What Is Leadership?What Is Leadership?
Leadership
The ability to influence a group toward the achievement of goals.
Management
Use of authority inherent in designated formal rank to obtain compliance from organizational members.
Early Trait TheoriesEarly Trait Theories
Traits Theories of Leadership
• Great leaders are born and not made
• Theories that consider personality characteristics, physical attributes and abilities, or intellectual traits to differentiate leaders from non-leaders.
Trait TheoryTrait Theory
Leadership TraitsLeadership Traits::
• Ambition and energyAmbition and energy
• The desire to leadThe desire to lead
• Honest and integrityHonest and integrity
• Self-confidenceSelf-confidence
• IntelligenceIntelligence
• High self-monitoringHigh self-monitoring
• Job-relevant Job-relevant knowledgeknowledge
Leadership TraitsLeadership Traits::
• Ambition and energyAmbition and energy
• The desire to leadThe desire to lead
• Honest and integrityHonest and integrity
• Self-confidenceSelf-confidence
• IntelligenceIntelligence
• High self-monitoringHigh self-monitoring
• Job-relevant Job-relevant knowledgeknowledge
Trait TheoriesTrait Theories
LimitationsLimitations::
• No universal traits found that predict No universal traits found that predict leadership in all situations.leadership in all situations.
• Traits predict behavior better in “weak” Traits predict behavior better in “weak” than “strong” situations.than “strong” situations.
• Unclear evidence of the cause and effect Unclear evidence of the cause and effect of relationship of leadership and traits.of relationship of leadership and traits.
• Better predictor of the appearance of Better predictor of the appearance of leadership than distinguishing effective leadership than distinguishing effective and ineffective leaders.and ineffective leaders.
LimitationsLimitations::
• No universal traits found that predict No universal traits found that predict leadership in all situations.leadership in all situations.
• Traits predict behavior better in “weak” Traits predict behavior better in “weak” than “strong” situations.than “strong” situations.
• Unclear evidence of the cause and effect Unclear evidence of the cause and effect of relationship of leadership and traits.of relationship of leadership and traits.
• Better predictor of the appearance of Better predictor of the appearance of leadership than distinguishing effective leadership than distinguishing effective and ineffective leaders.and ineffective leaders.
Behavioral TheoriesBehavioral Theories
• Trait theory:Trait theory:Leaders are born, not made.Leaders are born, not made.
• Behavioral theory:Behavioral theory:Leadership traits can be taught.Leadership traits can be taught.
• Trait theory:Trait theory:Leaders are born, not made.Leaders are born, not made.
• Behavioral theory:Behavioral theory:Leadership traits can be taught.Leadership traits can be taught.
Behavioral Theories of Leadership
• Emerged as a response to deficiency of the trait theories
• Theories proposing that specific behaviors differentiate leaders from non-leaders.
Behavioral TheoriesBehavioral Theories
1. Lewin, Lippitt and White Studies • They identified 3 basic styles of leadership
a. Autocratic Style: A style of leadership in which the leader uses strong, directive, controlling actions to enforce the rules, regulations, activities and relationships in the work
b. Democratic Style: Leader takes collaborative, responsive, interactive actions with followers concerning the work and work environment
c. Laissez-faire Style: A style of leadership in which the leader fails to accept the responsibilities of the position
Ohio State StudiesOhio State Studies
• Based on the study conducted on aircrews and pilots using Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire
• Study revealed 2 dimensions of leader behaviour
Initiating Structure
The extent to which a leader is likely to define and structure his or her role and those of sub-ordinates in the search for goal attainment.
Consideration
The extent to which a leader is likely to have job relationships characterized by mutual trust, respect for subordinate’s ideas, and regard for their feelings.
Ohio State StudiesOhio State Studies
People who scored high on both were able to achieve higher levels of performance & job satisfaction
HIGH
LOW
LOW
HIGH
CONSIDERATION
INITIATING STRUCTURE
HUMAN RELATIONDEMOCRATIC
LAISSEZ FAIRE AUTOCRATIC
University of Michigan StudiesUniversity of Michigan Studies
Employee-Oriented Leader
Emphasizing interpersonal relations; taking a personal interest in the needs of employees and accepting individual differences among members.
