MECHANICS OF SOILSMECHANICS OF SOILS
COURSE INTRODUCTIONCOURSE INTRODUCTION
According to Ralph Pech:
Soil Engineering is an Art
Soil Mechanics is an Engineering Science
Three Attributes of a Successful Soil Engineer:
Knowledge of Precedents (Experience)
F ili it ith S il M h iFamiliarity with Soil Mechanics
Working Knowledge of Geology
Purpose of this Course: To Familiarize the Student with the Fundamental Principles of Soil Mechanics
The Solution of Soil The Solution of Soil Engineering Problemg g
Complicating Characteristics of Soil Deposits
1) Soil does not possess a linear or unique stress-strain relationship.
2) S il b h i d d ti d i t2) Soil behavior depends on pressures, time, and environment.3) The soil at essentially every location is different.
I l ll th f il i l d i d d4) In nearly all cases the mass of soil involved is underground and cannot be seen in its entirety but must be evaluated on the basis of small samples obtained from isolated locationsbasis of small samples obtained from isolated locations.
5) Most soils are very sensitive to disturbance from sampling, and thus the behavior measured by a laboratory test may bethus the behavior measured by a laboratory test may be unlike that of the in situ soil.
Nearly all soil problems are statically indeterminate to high degree.
Applications in Soil Engineering
1) Analysis and Design of Earth Structures such as Dams and Embankments
2) Stability of Artificial and Natural Slopes
3) Foundations Supports for Various Structures
4) Lateral Pressures against Various Structures
5) Prediction of Water Movement through the Soil
6) Improvement of Soil Properties by Chemical and Mechanical Methods
Geotechnical Materials
1) Soils are discrete particles derived from rock minerals and have extreme variability
2) Soils are cheap and readily available construction materials
3) Soils support all structures located above and below ground
GENERAL PROCEDURE FOR MOST GEOTECHNICAL PROJECTS
D fi P j t C t purpose schedule location plansDefine Project Concept
Site Reconnaissance
purpose, schedule, location, plans
review of information, site inspection
Working Hypothesis Subsurface investigations, soil conditions, design parameters
Model for Analysis
g p
physical, analytical, numerical models
Alternative Schemes
S ifi R d ti
evaluate various solutions
cost, benefit, time, reliability, environmental Specific Recommendations
Plans and Specifications
cost, benefit, time, reliability, environmental impact, etc.
plans and specifications for recommended l tip
Supervision and Consultation
solutions
inspection of construction operations revisions of plans due to new information
Performance Feedback
f p f
observe long range performance
Figure 1.1 Examples of Geotechnical Engineering Construction
Figure 1.2 Principles of Mechanics
Fig. 1.3 Branches of Mechanics used in Geotechnical Engineeringused in Geotechnical Engineering
Fig. 1.4 Compression and Distortion
The Particulate Nature The Particulate Nature of Soil
“The discrete particles that make up soil are not strongly bonded together in the way that the crystal of astrongly bonded together in the way that the crystal of a metal are, and hence the soil particles are relatively free to move with respect to one another.”p“The soil particles are solid and cannot move relative to each other as easily as the elements in a fluid.”y
(Lambe and Whitman, 1979)
It is this basic fact that distinguishes soil mechanics from solid mechanics and fluid mechanics.
