TOWARDS LOCAL CULTURES OF SUSTAINABILITY: FACILITATING
COMMUNITY CREATED ENVIRONMENT
EDUCATION CENTRES THROUGH DESIGN
Erwin Weber BArch Sc, BArch (Hons)
Supervisors: Dr Gillian Lawson, Professor Janis Birkeland & Peter Hedley
Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Applied Science (Research)
Faculty of Built Environment and Engineering
Queensland University of Technology
2012
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Keywords
Action Research, Community Development, Community Economic Transition, Ecological Footprint, Ecologically Sustainable Development, Environmental Education, Environment Education Centre Exemplar, Learning Community, Eco-Positive Development, Ecologically Sustainable Design, Local Economy, Transformative Learning.
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Abstract
“The key is developing systems and patterns of settlement which make it easy
for us to live well without the need to consume much” . . . “The key to a sustainable
world order must be the development of many small, highly self-sufficient
settlements”.
~Ted Trainer (2012, 12,57)
Ecological sustainability has been proposed to address the problem of human
impacts increasingly degrading planetary resources and ecosystems, threatening
biodiversity, eco-services and human survival. Ecological sustainability is an
imperative, with Australia having one of the highest eco-footprints per person
worldwide. While significant progress has been made via implementation of
ecologically sustainable design in urban communities, relatively little has been
undertaken in small, disparate regional communities in Australia. Regional
communities are disadvantaged by rural economic decline associated with structural
change and inequities of resource transfer. The ecologically sustainable solution is
holistic, so all settlements need to be globally wise, richly biodiverse yet locally
specific.
As a regional solution to this global problem, this research offers the practical
means by which a small regional community can contribute. It focuses on the design
and implementation of a community centre and the fostering of transformative
community learning through an integrated ‘learning community’ awareness of
ecologically sustainable best practice. Lessons learned are documented by the
participant researcher who as a designer, facilitator, local resident and social narrator
has been deeply connected with the Tweed-Caldera region over a period since 1980.
The collective action of the local community of Chillingham has been diligently
recorded over a decade of design and development. Over this period, several
positive elements emerged in terms of improvements to the natural and built
environment, greater social cohesion and co-operative learning along with a shift
towards a greener local economy. Behavioural changes in the community were noted
as residents strived to embrace ecological ideals and reduce fossil fuel dependency.
They found attractive local solutions to sourcing of food and using local employment
opportunities to up skill their residents via transformative learning as a community in
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transition. Finally, the catalytic impact of external partnering has also been
documented. How well the region as a whole has achieved its ecologically
sustainable objectives is measured in terms of the delivered success of private and
public partnering with the community, the creation of a community centre cum
environment education centre, the restoration of local heritage buildings, the repair of
riparian forests and improved water conditions in local river systems, better roads and
road safety, local skills and knowledge transfer, support of local food and
local/regional growers markets to attract tourists via the integrated trails network. In
aggregate, each and every element contributes to a measure of eco-positive
development for the built environment, its social organisation and its economy that
has guided the local community to find its own pathway to sustainability.
Within the Tweed-Caldera bioregion in northern New South Wales, there has
been a lack of strategic planning, ecologically sustainable knowledge and facilities in
isolated communities that could support the development of a local sustained green
economy, provide a hub for socio-cultural activities and ecology based education.
The first challenge in this research was to model a whole systems approach to eco-
positive development in Chillingham, NSW, a small community where Nature and
humanity know no specific boundary. The net result was the creation of a community
environment education centre featuring best-affordable ecological practice and
regionally distinctive, educational building form from a disused heritage building (cow
bale). This development, implemented over a decade, resonated with the later
regional wide programs that were linked in the Caldera region by the common
purpose of extending the reach of local and state government assistance to regional
NSW in economic transition coupled with sustainability. The lessons learned from
these linked projects reveal that subsequent programs have been significantly easier
to initiate, manage, develop and deliver results. In particular, pursuing collaborative
networks with all levels of government and external private partners has been
economically effective. Each community’s uniqueness has been celebrated and
through drawing out these distinctions, has highlighted local vision, strategic planning,
sense of belonging and connection of people with place. This step has significantly
reduced the level of friction between communities that comes from natural competition
for the finite pool of funds. Following the pilot Tweed-Caldera study, several other
NSW regional communities are now undertaking a Community Economic Transition
Program based on the processes, trials and positive experiences witnessed in the
Tweed-Caldera region where it has been demonstrated that regional community
transition programs can provide an opportunity to plan and implement effective long
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term strategies for sustainability, empowering communities to participate in eco-
governance. This thesis includes the design and development of a framework for
community created environment education centres to provide an equal access place
for community to participate to meet their essential needs locally. An environment
centre that facilitates community transition based on easily accessible environmental
education, skills and infrastructure is necessary to develop local cultures of
sustainability.
This research draws upon the literatures of ecologically sustainable
development, environmental education and community development in the context of
regional community transition towards ‘strong sustainability’. The research approach
adapted is best described as a four stage collaborative action research cycle where
the participant researcher (me) has a significant involvement in the process to foster
local cultures of sustainability by empowering its citizens to act locally and in doing so,
become more self reliant and socially resilient. This research also draws upon the
many fine working exemplars, such as the resilience of the Cuban people, the
transition town initiative in Totnes, U.K. and the models of Australian Community
Gardens, such as CERES (Melbourne) and Northey Street (Brisbane). The objectives
of this study are to research and evaluate exemplars of ecologically sustainable
environment education centres, to facilitate the design and development of an
environment education centre created by a small regional community as an
ecologically sustainable learning environment; to facilitate a framework for community
transition based on environmental education, skills and infrastructure necessary to
develop local cultures of sustainability.
The research was undertaken as action research in the Tweed Caldera in
Northern NSW. This involved the author as participant researcher, designer and
volunteer in two interconnected initiatives: the Chillingham Community Centre
development and the Caldera Economic Transition Program (CETP). Both initiatives
involved a series of design-led participatory community workshops that were
externally facilitated with the support of government agency partnerships, steering
committees and local volunteers.
Together the Caldera research programs involved communities participating in
developing their own strategic planning process and outcomes. The Chillingham
Community Centre was developed as a sustainable community centre/hub using a
participatory design process. The Caldera Economic Transition Program (CETP)
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prioritised Caldera region projects: the Caldera farmer’s market; community gardens
and community kitchens; community renewable energy systems and an integrated
trails network.
The significant findings were: the CETP projects were capable of moving
towards an eco-positive design benchmark through transformative learning.
Community transition to sustainability programs need to be underpinned by
sustainability and environmental education based frameworks and practical on ground
experience in local needs based projects through transformative learning. The
actioned projects were successfully undertaken through community participation and
teamwork. Ecological footprint surveys were undertaken to guide and assess the
ongoing community transition process, however the paucity of responses needs to be
revisited.
The concept of ecologically sustainable development has been adopted
internationally, however existing design and planning strategies do not assure future
generations continued access to healthy natural life support systems. Sustainable
design research has usually been urban focussed, with little attention paid to regional
communities. This study seeks to redress this paucity through the design of
ecologically sustainable (deep green) learning environments for small regional
communities. Through a design-led process of environmental education, this study
investigates how regional communities can be facilitated to model the principles of
eco-positive development to support transition to local cultures of sustainability.