Production-Oriented Leader
The style leads to a work environment characterised by constant influence attempts on the part of the leader, either through direct, close supervision or through the use of many written and unwritten rules and regulations for behaviour. The focus is on getting work done.
The Managerial Grid(Blake and Mouton)
The Managerial Grid(Blake and Mouton)
• Developed with a focus on attitudes
• The underlying dimensions are
a. Concern for people b. Concern for production
•Originally identified 5 distinct managerial styles and further development of grid led to 2 more styles
The Managerial Grid(Blake and Mouton)
The Managerial Grid(Blake and Mouton)
1,1 – Impoverished Management
Exhibit no concern for people or work. Often fail as leaders
1,9 – Country Club Management
High concern for people, low concern for production 9,1 – Authoritarian style of leadership
High concern for production, low concern for people 9,9 – Team Management
High concern for both people & production 5,5 – Middle of the Road Management
Balances the necessity to get work done and maintains the morale of people at satisfactory level
The Managerial Grid(Blake and Mouton)
The Managerial Grid(Blake and Mouton)
The Managerial Grid(Blake and Mouton)
The Managerial Grid(Blake and Mouton)
NEW STYLES
Opportunistic Management
Leaders adapt and shift to any grid style needed to gain the maximum advantage. Performance occurs according to a system of selfish gain. Effort is given only for an advantage for personal gain.
9+9: Paternalism/Maternalism Management
Reward and approval are bestowed to people in return for loyalty and obedience; failure to comply leads to punishment
Scandinavian StudiesScandinavian Studies
Development-Oriented Leader
One who values experimentation, seeking new ideas, and generating and implementing change.
Researchers in Finland and Sweden question whether there are only two dimensions (production-orientation and employee-orientation) that capture the essence of leadership behavior. Their premise is that in a changing world, effective leaders would exhibit development-oriented behavior.
Contingency Theories ( If –Then Theories)Contingency Theories ( If –Then Theories)
Contingency theories involve the belief that leadership style must be appropriate for the particular situation
Situation Favorable/Unfavorable Choose Style
Contingency Theories ( If –Then Theories)Contingency Theories ( If –Then Theories)
Fiedler’s Contingency Model
Proposes that the fit between the leader’s need, structure and the favorableness of the leader’s situation determine the team’s effectiveness in work accomplishment.
Least Preferred Co-Worker (LPC) Questionnaire
An instrument that purports to measure whether a person is task- or relationship-oriented.
Fiedler’s Model: Defining the SituationFiedler’s Model: Defining the Situation
Leader-Member Relations
The degree of confidence, trust, and respect subordinates have in their leader.
Position Power
Influence derived from one’s formal structural position in the organization; includes power to hire, fire, discipline, promote, and give salary increases.
Task Structure
The degree to which the job assignments are procedurized.
Findings of the Fiedler ModelFindings of the Fiedler Model
• Category• Leader-Member Relations• Task Structure• Position Power
I
Good
HighStrong
II
Good
HighWeak
III
Good
LowStrong
IV
Good
LowWeak
V
Poor
HighStrong
VI
Poor
HighWeak
VII
Poor
LowStrong
VIII
Poor
LowWeak
Good
Poor
Per
form
ance
Relationship-Oriented
Task-Oriented
Favorable Moderate Unfavorable
Findings from Fiedler ModelFindings from Fiedler Model
Cognitive Resource TheoryCognitive Resource Theory
Research Support:
• Less intelligent individuals perform better in leadership roles under high stress than do more intelligent individuals.
• Less experienced people perform better in leadership roles under low stress than do more experienced people.
Research Support:
• Less intelligent individuals perform better in leadership roles under high stress than do more intelligent individuals.
• Less experienced people perform better in leadership roles under low stress than do more experienced people.
• Developed by Fred Fiedler and Joe Garsia in 1987
• The theory focuses on the influence of the leader's intelligence and experience on his or her reaction to stress.
• A theory of leadership that states that stress can unfavorably affect a situation and that intelligence and experience can lessen the influence of stress on the leader.
Cognitive Resource TheoryCognitive Resource Theory
Qualities Situation Performance Situation Performance
High Intelligence
High Stress Poor Low Stress Good
Low Intelligence
High Stress Good Low Stress Poor
Experienced High Stress Good Low Stress Poor
Less Experienced
High Stress Poor Low Stress Good
Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Theory (SLT)
Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Theory (SLT)
• A contingency theory that focuses on followers’ readiness.
