructs
-- Fred N. Kerlinger
Operational Definition
• An operational definition is one stated in terms of specific testing criteria or operations
• Whether the object to be defined is physical or highly abstract, the definition must specify the characteristics to study and how they are to be observed
-- Cooper & Schindler
Operational Definition
• The specifications and procedures must be so clear that any competent person using them would classify the objects in the same way
• Operational definitions may vary depending on your purpose and the way you choose to measure them
-- Cooper & Schindler
Variable
• A variable is some property of an event in the world that has been measured
-- Donald H. McBurney
• A variable is a symbol to which numerals or values are assigned
• A variable is a property that takes on different values
-- Fred N. Kerlinger
Variable
• The term variable is used by scientists and researchers as a synonym for construct or the property being studied
• A variable is a symbol to which numerals or values are assigned
-- Cooper & Schindler
Types of Variables
• Independent and dependent variables
• Quantitative and categorical variables
• Continuous and discrete variables
• Physical and nonphysical variables --McBurney
Types of Variables
• Independent and dependent variables
• Active and attribute variables
• Continuous and categorical variables
• Latent variables --Kerlinger
Dependent and Independent Variables
• An independent variable is the presumed cause of the dependent variable, the presumed effect
• The independent is the antecedent; the dependent is the consequent
• The terms come from mathematics• In experiments
– The independent variable is the variable manipulated by the experimenter
• In nonexperiment– The independent variable is the variable that “logically” has some e
ffect on a dependent variable
Kerlinger
Active and Attribute Variables• Manipulated variables will be called active variables;
measured variables will be called attribute variables• All variables that are human characteristics are
attribute variables– Intelligence, aptitude, sex, socioeconomic status.
Conservatism, field dependence, need achievement, and attitude
• The active-attribute distinction is general, flexible, and useful– The variable anxiety can be active or attribute
Kerlinger
Continuous and Categorical Variables
• A continuous variable is capable of taking on an ordered set of values within a certain range
• Categorical variable belong to a kind of measurement called nominal– There two or more subsets of the set of objects being
measured
– Individuals are categorized by their possession of the characteristic that defines any subset
-- Kerlinger
Latent Variable
• A latent variable is an unobserved “entity” presumed to underlie observed variables
• Intelligence is the best-known example– verbal, numerical and spatial tests are positively and
substantially related, we believe that something is common to the three tests or observed variables and name this something “intelligence”
• Examples– Achievement, creativity, social class, anti-Semitism,
conformity, and so on
Constructs and Observed Variable
• Constructs are nonobservables
• Variables, when operationally defined, are observables
Types of Variables
• independent and dependent variables
• Explanatory variables
• Extraneous variables
• Intervening variables -- Cooper &Schindler
IndependentVariable
DependentVariable
Defining Independent and Dependent Variables
Presumed causeStimulusPredicted from...AntecedentManipulated
Presumed effectResponsePredicted to...ConsequenceMeasured outcome
Moderating Variables
• Moderating variables– a second independent variable that is included
because it is believed to have a significant contributory or contingent effect on the original state IV-DV relationship
• Example– The introduction of the four-day workweek (IV)
will lead to higher productivity (DV), especially among younger workers (MV)
Extraneous Variables
• An almost infinite number of extraneous variables exists that might conceivably affect a given relationship
• Example – In routine office work (control), the
introduction of the four-day workweek (IV) will lead to higher productivity (DV), especially among younger workers (MV)
Intervening Variables• That factors which theoretically affects the observed
phenomenon but cannot be seen, measured, or manipulated; its effect must be inferred from the effects of the independent and moderator variables on the observed phenomenon
• Examples– The introduction of a four-day workweek will lead to higher
productivity by increasing job satisfaction (IVV)– A promotion campaign (IV) will increase saving activity (DV),
especially when free prizes are offered (MV), but chiefly among smaller savers (control). The results come from enhancing the motivation to save(IVV)
Hypothesis• A provisional assertion assumed to be true for the purpo
se of testing its validity -- Donald H. McBurney
• A conjectural statement of the relation between two or more variables
• Two criteria for “good hypothesis”– Hypotheses are statements about relations between variables– Hypotheses carry clear implications for testing the stated relat
ions --Kerlinger
Hypothesis
We define a proposition as a statement aboutconcepts which may judged as true or false if it refers to observable phenomena. When a proposition is formulated for empiricaltesting, we call it a hypothesis.