This research shows how community transition processes and projects can
incorporate sustainable community development as transformative learning through
design. Regional community transition programs can provide an opportunity to plan
long term strategies for sustainability, empowering people to participate in eco-
governance. A framework is developed for a community created environment
education centre to provide an equal access place for the local community to
participate in implementing ways to meet their essential needs locally. A community
environment education centre that facilitates community transition based on holistic
environmental education, skills and infrastructure is necessary to develop local
cultures of sustainability.
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Table of Contents
Keywords ............................................................................................................................. 2
Abstract ................................................................................................................................ 3
Table of Contents ................................................................................................................ 7
List of Figures .................................................................................................................... 10
List of Tables ..................................................................................................................... 12
List of Abbreviations .......................................................................................................... 13
Statement of Original Authorship....................................................................................... 14
Acknowledgment ............................................................................................................... 15
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION .......................................................................... 17
1.1 Aims, Objectives and Research Questions ............................................................. 21
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................ 23
2.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 23
2.2 Ecologically Sustainable Development ................................................................... 24
2.3 The Global Environmental Movement ..................................................................... 28 2.3.1 Eco-Efficient Design and Eco-Positive Development ................................... 33
2.4 Design-led and Community Created Sustainability ................................................. 34
2.5 Environmental Education ........................................................................................ 37 2.5.1 Learning Communities .................................................................................. 41 2.5.2 Ecological Footprint....................................................................................... 42
2.6 Community Development: The Bottom-up Model ................................................... 43 2.6.1 Regional/Urban Inequity ............................................................................... 46 2.6.2 Transformation .............................................................................................. 47 2.6.3 Resilience and Self Reliance ........................................................................ 48 2.6.4 Community-Public-Private Partnerships ....................................................... 50 2.6.5 Social Change Volunteering ......................................................................... 51 2.6.6 Community Transition to Sustainability ......................................................... 52 2.6.7 Community Economic Development ............................................................. 55
2.7 Cultures of Sustainability ......................................................................................... 56 2.7.1 Community Sense of Place ........................................................................... 59 2.7.2 Caring For Our Country and People ............................................................. 61
2.8 Chapter Overview .................................................................................................... 61
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY AND METHODS .............................................. 63
3.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 63
3.2 Eco-positive Development ...................................................................................... 63
3.3 Collaborative Action Research ................................................................................ 70
3.4 Participatory Design Process .................................................................................. 72
3.5 Transformative Learning ......................................................................................... 75
3.6 Chapter Overview .................................................................................................... 77
CHAPTER 4: TWEED-CALDERA BIOREGION ................................................. 79
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4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 79
4.2 Significance of the Tweed-Caldera Region ............................................................ 79 4.2.1 Collapse of Local Agriculture and Local Economy 1973-1990’s .................. 85 4.2.2 Concerns over Environmental Degradation and Socio-Economic
Decline since 1970’s ..................................................................................... 87 4.2.3 Formation of Citizen Action Groups 1979-now ............................................. 89
4.3 Participant Researcher ........................................................................................... 92
4.4 Role of Community and Partners ............................................................................ 96 4.4.1 Role of Community Representatives and Participants ................................. 96 4.4.2 Role of Public-Private Partners .................................................................... 98
4.5 Chapter Overview ................................................................................................. 101
CHAPTER 5: CHILLINGHAM COMMUNITY CENTRE .................................... 103
5.1 Chillingham and its Community ............................................................................ 103
5.2 Research Design for Chillingham ......................................................................... 106
5.3 Evaluation of Types of Existing Centres ............................................................... 109 5.3.1 Community Centres .................................................................................... 111 5.3.2 Environment Education Centres (EEC) ...................................................... 113 5.3.3 Community Environment Education Centre (CEEC) .................................. 115 5.3.4 Summary of table 5.1 evaluation ................................................................ 118
5.4 Chillingham Community Centre Workshops: Community Visioning ..................... 119
5.5 Chillingham Community Centre Action Research Process .................................. 122
5.6 Outcomes: Chillingham Community Centre Design and Development: ............... 124
5.7 Chillingham Community Centre: Discussion and Reflections .............................. 144 5.7.1 Environmental Education ............................................................................ 146 5.7.2 Community Development ........................................................................... 153 5.7.3 Local Economy ........................................................................................... 154
5.8 Community Environment Education Centre Framework ...................................... 155
5.9 Chapter Overview ................................................................................................. 157
CHAPTER 6: CALDERA ECONOMIC TRANSITION PROGRAM (CETP) ...... 159
6.1 Background ........................................................................................................... 159
6.2 Selection and Role of the Steering Committee ..................................................... 161
6.3 The Caldera Economic Transition Program: Research Design ............................ 162 6.3.1 Caldera Community Workshops ................................................................. 164 6.3.2 Eco- Footprint Surveys ............................................................................... 165
6.4 Caldera Economic Transition Program: Action Research Outcomes ................... 165 6.4.1 Community Workshop Outcomes ............................................................... 165 6.4.2 Caldera Projects Outcomes ........................................................................ 166
6.5 Caldera Discussion: Observations and Reflections .............................................. 173 6.5.1 Environment Education .............................................................................. 174 6.5.2 Community Development ........................................................................... 174 6.5.3 Local Economy ........................................................................................... 176
6.6 CETP Evidence of Outcomes ............................................................................... 179
6.7 Local Cultures of Sustainability Framework ......................................................... 183
6.8 Chapter Overview ................................................................................................. 185
CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSION ............................................................................ 187
REFERENCES .................................................................................................. 195
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APPENDIX A: SUSTAINABLE BUILDING MATERIALS .................................. 207
APPENDIX B: CHILLINGHAM COMMUNITY WORKSHOP ACTION RESEARCH ................................................................................ 222
APPENDIX C: SWOT ANALYSIS ...................................................................... 224
APPENDIX D: EXEMPLARS .............................................................................. 238
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List of Figures
Figure 2.1 Integrating the core concepts ........................................................................ 23
Figure 4.3 Tweed rural North West district: environmental remediation to high
biodiversity in built and natural environment ............................................................. 82
Figure 4.4 Caldera wildlife corridors from NSW Department of Environment and