• Readiness is the function of ability and willingness
Leader: decreasing need for support and supervisionLeader: decreasing need for support and supervision
Follower readiness: ability and willingness
Follower readiness: ability and willingness
Unable andUnable andUnwillingUnwilling
Unable butUnable butWillingWilling
Able andAble andWillingWilling
Directive/Telling Selling/CoachingSelling/Coaching Supportive/ Supportive/ Participative Participative
Able andAble andUnwillingUnwilling
Monitoring/Monitoring/DelegatingDelegating
Leadership Styles and Follower Readiness(Hersey and Blanchard)
Leadership Styles and Follower Readiness(Hersey and Blanchard)
WillingUnwilling
Able
Unable Directive/Directive/TellingTelling SellingSelling
Supportive/ Supportive/ Participative Participative Monitoring/Monitoring/
DelegatingDelegating
Follower Readiness
LeadershipLeadershipStylesStyles
Leader–Member Exchange TheoryLeader–Member Exchange Theory
Proposed by George Green & Mitchell
Leader(LMX) Theory
Leaders create in-groups and out-groups, and subordinates with in-group status will have higher performance ratings, less turnover, and greater job satisfaction.
Traditional theories assume that leaders treat all employees alike
George Green & Mitchell in 1979-leaders often act differently towards different subordinates-LMX
Leaders establish a special relationship with a small group of subordinates, usually early in their interaction-in group
Rest-out group
Leader–Member Exchange TheoryLeader–Member Exchange Theory
Leaders trust the subordinates who belong to the in- group, give them more attention, interact with them frequently & offer them special privileges
Generally favor people who have attitudes & personality characteristics that are similar
In-group Characteristics
- Higher level of competence & extraversion
- Receive high performance ratings-rewards & promotion
- Lower turnover
Leader–Member Exchange TheoryLeader–Member Exchange Theory
Leader-Member Exchange TheoryLeader-Member Exchange Theory
Path-Goal TheoryPath-Goal Theory
• Propounded by Robert House
• Borrows from Ohio & Expectancy Theories
• Path-Goal Theory
The theory that it is the leader’s job to assist followers in attaining their goals and to provide them the necessary direction and/or support to ensure that their goals are compatible with the overall objectives of the group or organization.
• Leader should provide the required support & guidance to his followers & help them achieve organizational goals
• Should establish individual/ group goals for employees that are compatible with the broad organizational goals
• The behavior of a leader is acceptable as long as : – The subordinates find that the satisfaction of their
needs depends on their effective performance– They are provided with guidance, support &
rewards
Path-Goal TheoryPath-Goal Theory
Path-Goal Theory Path-Goal Theory
Leader-Participation/Decision Making ModelLeader-Participation/Decision Making Model
• Proposed by Victor Vroom, Philip Yetton and Arthur Jago
• Model helps leaders to know when to have employee participation in decision making process
• Model provides a set of rules to determine the form and amount of participative decision making in different situations.
Contingency Variables in the Leader-Participation Model
Contingency Variables in the Leader-Participation Model
1. Importance of the decision
2. Importance of obtaining follower commitment to the decision
3. Whether the leader has sufficient information to make a good decision
4. How well structured the problem is
5. Whether an autocratic decision would receive follower commitment
6. Whether followers “buy into” the organization’s goals
7. Whether there is likely to be conflict among followers over solution alternatives
8. Whether followers have the necessary information to make a good decision
9. Time constraints on the leader that may limit follower involvement
10. Whether costs to bring geographically dispersed members together is justified
11. Importance to the leader of minimizing the time it takes to make the decision
12. Importance of using participation as a tool for developing follower decision skills
Leader-Participation/Decision Making ModelLeader-Participation/Decision Making Model
Leadership Styles
1.Autocratic-I: Leaders individually solves problem using the information already available
2.Autocratic-II: Leaders obtains the information and then decides
3.Consultative-I: Leader explains the problem to individual subordinates and obtains idea from each before deciding
4.Consultative-II: Leader meets with group of subordinates to share the problem and obtain inputs, and then decides
5.Group: Leader shares problem with group and facilitates a discussion of alternatives and a reaching of group agreement on a solution
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