Consequences of the particulate t f ilnature of soil
1st consequence: Nature of soil deformationq“The deformation of a mass of soil is controlled by interactions
between individual particles, especially by sliding (and also adhesion) b t i di id l ti l B lidi i li dbetween individual particles. Because sliding is a nonlinear and irreversible deformation, we must expect that the stress-strain behavior of soil will be strongly nonlinear and irreversible.” {various constitutiveof soil will be strongly nonlinear and irreversible. {various constitutive soil models}
2nd consequence: Role of pore phase -- Chemical interaction “Soil is inherently multiphase, and the constituents of the pore
h ill i fl th t f th i l f d h ff tphase will influence the nature of the mineral surfaces and hence affect the processes of force transmission at the particle contacts. This interaction between the phases is called chemical interaction.” {double p {layer water; plasticity of soils; swelling potential, compression, strength, fluid conductivity}
Consequences of the particulate t f il ( t’d)nature of soil (cont’d)
3rd consequence: Role of pore phase -- Physical interactionq p p y“Water can flow through soil and thus interact with the
mineral skeleton, altering the magnitude of the forces at the contacts between particles and influencing the compression andcontacts between particles and influencing the compression and shear resistance of the soil.” {effective stress concept and consolidation theory}
4th consequence: Role of pore phase – Sharing the load “When the load applied to a soil is suddenly changed thisWhen the load applied to a soil is suddenly changed, this
change is carried jointly by the pore fluid and by the mineral skeleton. The change in pore pressure will cause water to move through the soil hence the properties of the soil will change withthrough the soil, hence the properties of the soil will change with time (hydrodynamic time lag).” {basis of consolidation theory of Terzaghi, the “father of soil mechanics”. This marked the b i i f d il i i }beginning of modern soil engineering}
Soil Forming Process
Definition of Soil
Soil - All materials, organic or inorganic, overlying bedrock
Soil are natural aggregates of mineral grains that can be separated by such gentle h i l it ti i t hil k t l t fmechanical means as agitation in water, while rocks are natural aggregates of
minerals connected by strong and permanent cohesive forces.
Based on Origin
Inorganic Soil - derived from chemical and mechanical weathering
Organic Soil - significant parts are derived from growth and decay of plant and animal lifea d a a e
Inorganic Soils
Residual Soil - located at a place where it was formed
Transported Soil - the soil has been moved to another location by gravity, water or wind
Alluvium – river and stream deposits (very heterogeneous mixture of gravels, sands, and p ( y g g , ,silts/clays)
Lacustrine – lake deposits; Marine – salt water deposits (beach, swamps); Deltas – deposits at mouth of streams and rivers
Wind blown – loess – uniform mixture of silts, fine sands and clays
Nature of Soil
VOIDS
SOLIDS
Soil is composed of particles
Coarse-Grained Soils (large particles)
Volume >> Surface Area(large particles)
Gravitational Force governs BehaviorFRICTION
Surface Area >> Volume
(Sand/Gravel)
Surface Area >> VolumeSurface Force (electrical) governs the behavior
Fine-Grained Soils(small particles)
DOUBLE LAYER
clay
COHESION LAYER
clayDouble layer expands – repulsionDouble layer contracts - attraction(Clay/Silt)
Dispersive Soil
Replace N + C ++ M ++
+ +
Replace Na - Ca , Mg
Clay
+++
+
Cl
++
++
++
+ Na+
Clay
++
Nearer
+
Farther repulsion
Nearer attraction
++
++
clay
+ clay++
+
Types of Soil
Types of SoilTypes of Soil
Origin of Clay MineralsOrigin of Clay Minerals1) Inheritance. The clay mineral was formed by reactions
that occurred in another area, was transported to its present site, and is stable enough to remain inert in its present environmentpresent environment.
2) Neoformation The clay has precipitated from solution2) Neoformation. The clay has precipitated from solution or has formed from reaction of amorphous material.
3) Transformation. An inherited clay has undergone chemical reaction. Two reactions are possible,
l i h d l t f ti Inamely, ion exchange and layer transformation. In layer transformation, the arrangements of octahedral, tetrahedral or fixed interlayer cations are modifiedtetrahedral, or fixed interlayer cations are modified.
Importance of Soil Mineralogy in Geotechnical EngineeringGeotechnical Engineering
It is a controlling factor determining the sizes, shapes, and g g , p ,surface characteristics of particles in the soil. It determines interactions with fluid phases. Together, these factors determine:determine:
PlasticitySwellingSwellingCompressionStrengthgFluid conductivity behavior
It is essential when dealing problems involving environmental g gproblems, such as: safe disposal and containment of hazardous and nuclear wastes; clean up of contaminated sites; and protection of ground water Compositional characteristics ofprotection of ground water. Compositional characteristics of soils and their relation to the long-term physical and chemical properties are of most concerned.