Conservation (Scotts 2001) ....................................................................................... 83
Figure 5.1 A map of the village of Chillingham and its environs .................................. 104
Figure 5.2 Elements of a Social Theory of Learning from Wenger (1998, 5) .............. 107
Figure 5.3 Chillingham Community Centre stage 1 retrofit 2002 by Erwin Weber ..... 125
Figure 5.4 The author’s master plan of Chillingham community environment
education centre, 2002 ............................................................................................ 126
Figure 5.5 Chillingham Community Centre design sketch plans (2002) ..................... 127
Figure 5.6. The CEEC Framework ............................................................................... 128
Figure 5.7 Timeline for the Chillingham Community Centre development .................. 130
Figure 5.8 Chillingham Community Centre aerial photo November 2011
(www.nearmap.com). ............................................................................................... 131
Figure 5.9 Regenerated Rainforest, Aerial Photo November 2011
(www.nearmap.com). ............................................................................................... 132
Figure 5.10 Outdoor chessboard and bandstand ........................................................ 133
Figure 5.11 Outdoor seating area at the Chillingham Community Centre .................. 133
Figure 5.12 Butterfly habitat linked to adjacent rainforest regeneration ...................... 134
Figure 5.13 Interpretive butterfly lifecycle sign photo Terry Wright. ............................. 134
Figure 5.14 Chillingham community garden volunteers ............................................... 135
Figure 5.15 Chillingham community garden nursery ................................................... 135
Figure 5.16 From cow bales to sustainable community centre ................................... 136
Figure 5.17 Chillingham 2007 youth festival: butterfly theme ...................................... 136
Figure 5.18 Chillingham 2007 youth festival: Bundjalung welcome to country ........... 137
Figure 5.19 TURSA program to build the shaded verandah ....................................... 138
Figure 5.20 Verandah in use as an external classroom ............................................... 138
Figure 5.21 Equal access - universal design ................................................................ 139
Figure 5.22 Chillingham markets .................................................................................. 140
Figure 5.23 2010 Chillingham market: supporting local economy (photograph
supplied by John Commerford) ............................................................................... 140
Figure 5.24 Rous River: restoration of healthy riparian systems ................................. 141
Figure 5.25 Active/passive solar installation ................................................................. 142
Figure 5.26 Community toilet: before landscaping ....................................................... 142
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Figure 5.27 Community toilet: on-site autonomous eco-water management .............. 142
Figure 5.28 Beantree Crossing ..................................................................................... 150
Figure 5.29 Handcrafted security screen with local beantree symbol ......................... 151
Figure 5.30 Community Environment Education Centre Framework .......................... 156
Figure 6.1 CETP Timeline ............................................................................................. 160
Figure 6.2 CETP plan .................................................................................................... 163
Figure 6.3 Banora Point - before CETP project ............................................................ 169
Figure 6.4 Banora Point Community Garden ............................................................... 169
Figure 6.5 Burringbar kitchen - before CETP project ................................................... 169
Figure 6.6 Burringbar community kitchen ..................................................................... 169
Figure 6.7 Caldera Farmers' Market ............................................................................. 170
Figure 6.8 Caldera Farmers' Market ............................................................................. 170
Figure 6.9 Community hall at Crystal Creek with renewable energy and water
systems in place ....................................................................................................... 171
Figure 7.1 Transition to a Culture of Sustainability – concluding framework ............... 190
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List of Tables
Table 3.1 .A comparative table listing eco-positive design services with current
aspirations of sustainable design (Birkeland 2009a). ............................................... 66
Table 3.2 Action Research Cycle: a 4 stage process .................................................... 71
Table 3.3 Action research steps summarised from (Wooltorton and Debra 2007) ....... 72
Table 3.4. Design Model adapted from P. Hedley Architect 1995, page 155. ............. 73
Table 5.1 Evaluation of types of existing centres ......................................................... 110
Table 5.2 Collaborative Action Research Process for Chillingham Community
Centre (CCC). .......................................................................................................... 123
Table 6.1 Caldera Economic Transition Program action research .............................. 178
Table 6.2 Caldera Economic Transition Program (CETP): Evidence of Outcomes ... 179
Table C.1. Chillingham Community Centre SWOT analysis results, Chillingham
district strategic plan, 2002, Chillingham naturally .................................................. 224
Table C.2. Key Focus Areas and Proposed Projects of the Caldera Community
Economic Transition Plan (CCETP), 2009) ............................................................ 235
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List of Abbreviations
CCA Chillingham Community Association
CCC Chillingham Community Centre
CD Community Development
CERES Centre for Education and Research in Environmental Studies
CEEC Community Environment Education Centre
CET Community Economic Transition
CETP Caldera Economic Transition Program
CISCD Caldera Institute for Sustainable Community Development
CSU Charles Sturt University
DSRD Department of Regional and State Development
DECCW Department of Environment Climate Change and Water
EE Environmental Education
ESD Ecologically Sustainable Development
GU Griffith University
IPPC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
NGO Non Government Organisation
NSW I&I NSW Department of Industry and Investment
NSW T&I NSW Department of Trade and Investment
PV Photovoltaic
QUT Queensland University of Technology
RMI Rocky Mountain Institute
SCU Southern Cross University
TAFE Technical and Further Education
TSC Tweed Shire Council
UKIRA Uki Residents Association
U of N University of Newcastle
UN United Nations
UNDP United Nations Development Program
UNEP United Nations Education Program
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation
YECC York Environment Community Centre
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Statement of Original Authorship
The work contained in this thesis has not been previously submitted to meet
requirements for an award at this or any other higher education institution. To the
best of my knowledge and belief, the thesis contains no material previously published
or written by another person except where due reference is made.
Signature: _________________________
Date: _________________________
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Acknowledgment
I would like to thank the following people for their wonderful care and support: My wife,
Adrienne, son Lui, and daughter Estelle, for their love and extreme patience.
Supervisors Gillian Lawson, Janis Birkeland, Peter Hedley and QUT Librarian Helen
Woodman for their positive support.
The community members of: Chillingham, Crystal Creek, Uki and Tyalgum. The staff
of Tweed Shire Council and Industry and Investment NSW as fellow action research
participants. The CCA executive steering committee during the period 2001-2010:
John Gillieatt (honorary patron) Penny Townley, James Townley, Claire Masters,
Jenny Spragg, Robin Spragg, Elizabeth Harmon, Brian Harmon, Christine McKinnon,
Sonia Groves, Wendy Sandercock, Peter Liston, Wendy Liston, Sally Jacka,
Adrienne Weber, Erwin Weber.
The Caldera Economic Transition Program (CETP) steering committee members
were: Pieter Verasdonck North Coast regional manager NSW Department of Industry
and Investment (I & I NSW), formerly NSW Department of State and Regional
Development (DSRD).
Julia Hancock representing Uki District auspiced by Uki Ratepayer’s Association
(UKIRA)
Jenny Spragg, April Margieson, Adrienne Weber, Erwin Weber representing North-
West Region auspiced by Tweed Climate Action Now (Tweed CAN)
Anne Duke, Verdandi Worldtree, representing Tyalgum District auspiced by Tyalgum
District Community Association (TDCA)
Jenny Funari, Community Development Officer, Dan Walton Sustainability Officer,
representing Tweed Shire Council (TSC)
Robert Rosen, Community Development Consultant
Samantha Muller, Workshop Facilitator and Community Development Consultant
Stuart Reid, Rural North West coordinator
Eddie Roberts Uki district coordinator
Tudor Crystals Tyalgum district coordinator
Caldera Institute for Sustainable Community Development (CISCD)
Anne Duke, Jenny Spragg, Adrienne Weber, CISCD directors
Caldera Sustainable Communities 2010 Project, Anne Duke Project Coordinator
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Many thanks to Li-Anne Woo and David Perry, Charles Rottier, Jenni Funari, John
Ahern, Patricia Kelly and Ian Lowe
Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION 17
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
The Earth’s natural capital is being depleted at highly unsustainable rates.
Humanity in 2010 used 140% of the planet’s renewable resources such as fish and
timber (New South Wales Government 2010; Tweed Shire Council 2012b) and the
rate of use of non-renewable resources such as fossil fuels and metals is quantifiably
higher (Kitchen Garden Foundation 2012). Australian use of resources and emission
of greenhouse gases is amongst the highest in the world per capita (Australian
Bureau of Statistics 2010) as detailed in the National Greenhouse Accounts 1
presenting a significant opportunity for Australian communities to act in a more
sustainable and globally responsible way. Despite the substantial scientific literature
on anthropogenic effects, there is a paucity of grassroots information about practical
strategies for achieving sustainability at the community and individual level.