-- Cooper & Schindler
Types of Hypothesis
• Descriptive hypotheses– These are positions that typically state the
existence, size, form, or distribution of some variable
• Relational hypotheses– These are statements that describe a
relationship between two variables with respect to some case
Descriptive Hypotheses
• These are propositions that typically state the existence, size, form, or distribution of some variable
• Example– The current unemployment rate in Detroit exceeds 6
percent of the labor force
• Researchers will often use a research question rather than a descriptive hypothesis– What is the unemployment rate in Detroit?
Relational Hypotheses
• These are statements that describe a relationship between two variables with respect to some case
• Example– Foreign cars are perceived by American consumers to be of better
quality than domestic cars
• Correctional relationships– Young machinists are less productive than those who are 35 years
or older
• Explanatory, or causal relationships– An increase in family income leads to an increase in the
percentage of income saved
Hypotheses Are the Empirical Counterparts of Propositions
AbstractLevel
Empirical Level
Concept A(Reinforcement)
Concept B(Habit)
Dollarbonus for
sales volumeover quota
Always makesfour sales calls
a day
The Role of Hypothesis
• It guides the direction of the study• It limits what shall be studied and what shall not• It suggests which form of research design is likely to be
most appropriate• It provides a framework for organizing the conclusions
that result• Example
– Husbands and wives(who should be studied) agree in their perceptions of their respective roles(what shall be studied) in purchasing decisions(what context shall be studied)
Theory• A theory is a set of systematically interrelated con
cepts, definitions, and prepositions that are advanced to explain and predict phenomena (facts)
-- Cooper & Schindler
• A theory is a set of interrelated constructs (concepts), definitions, and propositions that present a systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations among variables, with the purpose explaining and predicting the phenomena --Kerlinger
Theory• A theory is a set of statements that organize a large bo
dy of facts (laws) into a single explanatory system, in a nutshell a theory is an explanation for a set of facts
• A theory is a statement or set of statements about the relationships among variables
• Sometimes a number of laws are tied together into a more general set of statements, which is called a theory
--McBurney
Theory
• The role of theory– Organizing knowledge and explaining laws– Predicting new laws– Guiding research
--McBurney
• The Goal of theory– Prediction– Understanding
--Zikmund
A Basic Theory Explaining Voluntary job turnover
Labor MarketPersonality
Perceived Easeof Movement
Perceived Easeof Movement
PerceivedDesirability of
Movement
PerceivedDesirability of
Movement
PayJob Complexity
Participation
Intention toQuit
Intention toQuit
VoluntaryJob Turnover
VoluntaryJob TurnoverJob
Performance
Job Performance
Theory and Song
A fact without a theoryIs like a ship without a sail,Is like a boat without a rudder,Is like a kite without a tail.A fact without a figureIs a tragic final act,But one thing worseIn this universeIs a theory without a fact
Paradigm
• A paradigm is a perspective way of thinking about a branch of science that includes all of assumptions and theories that are accepted as true by a group of scientists
• A new paradigm will be accepted when it accounts more successfully for empirical data than did the old paradigm
--Kuhn
Theory and Paradigm• Paradigm are general framework or viewpoints
– Points from which to view
– Provide ways of looking at life and are grounded in sets of assumptions about the nature of reality
• Theory is a systematic set of interrelated statements intended to explain some aspect of social life
– Theories flesh out and specify paradigm
– A theory aims at explaining what we see
Theory and ParadigmExamples
• Exchange paradigm– suggest that we analyze social situations in terms of perceived costs an
d benefits of various behavior
• Exchange theory– asserts, among other things, that “the more often a particular action of a
person is rewarded, the more likely the person is to perform that actions
• examples– Macrotheory vs. microtheory– Conflict paradigm– Role theory– Feminist paradigms
Model• A model is defined here as a representation of a syst
em which is constructed for the purpose of studying some aspect of that system or the system as a whole
• Models differ from theories in that a theory‘s role is explanation whereas a model’s role is representation
• A model is not an explanation; it is only the result of taking the structure or function of one object or process and using that as a model for the second --Cooper&Schindler
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