STRUCTURE OF CLAY MINERALS
Two fundamental building laws can be noticed with clay minerals
1) Silica – tetrahedron unit 2) Octahedral Unit (with Al+3 or Mg+2)
(one tetrahedron shares 3 oxygens with other tetrahedrons)
Al (OH)6-3
with other tetrahedrons)
(each Si has one O-aton and shares 3 other oxygens – SiO4 – unit has neg. charge of 1
(each OH is shared by 2 Al-ions
charge of 1
Basic Structural Unit of Clay MineralBasic Silicate Unit: (1) Silicon Tetrahedron
Block Symbol =
Basic Silicate Unit: (2) Aluminum or Magnesium Aluminum or Magnesium
Octahedron
Block Symbol =Block Symbol
Gibbsite sheet: if cations are mainly AluminumGibbsite sheet: if cations are mainly AluminumBrucite sheet: if cations are mainly Magnesium
KAOLINITE consists basically of repeating layers of one tetrahedral (silica) sheet and one octahedral (alumina or gibsite) sheet.
Successive layers are held together by hydrogen bonds between the hydroxyls of the octahedral sheet and the oxygen of the tetrahedral Since the hydrogen bond is very strong it preventssheet and the oxygen of the tetrahedral. Since the hydrogen bond is very strong, it prevents hydration and allows the layers to stack up to make up 70 to 100 layers thick.
Halloysite is related to kaoline. It somehow became hydrated between layers causing distortions and random stacking of the crystal lattice so that it is tubular in shape The water can be easilyand random stacking of the crystal lattice so that it is tubular in shape. The water can be easily driven out from between layers by heating or air drying and the process is irreversible.
MONTMORILLONITE sometimes called smectite – composed of 2 silica and one alumnica (gibsite) sheet
Because the bonding by van deer Waal’s forces (common attraction between matter) between the g y ( )tops of the silica sheets is weak and there is a net negative charge deficiency in the octahedral sheet, water and exchangeable ions can enter and separate the layers – very susceptible to swelling
ILLITE – it has similar structure as montmorillonite but the interlayers are bonded together with a potassium ions.
Illites have strong bonds of potassium atom that fills the hexagonal holethe hexagonal hole.
Other minerals: chlorite, vermiculite, etc.
Identification of Clay Minerals
1) X-ray diffraction – crystal structure will diffract x-rays – compare
2) DTA – heated in electrical furnace and certain changes in temperature occur because of particular structure of the clay minerals
3) El i i i3) Electrom microscopy – quatitative
4) Use of Plasticity Charts
Table 8 Summarized Properties of Clay-Mineral Groups
Summary of Occurrence of Clay Minerals in Soils
Clay Mineral Group OccurrenceClay Mineral Group OccurrenceKaolinite Highly weathered soils with good drainage. Generally
in older soils. Common in tropical and subtropical areas
Chl it A f t hi t k C i iChlorite Areas of metamorphic parent rock. Common in marine sediments and sedimentary rocks. Not normally present in dominant proportion
Cl Mi I il d i d f th i f di t kClay Mica In soils derived from weathering of sedimentary rocks. Dominant mineral in slate and shale
Montmorillonite Results from weathering of volcanic rocks or ash under poor drainage Common in sediments of arid areasdrainage. Common in sediments of arid areas
fIn flush sites, where cations are being added, and perhaps silica too, e.g. tropical swamps, then there is a build-up to montomorillonite or illite. As a simplification in tropical areas, there are kaolinites in the hillslopes, and montmorillonites in the valley. In temperate regions, there is less extreme variation and illite is more common and vermiculite are common topsoils for someis less extreme variation and illite is more common and vermiculite are common topsoils for some reasons.
Most Common Clay Minerals
a) Kaolinite - two-layer unit of Gibbsite and Silica Sheet (7.2oA)
- strong linkage by hydrogen bonding and secondary valence forces
b) Illite - three-layer unit (9.5oA) formed by silica sheet sandwiched by 2 Gibbsite sheets
t bl b di b d l f d t i i- very stable bonding by secondary valence forces and potassium ions.