In the built environment literature, the theoretical principles of ecologically
sustainable development are well documented. However, there is little evidence on
the practical application of ecological sustainability examples of built environment
design in regional communities. This research bridges the knowledge gap by
considering how sustainability practice can be modelled in the context of regional built
environment design. It also contributes to practice as the design is actualised by
networking with the community and funding partners to make the conceptual model a
reality. A sequence of staged design and implementation cycles are undertaken.
The process of infusing ecologically sustainable ideas and practice within a
regional community is tripartite. It is a built environment, socio-cultural and economic
story. Environmental education and community development are the vehicles by
which community awareness of ecologically sustainable living is delivered. From a
socio-cultural perspective, a shared sense of place and belonging is essential to any
community. A central site designed to demonstrate eco-positive initiatives can
function as a community ‘commons’ as well as a place where people can learn about
their environment within their local area. In a practical sense, the lesson learned from
this thesis is that a community centre is more than bricks and mortar. It embodies the
heart of a community where ecologically sustainable practice is experienced first-
1 See http://www.climatechange.gov.au/en/climate-change/emissions.aspx
18 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION
hand, via the retrofit of a heritage building shaped by the community, from its visible
renewable energy and water systems through to the interpretative signs.
The focus of community learning that underpins a ‘community of sustainable
practice’ is led by front loading environmentally responsible practice through
collaborative design. Positive improvements to the ecological and social base of the
community are achieved in accordance with Birkeland’s eco-positive development
concept where a deep-green project design is initiated with an imperative to design for
Nature. In implementing this research project, the level of engagement between
community members has increased substantially. By allowing the fullest participation,
members of the community of all ages and dispositions can work towards a mutual
sense of achievement and collective empowerment. Consensus decision making
from within rather than led by government, is key to the success of community
infrastructure development projects.
Economic decline, the shift in population from regional areas to cities,
structural industrial change and the disequilibrium in skills in the labour market have
had a deleterious impact on regional communities and have created negative social
issues. Regional community infrastructure and facilities are often in disrepair and are
in need of urgent and costly remediation. Regional communities are less likely than
their urban counterparts to experience and have access to community education
initiatives on ecological sustainability. These isolated communities are also less likely
to be capable of meeting needs locally or cheaply due to local economic disadvantage
and higher transportation costs with rising fuel prices. Recent government programs
have been influenced by local Agenda 21 and a reversal in public policy thinking is
one of cooperation and shared decision making with recognition of the legitimacy of a
common local community voice. Further, centralised government decision making
processes, until recently, have been highly top-down and have been locally and
socially disempowering. A well formed community strategic vision has healed
community division and has sharpened goals and directions. Such clarity has had the
effect of pulling in greater external sources of funds to resolve the lack of infrastructure
and public service support in regional areas.
The research design adopted is nested in the context of real community
experiences incorporating the core concepts for this study: ecologically sustainability,
environmental education and community development. The literature review in
Chapter 2 intertwines a multidisciplinary approach. Given the use of eco-positive
Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION 19
development adopted as a benchmark, it is imperative that the literature examining
ecologically sustainable development is considered first. Furthermore, the literature
examining environmental education and community development that is most suited
to enable community organisations to transition to sustainability is reviewed. These
core concepts were from their inception supported by the United Nations (UN) and
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) as
globally significant initiatives towards sustainable outcomes. Under each core
concept, the related literature and associated concepts are discussed with the
understanding that sustainability principles and practice are central to and underpin
this thesis.
Chapter 3 provides a review of research methods deployed in this thesis.
Eco-positive development is adopted as a positive benchmark for community led (or
participatory) design which fuses built environment, social and biophysical
considerations together. It involves a project oriented program of public facilities
upgrade in the form of a whole integrated systems approach to built environment
retrofitting and natural environment regeneration. Design-led collaborative action
research encourages the fullest community participation in seeking change through
ecological design for the future. For sustainability to be understood and practiced by
whole communities, learning that is personally and collectively transformative is
essential. For this reason, the concept of transformative learning in community is
included as the benchmark for environmental education methodology. The creation of
a culture of sustainability requires a broad spectrum of change from within community
groups. For this reason, the participant researcher has engaged with local community
groups to action transition to sustainability via first hand experiences through
charrettes (design workshops) and working bees. This research incorporates state of
the art knowledge and thinking into the community development and environmental
education processes via collaborative ‘action research’. This bottom-up approach has
resulted in the granting of considerable autonomy and freedom to the people to
decide how they must be organised, what should be prioritised and how the projects
could be funded in their own local community.
Outcomes for the Caldera study demonstrate that community participants are
valued and recognized through their active involvement in projects. There is now a
passionate ground swell of enthusiasm within the Tweed-Caldera region to undertake
community transition programs. Significant strategic planning has taken place within
this research that involves and empowers people to positively develop their local
20 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION
assets in partnership with government and other external private parties. The results
of which increase the community’s local economy, reduce consumption of fossil fuels,
non-local goods / services and transportation costs while enhancing self reliance and
social resilience.
This research examines the green transition responses in three Caldera
communities of Uki, Tyalgum and the Rural North-West (including Chillingham/Crystal
Creek). The Tweed-Caldera bioregion of New South Wales abuts several significant
World Heritage listed areas. These communities offer a unique setting to
environmental research as there is little separation between the boundaries of
civilisation and major wildlife corridors which means that humanity and nature share
common spaces. In the case of Chillingham, the wildlife corridor transects the village
centre. The protection of these local World Heritage assets, including the rare and
endangered flora and fauna, is addressed within each of the community’s strategic
plans. The objective of these localised plans seeks ecologically sustainable ways
through restoration of local resources while simultaneously securing local socio-
economic advantage. The research setting for this thesis is discussed in greater
detail in Chapter 4. The manner in which communities organised themselves and the
roles taken by myself as participant researcher, ecologically sustainable designer,
facilitator and resident are also outlined.
The first stage of this research documents a rural heritage building (cow bale)
retrofitted as a community centre and adopted as an ecologically sustainable
environment education centre in Chillingham, NSW over the period 2001 to 2011.
The Chillingham Community Centre development intended from the start to be a
working demonstration of active-passive solar design and renewable technologies,
capable of providing food production, outdoor connectivity and be used as an
emergency headquarters in times of crisis. Details of the four stages of action
research - the plan, the actions, the post-implementation observations and
subsequent reflections of the Chillingham experience are discussed in Chapter 5.
The Chillingham development was undertaken well before the formation of a wider
regional initiative of local communities working in partnership with the NSW state and
local governments. The Chillingham development and neighbouring experiences of
Uki and Tyalgum provided some significant practical insight and experiences that
made Tweed-Caldera regional transition studies easier and faster.
Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION 21
The second stage of this research, the Caldera Economic Transition Program
(CETP) implemented from 2008 to 2009, is an inter-community educational, economic
transition program that has been planned with future sustainable outcomes in mind.
The program has been funded by the NSW Department of Industry and Investment
Community Economic Development funding with further assistance from the Tweed
Shire Council and in-kind community contribution via donations and volunteer labour
input. The first step undertaken by the CETP steering committee was to develop a
strong sustainability based framework. The second step to action CETP was
undertaken by Caldera Institute for Sustainable Development (CISCD) and Caldera
Sustainable Communities 2010 Project. The CETP was chosen as the first in NSW to
further the idea of communities using a sustainability based framework for community
economic transition towards a diverse local green economy through community led
planning and design. Following the format in Chapter 5, the four stages of action
research for the CETP are discussed in Chapter 6.
1.1 Aims, Objectives and Research Questions
This research co-joins environmental education and community development
concepts in the context of ecologically sustainable principles to realise local cultures of
sustainability in communities in the Tweed-Caldera bioregion. It develops a better
understanding of how regional communities can use design to foster local cultures of
sustainability by empowering citizens to act locally to become more resilient and self
reliant. This research has both an intellectual and a practical component to it.
The overarching research objective explores how local communities create
and support environmental education and community development to transition to
ecological sustainability. In particular, the research investigates (1) how small
communities can design and develop an environment education centre as an
exemplar that models an ecologically based learning environment and (2) how
communities organise themselves to adopt strong ecologically sustainable practices.
The success of any regional implementation for small communities often involves
facilitation, external funding and networking. To this end, successful strategies rely on
networking and cooperation of the community with all levels of government and
external partners. By implementing the strategic plans and finding finance to
undertake the proposals, the participant researcher can answer the question of (3)
how a process of intra-community and inter-community networking and cooperation
assists regional communities to ‘green’ their local economies and work together to
22 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION
create a regional culture of sustainability. Finally, this research seeks to identify the
key characteristics which indicate that local communities have developed a culture of
sustainability.
The strong practical element to this thesis extends beyond a literature survey.
An integrated framework is developed, implemented, tested and evaluated. The
process of actualising this work at the single community and inter-community levels
represent over a decade of reflective thinking, design-redesign and physical labour.
The practical objectives of this thesis can be stated thus:
To undertake the design and development an environment education centre,
created by a small regional community as an ecologically sustainable learning
environment.
To create a program for community transition based on environmental
education, skills and infrastructure necessary to develop local cultures of
sustainability.
A literature review of ecological sustainability, environmental education and
community development research proceeds in the next chapter and a review of the
antecedent research methods in Chapter 3 inform community led initiatives - at a
single community level (Chillingham) and an inter-community level (Caldera-region) –
These support local cultures of sustainability in the Tweed-Caldera region.
Chapter 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 23
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
We live in a global village where there is an imperative to ensure that global
sustainability initiatives are made accessible to everyone and that all levels of society
be part of a cohesive, strategic approach to address ecological sustainability2. To
date, the majority of implemented sustainable projects are urban in location and have
consequently by-passed small regional communities. Further, models of eco-positive
design and environment education centres remain generally inaccessible to regional
areas. A primary focus of this research concentrates on access to environmental
education centres for regional communities that support a culture of sustainability.
This chapter identifies the three core
concepts of ecologically sustainable
development (ESD), environmental education
(EE) and community development (CD) as
most suited to develop a framework for
community organisations to transition to
sustainability. These core concepts were
developed as (new paradigm) initiatives
which were from their inception supported by
the United Nations (UN) and United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO). Relevant global sustainability initiatives from the
international, national and local levels are also reviewed.
Figure 2.1 reveals the relationship between these three core concepts.
Ecological Sustainability is a whole of field overarching concept. There is an
imperative understanding that principles of sustainability underpin, inform, guide and
are prioritised within such a framework. Incorporated within ESD are nested the two
other core concepts of environmental education (which forms the delivery
2 The positive acts toward reducing environmental impacts from both top down global initiatives and bottom up local action still fall short of what will be required to ensure quality of all life for future generations (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 2007 ).
Figure 2.1 Integrating the core concepts
24 Chapter 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
mechanism) and community development (a grassroots, bottom–up concept). These
latter concepts are interconnected to create a central locus where communities can
develop and implement transition to sustainability. By co-joining ecologically
sustainable principles within a community structure that is central to its people and
transformative in terms of group learning/decision making we promote improved and
positive environmentally conscious behaviour.
For each core concept, the related literature and associated concepts are
reviewed, starting with emergent concepts associated with ecological sustainability in
section 2.2; environmental education in section 2.3 and community development in
section 2.4. The chapter ends with a discussion of the term ‘cultures of sustainability’
which epitomises the highest possible expectations of everyday sustainable decision
making, the performance of which is benchmarked as eco-positive.
2.2 Ecologically Sustainable Development
The term ‘ecologically sustainable development’ or ESD has been refined over
time. In 1969, the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural
Resources (IUCN) mandate referred to the need for:
“the perpetuation and enhancement of the living world – man’s
natural environment – and the natural resources on which all living
things depend’, involving management of ‘air, water, soils,
minerals and living species including man, so as to achieve the
highest sustainable quality of life”.
This Framework for Environmental Action became the main theme of the
United Nations Conference in Stockholm in 1972 (United Nations Education
Programme (United Nations Environment Programme 1972 ). Sustainable
development was first described as a concept in Our Common Future (the Brundtland
report), (World Commission on Environment and Development 1987) which it defined
as:
“development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs”
Chapter 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 25
In Australia, from 1992 a working definition of ESD was: “development that
improves the total quality of life, both now and in the future, in a way that maintains the
ecological processes on which life depends”. The National Strategy for Ecologically
Sustainable Development (NSESD) definition speaks about development that not only
meets human needs but improves total quality of life and makes the critical connection
between ecology and life’s dependency upon it. We inhabit a living biosphere, the
body of science on sustainability is now in consensus that there is an urgent
imperative for development to consider all possible ways to positively support
ecological systems and biodiversity (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
2007 ).
The concept of sustainability is elusive. It can mean different things to different
people. It may be viewed as a continuum from weak to strong. Weak sustainability
offers little, given twenty first century socio-ecological crises, as it is primarily based on
short term economic thinking. Long term sustainability involves a whole systems
approach to design and planning. Birkeland describes the transition of ‘pale green’
design (i.e. very weak sustainability) to ’deep green’ (i.e. strong sustainability) or eco-
positive development as a ‘win-win-win’ outcome. That is to say, the individual wins,
humanity wins and eco-systems/nature win. Deep green design principles do offer
healthy, natural non-polluting alternatives to conventional mainstream modern design.
In practice, green design has become a contentious issue and requires the
development of commonly agreed standards to avoid an acceptance of what is known
as ‘greenwash’3 (Birkeland 2008).
Environmental Sceptics such as Bjorn Lomborg argue that economic
investment to sustain a prosperous free market economy is more likely to benefit
environment as a trickledown effect of affluence than investing directly in environment
or climate change strategies (Lomborg 2001). Jacques, Dunlap and Freeman
analysed 141 books by environmental sceptics and found that more than 90% were
associated with conservative think tanks and so are likely to be biased towards the
views of these conservative organisations (Jacques, Dunlap and Freeman 2008).
These weaker views place loss of species and their habitat being far less important
than sustaining economic growth.
3 The concept of ‘weak sustainability’ by depleting ecosystems and replacing them with monetary capital does not meet the basic definition of ecological sustainability and therefore is unsustainable or ‘greenwash’ (Harding 2006; Brunton 1999).