c) Montmorillonite - three-layer unit (9.5oA) formed by silica sheet sandwiched by 2 Gibbsite sheets
- very weak bonding by secondary valence forces and exchangeable ion linkagevery weak bonding by secondary valence forces and exchangeable ion linkage
- isomorphous substitution of magnesium or iron for aluminum, changes the character of montmorillonites
Casagrande Plasticity ChartPlasticity Chart
Atterberg Limits for Atterberg Limits for Common Clay Mineralsy
4.6 Clay-water system behavior
The clay particles interact with soil water (pore water) surrounding them. All clay particles are y p (p ) g y pcharged and they can therefore attract ions on the surface
The origin of the charge is the result of:
-Isomorphous substitution
-Imperfections in crystal lattice or broken bonds at edges
4.6.1 Isomorphous Substitution
4.6.2 Broken bonds: The clay crystal is continuous in two directions, however at the edges there must be broken bonds between oxygen and silicon and between oxygen and aluminum. The amount of this charge per unit weight of clay increases with decreasing particle size, because the proportion of edge area to total area is increased. These b k b d h d (H+) h d l (OH ) i f h Th broken bonds attract hydrogen (H+) or hydroxyl (OH-) ions from the pore water. The ease with which the hydrogen ion can be exchanged increases as the pH of the pore water increases.
BROKEN BONDS
ATTRACTIVE AND REPULSIVE FORCES
Flocculated and Dispersive Structures
Colloidal micella
Interaction between negatively charged mineral particles and the surrounding aqueous l ti (Fi 1)solution (Fig. 1)
-Surface of clay particles are negatively charged.
-Attract the positively charged cations in the porewater.
Adjacent water particles undergo alteration and become structured-Adjacent water particles undergo alteration and become structured.
Double-Layer Theory
Basic units have sheeted structure – flatly – shaped part. Surface dimensions many times greater than part. ThicknessSurface dimensions many times greater than part. Thickness affected by cations in porewater and nature of individual particlesColloidal micella – interaction between negatively charged g y gmineral particles and the surrounding aqueous solution.
Surface of clay particles are negatively charged
Attract the positively charged cations in the porewaterAttract the positively charged cations in the porewater.
Adjacent water particles undergo alteration and become structured
Stern electric double layer – cations formed a positively charged one together ith the negati el charged clacharged zone together with the negatively-charged clay particle surface.
Cations distribute themselves around the negatively charged particles Greatest density near the surface decreasing
Cations formed a positively charged zone together with the negatively-charged clay particle surface
particles. Greatest density near the surface – decreasing with distance
g y p
Cations distribute themselves around the negatively charged particles. Greatest density near the surface – decreasing
ith di t
Fig. 2 Stern Double Layer
with distance
Three possible mechanisms that water molecules can be electrically attracted y
toward the surface of clay particlesa) Attraction between the negatively charged faces of clay and the ) g y g y
positive ends of dipolesb) Attraction between cations in the double layer and the negatively
charged ends of dipoles. The cations are in turn attracted by the g p ynegatively charged faces of clay particles.
c) Sharing of the hydrogen atoms in the water molecules by hydrogen bonding between the oxygen atoms in the clay particles and thebonding between the oxygen atoms in the clay particles and the oxygen atoms in the water molecules.
Double-Layer Water(After T. W. Lambe, Compacted Clay:
Structure, Trans. ASCE, vol. 125, 1960)
(a) Typical kaolinite particle, 10000 by 1000 A.
(b) Typical montmorillonite particle, 1000 by 10 A.
Since the innermost layer of double-layer water is very strongly held by a clay particle, it is referred to as adsorbed water.
Moisture in Soils
4
Solid5 1 2 3
123drainage
air drying
4
5 air drying
oven drying
Categories of water surrounding clay particles
1) Absorbed water – held by powerful electrical forces virtually in solid state and very thin1) Absorbed water held by powerful electrical forces virtually in solid state and very thin (0.005 mm)
- cannot be removed by oven drying at 110oC
2) C b d b d i t b i d i2) Can be removed by oven drying not by air drying.
3) Capillary water held by surface tension, removed by air drying
4) Gravitational water – removable by drainage4) Gravitational water removable by drainage
5) Chemically combined water – water hydration
within crystal structure – not removable by over drying
EFFECT OF WATER CONTENT
A) Consistency of Cohesive Soils) y
I) Plasticity of SoilsI) Plasticity of Soils
The term “plasticity” is normally encountered and applied in fine-grained soils, such as clay.