26 Chapter 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
The debate on the causes of global warming and climate change continued
beyond the start of the 21st century. In 2007, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) reported that it was at least 90% likely that human activities are
principally responsible for the warming of the planet since 1950. This supported the
IPCC’s urgent call for a global agreement by governments to act decisively towards
securing a sustainable future by setting strong targets to reduce global environmental
impacts. Even though the panel has conservatively concluded their findings as having
a ninety percent certainty (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 2007 ) there
is still ongoing widespread scepticism from literature that has not been peer reviewed
by the scientific community. In the Skeptical Environmentalist, it is believed that the
world’s environmental and social problems could be solved by increasing economic
growth and affluence and that the depletion of fossil fuel reserves and acceleration of
climate change by humans are overstated (Lomborg 2001).
Strong sustainability emphasizes that we will not be able to persist in using
resources wastefully. There will need to be a significant change of view for society
from our business as usual approach in use of finite resources (Brunton 1999). It
prioritises an alternate view from traditional industry and technology. Examples
include design oriented concepts such as ‘eco-positive development’ and ‘cradle to
cradle’ which are whole systems design approaches based on integrated natural
cycles with no wastage. Strong sustainability, as understood from these concepts,
includes and accounts for eco-systems which are an irreplaceable source of wealth
and prosperity. Strong sustainability emphasizes that there can be no prosperity or
survival without healthy, diverse natural systems. Birkeland argues that design based
on ‘impact reduction’ and ‘zero impact’ concepts is seriously flawed because they do
not include remediation to improve total onsite and offsite impacts to ecosystems.
Design tools need to be designed for natural systems not just as a facsimile of nature,
but in ways that ensure design of built environment does not relace nature. Designing
like Nature still displaces Nature from the built environment (Birkeland 2008, 2009a).
At the other end of the continuum, weak sustainability assumes the global
environment is infinitely resilient and stable regardless of human impacts4 . The
current situation is that the planet’s eco-systems have been and continue to be
depleted and now require action that more than accounts for past damage. This will
4 In strong sustainability there is the understanding that eco systems are non linear and may be depleted and fragmented to a point where that resilience margin may be lost (Berkes, Johan and Folke 2003; Folke et al. 2002).
Chapter 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 27
require restoring resilience and strengthening the ability of ecosystems in order to
support human social and economic systems (Folke et al. 2002).
The Worldwatch Institute couched the last chance for humankind to move
away from its ecologically destructive path in the 1990s. Scientists warned of climate
change impacts being damaging to life and property and expensive if we continue to
act as we have. During the Earth Summit 1992 in Rio De Janeiro sustainable
development “was the rallying cry, and politicians and business leaders promised to
take a new path, they said, the environment would be weighed in every political, social
and economic decision” (Suzuki and Dressel 2004 102). The real situation was that
most institutions continued to either genuinely struggle with or openly comply with the
demands of powerful vested interests. The latter continued to treat ESD as
inconvenient motherhood statements and so supported planning trade-offs that
resulted in very weak sustainability while the intent of the Earth Summit was to
support a stronger level of sustainability (Suzuki and Dressel 2004 ). What was
needed was top down support for action at the regional and community level. In 1992
the United Nations released the action plan developed at the Rio De Janeiro
conference, to address sustainability for the 21st century (United Nations Conference
on Environment and Development 1992).
Agenda 21, a key global initiative, emphasized the need for public and
private institutions to work with and support local communities in transitioning to
sustainability and was intended to be the link between global initiatives and local
action (United Nations Conference on Environment and Development 1992). It
“recognizes that most environmental challenges have their roots in local activities and
therefore encourages local governments to promote environmental, economic and
social sustainability by translating the principles of sustainable development into
strategies that are meaningful to local communities” (Cotter and Hannan 1999, 5). in
1997 the International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives drafted Local
Agenda 21. Each state in Australia has set up their own independent partnerships of
state, regional and local governments to work with representative community bodies.
The Newcastle Declaration in 1997 set in motion the involvement of the local councils
with cities and towns to put agenda 21 into action (Cotter and Hannan 1999; United
Nations Conference on Environment and Development 1992).
In the state of New South Wales, local government bodies were provided with
Our Community Our Future: A Guide to Local Agenda 21 as a comprehensive
28 Chapter 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
voluntary framework for stronger partnerships between community and local
government to develop and implement community based strategic plans (Cotter and
Hannan 1999). In terms of the small regional communities considered in this
research, although the governing authority Tweed Shire Council adopted Agenda 21
in 1997 and it has been subsequently refined (Tweed Shire Council 2011b), there is a
gap in uptake of Agenda 21 at the small community due to a lack of funding and
community partnering with local government.
2.3 The Global Environmental Movement
Post world war environmentalism evolved from the pioneering work of a few
exceptionally aware and passionate individuals. Key writings on environmental and
socially critical issues had a valuable impact on a considerable proportion of the public
by the 1970’s (Teaching Heritage NSW 2010; Environmental Defender's Office 2011).
During those few formative years, environmental concern and the green movement
expanded from radical activism to involve, at a similar time, both grassroots action and
global non government organisations. In 1962, Carson documented the effects of
toxic chemicals on eco-systems and made acute observations on the
interconnectedness of all living systems. The book Silent Spring brought to public
attention the connection between unsustainable human development, environmental
impacts and the vulnerability of natural systems. This profound writing was
considered by many scientists to have been instrumental in the founding of the
environment movement.
Other concerned scientists compiled evidence on anthropological impacts on
the environment. Thirty research scientists from Massachusetts Institute of
Technology compiled their findings and published the formative text, The Limits to
Growth (Meadows et al. 1972). They concluded that with exponential population
growth and depletion rates of natural resources by an industrialised world without
limits to growth would reach a stage where insurmountable problems would become
highly unsustainable. The findings in The Limits to Growth questioned the dominant
paradigm as to the advantage of a global market with unlimited growth. Lowe (2006)
in analysis of this writing showed the Limits To Growth predictions were amazingly
close. The global body of scientists is now in consensus on the imperative for all
nations to address global climate change and become ecologically sustainable.
Chapter 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 29
The English-village ‘commons’, an area of land that could be used by all
members of the village, was examined by Hardin (1968). He reported that
overgrazing was rife when control of grazing rights was unregulated. The tragedy of
the commons reveals how, if the use of a finite resource is unprotected and
unregulated, the resource becomes severely depleted (Hardin 1994). This draws a
distinctive parallel between the common and natural capital. Current oversight
regarding reduced ecosystems health is related to the tyranny of the accumulated
effects of many small scale decisions. The Tragedy of the Commons makes evident
the significant loss of vital public assets held in common for the long term amenity and
services management by regional cultures and local communities. Prime examples of
natural commons are the overfishing of oceans or logging of old growth rainforests.
The commons notion can also be extended to the built and natural environment (such
as a community centre). Hardin's work brings an acute awareness to the central role
of natural and community infrastructure.
Our current capitalist economic system places zero value on the ‘global’
commons such as breathable air, potable water and a safe habitable climate.
Ecological economics seeks to remedy this by limiting environmental degradation and
placing an implicit value on environmental externalities (for example, waste
management levies and carbon taxes). The estimated net annual value of ecosystem
services has been estimated in the trillions of dollars, exceeding the entire global
economy (Hawken, Amory Lovins and Hunter Lovins 1999; Hawken, Lovins and
Lovins 2000). Climate change and the current extinction crisis is the result of a
market that does not consciously price pollution or ecosystem destruction and terms
them externalities (Hawken, Lovins and Lovins 2000).
Small is Beautiful (Schumacher 1972) and Permaculture a Designers’ Manual
(Mollison 1988) are two fine examples of local ecological solutions. These writings
outlined practical and achievable ways to move towards simpler, less materialistic
lifestyles. Both independently provided ideas about building resilient local
communities with a self sufficient local economy, local food production and self-built
homes as a sustainable alternative to ‘business as usual’. These writings were
formative in establishing mainstream public awareness of deleterious human impacts
upon the environment and provided alternative ways of maintaining a positive lifestyle
that is conscious and is respectful of the natural eco-system. The 1970s saw a
burgeoning in well-organised agencies that focused on environmental activism, such
as Greenpeace joining the ranks of “mainstream ... global nongovernment
30 Chapter 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
organisations” (Gilding 2011, 17). Over a similar time frame, non-government
institutions such as the UN and UNESCO began a series of global initiatives that
encouraged and supported education and policy on ecologically sustainable
development to include and benefit all levels of society (Wright 2002).
The 1969 International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural
Resources (IUCN) mandate referred to the need for “the perpetuation and
enhancement of the living world – man’s natural environment – and the natural
resources on which all living things depend’, involving management of ‘air, water,
soils, minerals and living species including man, so as to achieve the highest
sustainable quality of life” (International Union for Conservation of Nature and National
Resources 1980). This framework for environmental action became the main theme
of the United Nations conference in Stockholm (United Nations Environment
Programme 1972 ).
The world conservation strategy by the International Union for Conservation of
Nature and Natural Resources advanced the understanding of sustainable
development by emphasising the imperative for conservation of diverse ecological
systems (which we refer to as biodiversity) to support long term sustainability for all life
(International Union for Conservation of Nature and National Resources 1980). The
Brundtland report (World Commission on Environment and Development 1987) was
by comparison a retrograde step. Trade-offs were included to protect growth based
industry and national economies. This was done on the understanding that smart
engineering and technology could compensate for ecological damage. The ongoing
effect has resulted in the weakening of planning and design frameworks to allow
industrial growth with reduced environmental impacts to continue as acceptable
practice (Birkeland 2008).
ESD principles have been agreed internationally by many governments and
non government organisations (NGO). Birkeland argues that the Brundtland report
and many international sustainability frameworks fall short of the mark by
marginalizing ecology to a resource based means of production. Maintaining
industrial growth as the dominant bottom line consideration for sustainable
development, exponential growth based economies are by simple mathematics,
limited to supporting short term prosperity. Ecologically sustainable solutions
essentially involve planning and management for long term prosperity and this can
only be achieved, according to Birkeland, through development that remediates and
Chapter 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 31
restores local eco-systems-services, both on site and beyond development site, to a
surplus level. Birkeland argues that most existing planning strategies and
development policies include serious trade-offs.
Australia’s National Strategy for Ecologically Sustainable Development
(NSESD) adopted the term ecologically sustainable development (ESD) as: “using,
conserving and enhancing the community's resources so that ecological processes,
on which life depends, are maintained, and the total quality of life, now and in the
future, can be increased” and, it also describes development as "improving total
quality of life and makes the critical connection between ecology and life’s
dependency upon it" (Ecologically Sustainable Development Steering Committee
1992). We inhabit a living biosphere, the body of science on sustainability is now in
consensus that there is an urgent imperative for development to consider all possible
ways to positively support ecological systems and biodiversity (Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change 2007 ).
The world conference on the human environment had as its key theme the
investigation of possibilities for achieving economic growth and industrialization
without environmental damage. (United Nations Environment Programme 1972 ).
During the ensuing decades mainstream thinking on sustainability was progressively
developed. The global body of science is saying that continued levels of economic
growth are at odds with the imperative to reduce ecological impacts
(Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 2007 ). The ground-breaking body of
work Our Common Future (the Brundtland report), despite its bias towards economic
growth for sustainable development, had other positive outcomes. It sought the
integration of economics and environmental management and the promotion of equity
between societies and inter-generational equity (World Commission on Environment
and Development 1987). The title Our Common Future indicates the intent to
holistically integrate future strategies in environmental, social and economic
considerations. By bringing together key representative from all parts of the globe this
initiative sought to gain an international consensus on future strategies to deliver a
more equitable and humanitarian approach for investment and development. Key
priorities in the report were improved management of environment and local
community and indigenous access to resources.
The World Commission on Environment and Development identified that
“...inequality is the planet’s main ‘environmental’ problem; it is also its main
32 Chapter 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
‘development’ problem” (1987, 55). Localisation of resource management to redress
issues related to socio/economic poverty was seen as fundamental to the concept of
sustainable development. Increasingly the global body of science and some
governments view local sourcing of essential goods and services as fundamental to
developing a strong culture of sustainability. Despite the perceived benefits of
globalised trade to material quality of life and wealth, there are long term benefits of
creating sustainable local economy and resilient communities. It was noted that better
access to education would be needed to guide sustainable land management. The
Brundtland report argues that the inequities between affluent and poor societies are
the drivers of environmental degradation and that economic growth by affluent
societies should not diminish quality of environment or the welfare of poorer societies
(World Commission on Environment and Development 1987).
Environmental activism, despite the lack of support by media and government,
helps to bring attention to otherwise unnoticed local and regional issues of concern
(Gilding 2011). In the Tweed Caldera bioregion, environmental activism became
prominent in 1979 in the local media though Australia’s first protests to save rainforest
at Terania Creek. This case is now recorded as the first of many actions to bring
attention to and conserve high biodiversity rainforests in eastern Australia and one of
the first forest protests globally (Teaching Heritage NSW 2010; Environmental
Defender's Office 2011). More recently large areas of the Tweed Caldera have been
conserved as national parks and World Heritage ‘Gondwana’ rainforest biodiversity
hotspot. Nature based eco-tourism is now seen as a significant potential economy for
local communities impacted by rural industry decline (Bock and Brunckhorst 2006).
The Architecture profession has recognised that environment and social
context exist at the core of architecture practice and the profession has a responsibility
to facilitate and encourage ecologically sustainable built environment design. The
1993 International Union of Architects (Union Internationale des Architectes) and
American Institute of Architects (UIA/AIA) world congress in Chicago presented a
thorough account of what elements were required for the practice of strong
sustainability through Eco-design. These ideas are indeed similar to community-led
eco-design principles for sustainable practice for international (UIA) and Australian
(RAIA) best practice:
The Precautionary Principle
No irreversible damage
Chapter 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 33
Protect the needs and rights of present and future generations
Restore and improve biodiversity and global eco-systems
Nontoxic, renewable materials
Biodegradable [natural] materials
Efficient energy including solar and other renewable sources
Promote community health and the health of the biosphere
User participation in design, construct and management of built
environment
(International Union of Architects and Americal Institute of Architects 1993)
The Royal Australian Institute of Architects (RAIA) in the same year also
adopted the declaration of interdependence for a sustainable future (The Royal
Australian Institute of Architects 1993).
2.3.1 Eco-Efficient Design and Eco-Positive Development
The failure to factor in front loaded design criteria for long term sustainability
has been seen as the major limitation to better solutions for ecological sustainability.