The plasticity property of clayey soils is due to the f d bl l t th t i tt t dpresence of double layer water that is attracted on
the surface of clay minerals.
The plasticity property of soils can be reflected from the Atterberg Limits:the Atterberg Limits:
Liquid limit Plastic limitPlastic limitShrinkage limit
A) Atterberg Limits) g(For soil fraction passing #40 sieve)1) Liquid Limit (LL)
It is the lowest water content that a soil can behave like a viscous liquidviscous liquid. It is the water content of the soil at which the soil, when place in a standard liquid limit device in a specified manner, will cause 25 number of blows to close a specific width groove for a specified length.
A) Atterberg Limits A) Atterberg Limits (cont’d)( )
2) Plastic Limit (PL)It is the lowest water content that a given soil can stillIt is the lowest water content that a given soil can still behave plastically, i.e., above PL the soil can be deformed without volume change or cracking and will retain its deformed shapedeformed shape. It is the water content of the soil at which the soil, when rolled into 3mm diameter threads, will start to crumble.
A) Atterberg Limits A) Atterberg Limits (cont’d)( )
3) Shrinkage LimitIt is the highest water content at which the soil mass stops to shrink or decrease its pvolume upon further decrease of water content.It is determined as the water content after just enough water is added to fill all thejust enough water is added to fill all the voids of a dry pat of soil.
B) Physical Significance B) Physical Significance of Atterberg Limitsg
The greater the amount of water a soil contains theThe greater the amount of water a soil contains, the less interaction there will be between adjacent particles and the more the soil should behave like aparticles and the more the soil should behave like a liquid.
Generally, the water that is attracted to the surface of soil should not behave as a liquid. Thus, a soil, which has a greater tendency to attract water to the particle surface, should have a larger liquid limit.
B) Physical Significance … (cont’d)
Plasticity Index (PI) = LL – PLPlasticity Index (PI) LL PLThis is an index of soil’s strength. PI decreases, strength increases.g
Flow Index (If) = Slope of flow curve. ( f) pA flow curve is a plot of the water content vs. the number of blows (in log scale).PI
fIPI
Toughness Index (It) = fI
PI
B) Physical Significance … (cont’d)
Liquidity Index (LI) = PLN −ωq y ( )
Expected Soil Behavior:
PI
Expected Soil Behavior:LI < 0 Brittle behavior0<LI<1 Plastic beha ior0<LI<1 Plastic behaviorLI>1 Viscous liquid behavior
ωN<PL
ωN >LL
C) Relationship of Atterberg Limits to Composition of Soilto Composition of Soil
Atterberg limits for a soil are related to the amount of water that is attracted to the surfaces of the soilwater that is attracted to the surfaces of the soil particles. Since the surface area increases significantly with decreasing size of soil particles, it g y g p ,may be expected that the amount of attracted water will be largely influenced by the amount of clay that is present in the soil. On the basis of this reasoning, Skempton (1953) defined a quantity called “Activity.”
2thfii htb%PI)A(Activity =
m2thanfinerweightby% µ
Approximate values for the specific pp psurface of some common soil grains
(after Mitchell, 1976)( , )
Soil grain Specific surface(m2/g)(m /g)
Clay minerals:M t ill it U t 840Montmorillonite Up to 840Illite 65-200Kaolinite 10-20
Clean sand 2 x 10-4Clean sand 2 x 10 4
Activity of Clay (cont’d)Activity of Clay (cont d)
Activity of clay may provide information
l ti t llirelative to swelling potential (relative swell at 1psi psurcharge) and stability.