Consequently, natural systems world-wide have been further degraded (Millennium
Ecosystem Assessment 2005 ). Ecologists now understand that the amenity and
value of natural eco-systems cannot be compensated or replaced by manufactured
industrial systems or sealed and enclosed, ‘greenhouse’ spaces. Biosphere 2 was a
prominent example of a scientific research attempt to test an engineered ecosystem
sealed space as a total life support system. This closed system experiment failed and
the critics concluded that engineered systems cannot mimic natural systems (Luke
1997) .
Eco efficient design, regenerative design and green design literature is
focused on environment impact reduction with zero impacts or zero carbon emissions
as the optimum benchmark (Birkeland 2009a). “Eco-efficiency gains are not likely to
enhance the conditions for whole system sustainability ... Most ‘green buildings are
under-designed for passive solar energy. Consequentially, such buildings need back
up equipment, which makes green design seem more expensive” (Birkeland 2008,
98-100). Birkeland states that eco-efficient design, green and regenerative principles
are biased towards economic growth. Design for less impacts or zero sum impacts is
not good enough. Negative impacts will need to be more than compensated for by
34 Chapter 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
positive sum of increasing eco-systems-services capacity to address past, present
and future impacts (Birkeland 2008).
Eco-positive development goes beyond current eco-design and eco-
restorative thinking, in that social and economic development has to be rethought and
involves setting a higher sustainable benchmark for planning and design for future
development which is an improvement on pre-industrialised levels (Birkeland 2009a).
Birkeland argues for the adoption of stronger sustainability principles based on 'whole
systems integration' of living systems as ‘design for Nature’. These principles when
applied to built environment design go beyond impact reduction or zero sum
eradication of negative impacts.
2.4 Design-led and Community Created Sustainability
Sarkissian developed inclusive workshops processes for communities that
choose to become engaged in developing their local strategic plan for sustainable
futures. These workshops include design oriented learning processes and link to
ways that empower community to participate in community development projects that
represent strong sustainability (Sarkissian et al. 2009 ). There is a lack of access to
practical visible evidence of sustainability for most regional communities. To facilitate
the idea of communities participating in the design of programs and projects that
prioritise sustainability, citizens require better access to a local environment education
centre. To make community design workshops effective and meaningful they must
involve ecologically sustainable principles demonstrated in the context of designing for
local climate and associated natural ecosystems.
Creating sustainable communities requires an understanding of the language
of Nature: the organisational principles by which ecosystems sustain the web of life
(Capra inStone and Barlow 2005 ). These principles are: the web of life, cycles of
Nature and energy from the sun. The community is pivotal and needs to become
actively involved in creating solutions to local and global critical futures. Planning and
design that includes the input of community requires that community attain a critical
mass of design project participants that are ecologically literate (Sarkissian et al.
2009). An ecologically literate person or community has a comprehension of how to
solve problems by designing for ecology, human ecology and the concepts of
sustainability (Orr 1992).
Chapter 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 35
Such ideas mirror principles included in a traditional knowledge base. There
are many traditional communities that utilise whole communities, have the traditional
intergenerational knowledge handed down and localised custom-based skills to create
their own built environment and agrarian systems. More importantly, these traditional
sustainable communities are maintained within the limit of that region’s natural capital.
The concept of 'deep ecology' draws on indigenous wisdom and tribal spirit of place
as being key aspects of those societies that actively supported the conservation of
natural resources over many generations (Devall and Sessions 1985 ). Being
capable of sustaining communities over many hundreds of years is testimony to the
community's ability to base built environment design ideas on very sound and local
ecological principles. A resilient culture has a capacity to adapt and recover to be fully
functional (Hopkins 2009). This characteristic is a meaningful example of long term
cultures of sustainability (Diamond 2005; Ly, Janis and Nur 2010; Alexander, Ishikawa
and Silverstein 1977).
In recent years, a number of eco-communities within Australia have a
developed their own sustainable design policy to guide built environment projects.
The Eco-village at Currumbin located in south-east Queensland, north of the Tweed
Caldera, adopted its own Architectural and Landscape Code to guide built
environment design. The 99 page document begins with a vision statement that
anticipates a "world leading, ecologically sustainable and conscious community where
people and nature flourish in beauty, harmony and integrity" where ecologically
sustainable aspects are deeply interconnected and given equivalent standing
(Landmatters Currumbin Valley Pty Ltd 2006, 3).
It is essential for the majority of regional community not only to be ecologically
literate to self-drive the transition to sustainability but also to have the practical skills
and knowledge based on experience of local natural systems over many seasonal
cycles. Hopkins argues that most regional communities have within their collective
story much of the knowledge and skill base to become self reliant and that any plan
should transition as a series of stages (Hopkins 2009). Birkeland estimates that
transitioning is fairly quick, expecting that eco-systems services are positive within a
single generation (Birkeland 2008). Regional communities with adequate guidance
and training have the capacity to participate in the design and construction stages of
their community centre built environment as a community created project.
36 Chapter 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
The architect William McDonough advocates that designing in terms of
ecological thinking and sustainability must become part of everyday life as basic
knowledge within community (McDonough and Braungart 2002). At the heart of the
ecological solution is creativity. Suzuki and McConnell (Suzuki and McConnell 1997,
226) coined the phrase that “everybody has to be a designer". In a regional
community context, the process by which individuals can have an impact on
community design can be facilitated through workshops that focus upon ecological
consciousness (Sarkissian et al. 2009)5. Consistent with principles of community
inclusion, passive solar design exercises can empower prospective buyers to
maximize seasonal advantage of their residence through an understanding the
principles of solar orientation. Design workshops and adult education courses can
convey this knowledge and the outcome is a greener community. Such community
involvement that encourages active participation in the design process is an ‘owned'
community-built environment (Sarkissian et al. 2009; Sarkissian, Cook and Walsh
1997). This does not mean that local professional builders, tradespersons and
designers are sidelined. On the contrary, it allows local community to collaborate with
local members of the building industry to create a community environment that reflects
their unique and collective vision and collective needs. A community created vision to
sustainability is inclusive, not exclusive of any part of that community.
Ecological design principles are actively being practised at a deep green or
strong sustainability standard in community at the grassroots level. David Holmgren
co-founder of Permaculture principles is an educator who focuses on empowering
citizens and communities with practical knowledge and skills to become designers
and practitioners of sustainable eco-systems that enhance local resilience and self
reliance. Holmgren’s text, Retrofitting our Towns and Suburbs for Energy Descent
includes case studies of integrated ecosystems design illustrating passive and active
solar design methods that are owner built and funded on a low budget (Holmgren
2010). Permaculture design principles emphasise water harvesting and recycling
together with organically grown, locally distributed food, herb and cellulose systems as
essential to socially and ecologically sustainable communities that are well adapted to
local microclimate conditions (Holmgren 2010).
5 Later chapters of this thesis have identified and extended this idea, that to be successful in project implementations guided by sustainability principles at the sociological level, a shift in personal and collective thinking and behaviour is required which is informed by sustainability principles and is transformative.
Chapter 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 37
2.5 Environmental Education
We now focus upon key global initiatives together with environmental
education literature that is community oriented and has potential to support the
process of community transition to sustainability. The global literature is convincing
and relevant to all sectors of society, however there is a current lack of access to
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