Atterberg limits of clay Atterberg limits of clay mineral
Mineral Liquid Plastic Plasticity limit limit Index
Montmorillon 140-710 54 to 98 67 to 656Montmorillonite
140 710 54 to 98 67 to 656
Illite 79 to 110 45 to 60 33 to 67Illite 79 to 110 45 to 60 33 to 67
Kaolinite 38 to 59 27 to 35 11 to 23Kaolinite 38 to 59 27 to 35 11 to 23
SIEVE ANALYSIS
GRAIN SIZE CURVE
GRAIN SIZE CURVES
GRAIN SIZE CURVES
Well-graded
Gap-graded
Poorly-graded
Fig. 4.2 Sequence of Mineral Transformation Observed from Soil Thin Sections
Fig. 1.25 Profile residual soil arearesidual soil area,
indicating stages of transition from rock to
soilsoil
Fig. 4.6 a – Grain Size Distribution of Samples from Line I, Site No. 1
Fig. 4.7 – Cumulative Percentage of Grain Size Distribution from Site 1 and Site 2 Profiles
HYDROMETER ANALYSIS
Fig. 7.1 Schematic representation of sedimentaion of different particle sizes, and sampling for particle size analysis (Modified after Chu et al. [140])
Fig. 4.27 Representation of
di t tisedimentation process
Fig. 1.11 Soil-separate size limits of M.I.T., FAA, AASHTO, Corps of
E i d USBREngineers and USBR
Sieve AnalysisAnalysis
Hydrometer Analysisy
UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Example 1Classify the following soil using USSC. The soil data available for classification are as follows:
D = 0 2mmD10 = 0.2mmD30 = 0.73mmD60 = 1 27mmD60 1.27mm% passing No. 4 sieve = 77.5 (This means 22.5% gravel)% passing No. 200 = 4.0% pass g o 00 0
Solution:1) Passing No. 200 sieve <50% (coarse-grained soil)2) Passing No. 4 sieve >50% (Sand)3) For <5% passing #200 SW? or SP?4) Use gradation curve, i.e., calculate Cu and Cc
Cu = D60/D10 = 6.35 >6 Cc = (D30)2/(D10D60) = 2.1 (1<2.1<3)5) The soil is SW. Soil description is “well-graded sand with gravel.”
AASHTO CLASSIFICATION
AASHTO Classification System
Major Division/Group:Major Division/Group:
a) >35% passing #200: A-4, A-5, A-6, A-7(Silt Clay Materials)(Silt-Clay Materials)
b) <35% passing #200: A-1, A-2, A-3(G l M t i l )
Required Soil Data:(Granular Materials)
From sieve analysis: Passing #10, #40 and #200 sievesAtterberg limits: Liquid Limit (LL) and Plasticity Index (PI)
Group Index (GI) = 0.2a + 0.005ac + 0.02bdwhere: a = %passing #200 – 35 (1 ≤ a ≤ 40)
b = %passing #200 15 (1 ≤ b ≤ 40)b = %passing #200 – 15 (1 ≤ b ≤ 40)c = LL - 40 (1 ≤ c ≤ 20)d = PI – 10 (1 ≤ d ≤ 20)
Example 2Example 2Classify the following soil using AASHTO The soilClassify the following soil using AASHTO. The soil data available for classification are as follows:
% passing #200 =5 7% passing #200 =5.7% passing #40 = 38.6% passing #10 = 67.4
Are the data of LL and PI necessary? Why?y y
Ans The soil is: A 1b (0)Ans. The soil is: A-1b (0)
Embankment MaterialsEmbankment Materials
Fig. 31 Location Plan of the SecondPlan of the Second Bangkok International Airport Field TestAirport Field Test Site
Fig. 26 Index Properties of Foundation Soils (Section A/1)
Fig. 27 Strength and Compressibility Characteristics of Foundation Soils (Section 1A/1)
Mineralogy and Chemistry… Bangkok Clay and Ariake Clay (Soils and Foundation, Vol. 40, No. 1, pp. 11-21, 2000)
Ariake ClayAriake Clay
Bangkok Clay
Soil PhasesSoil Phases
II) Soil Fabric
If the net interparticle forces between two clay particle in suspension is repulsion, each clay particle will settle individually and will form a dispersed structure of clayand will form a dispersed structure of clay.
If it is attraction, flocs will be formed and these flocs will settle, forming a flocculated clay.
High salt concentration will depress the double layer of clay andHigh salt concentration will depress the double layer of clay and, hence, will decrease the force of repulsion. Attractive force (largely attributed by Van der Waal’s force) will dominate and effect an orientation approaching parallelism (face-to-face type)
salt type flocculation– salt-type flocculation.
In a soil-water suspension with low salt concentration, the electrostatic force of attraction (positive at the edge and negative at face of clay particle) may produce a flocculation with an orientation approaching perpendicular array– non-salt flocculation.
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