Schema Theory of Schema Theory of LearningLearning
Dr. K. A. KorbDr. K. A. Korb
University of JosUniversity of Jos
OutlineOutline
Overview of Schema TheoryOverview of Schema Theory
Properties of SchemasProperties of Schemas
Functions of SchemasFunctions of Schemas
Application of Schemas to InstructionApplication of Schemas to Instruction
Dr. K. A. KorbUniversity of Jos
MemoryMemory
Memories tend to include much inaccurate Memories tend to include much inaccurate informationinformation Inaccuracies in memory are systematic and Inaccuracies in memory are systematic and
predictablepredictable Memories depend on prior experienceMemories depend on prior experience
Illustration: Memory for people in attendance at Illustration: Memory for people in attendance at lecturelecture
Dr. K. A. KorbUniversity of Jos
Freeman, Romney, & Freeman (1987)Freeman, Romney, & Freeman (1987)
Memory for classroom attendanceMemory for classroom attendance Who was at last week’s lecture?Who was at last week’s lecture?
Error rate 50%Error rate 50% People actually in class but forgottenPeople actually in class but forgotten
In-group: 4.7 peopleIn-group: 4.7 peopleOut-group: 8.1 peopleOut-group: 8.1 people
More organized schema for in-group resulted in more accurate More organized schema for in-group resulted in more accurate recall recall
People not in lecture but recalled as presentPeople not in lecture but recalled as presentIn-group: 2.8 peopleIn-group: 2.8 peopleOut-group: 0.4 peopleOut-group: 0.4 people
More typical schema for in-group resulted in more false More typical schema for in-group resulted in more false attendancesattendances
Dr. K. A. KorbUniversity of Jos
MemoryMemory
Recall depends on:Recall depends on: Quality of schema organizationQuality of schema organization
Better quality, better memoryBetter quality, better memory How typical the eventHow typical the event
More typical, more errorsMore typical, more errors
Dr. K. A. KorbUniversity of Jos
Pompi & Lachman (1967)Pompi & Lachman (1967)
Chief Resident Jones adjusted his face mask while Chief Resident Jones adjusted his face mask while anxiously surveying a pale figure secured to the anxiously surveying a pale figure secured to the long gleaming table before him. One swift stroke of long gleaming table before him. One swift stroke of his small sharp instrument and a thin red line his small sharp instrument and a thin red line appeared. Then an eager young assistant carefully appeared. Then an eager young assistant carefully extended the opening as another aid pushed aside extended the opening as another aid pushed aside glistening surface fat so that vital parts were laid glistening surface fat so that vital parts were laid bare. Everyone present stared in horror at the ugly bare. Everyone present stared in horror at the ugly growth too large for removal. He now knew it was growth too large for removal. He now knew it was pointless to continue.pointless to continue.
Dr. K. A. KorbUniversity of Jos
1.1. DoctorDoctor2.2. NurseNurse3.3. BloodBlood4.4. ScalpelScalpel5.5. OperationOperation6.6. BlueBlue7.7. PianoPiano8.8. BeautifulBeautiful9.9. ThinThin10.10. PushedPushed11.11. SecuredSecured12.12. SurfaceSurface13.13. SurveyingSurveying
1.1. NoNo2.2. NoNo3.3. NoNo4.4. NoNo5.5. NoNo6.6. RedRed7.7. InstrumentInstrument8.8. UglyUgly9.9. FatFat10.10. YesYes11.11. YesYes12.12. YesYes13.13. YesYes
Pompi & Lachman (1967)Pompi & Lachman (1967)
Dr. K. A. KorbUniversity of Jos
SchemaSchema
Schema: Schema: Structure for representing concepts in Structure for representing concepts in memorymemory Schemata: PluralSchemata: Plural Schema: SingularSchema: Singular
Schema Theory: Schema Theory: Theory of how knowledge is Theory of how knowledge is represented and how the representation of represented and how the representation of knowledge guides the application of knowledgeknowledge guides the application of knowledgeIncoming information from the environment is Incoming information from the environment is organized around previously developed schemaorganized around previously developed schemaGist:Gist: Central idea Central idea
Dr. K. A. KorbUniversity of Jos
SchemaSchema
Schemas are like:Schemas are like: Dramas: Dramas: Schemas provide the script where Schemas provide the script where
the variables (aka characters, setting, and the variables (aka characters, setting, and action) are unique to each performanceaction) are unique to each performance
Theories: Theories: Interpret phenomenon and make Interpret phenomenon and make predictions about unobserved eventspredictions about unobserved events
Procedures/Algorithms: Procedures/Algorithms: Evaluate new Evaluate new information to determine the fit to the schema information to determine the fit to the schema and then directs future behaviorand then directs future behavior
Dr. K. A. KorbUniversity of Jos
Properties of SchemasProperties of Schemas
Schemas are developed by prior knowledge and Schemas are developed by prior knowledge and experience experience Actively build schemas and revise in light of new Actively build schemas and revise in light of new informationinformationInformation from the environment is processed and Information from the environment is processed and transformed depending on prior schemastransformed depending on prior schemasSchemas help people understand, interpret, and Schemas help people understand, interpret, and remember incoming informationremember incoming informationFacilitates memory because it is easier to remember Facilitates memory because it is easier to remember schema than detailsschema than detailsCulture influences schemasCulture influences schemas
Memory for knowledge or an event is determined by the cultural Memory for knowledge or an event is determined by the cultural context in which it takes placecontext in which it takes place
Dr. K. A. KorbUniversity of Jos
Bransford & Johnson (1972)Bransford & Johnson (1972)
Dr. K. A. KorbUniversity of Jos
Bransford & Johnson (1972)Bransford & Johnson (1972)
If the balloons popped, the sound wouldn't be able to carry If the balloons popped, the sound wouldn't be able to carry since everything would be too far away from the correct since everything would be too far away from the correct floor. A closed window would also prevent the sound from floor. A closed window would also prevent the sound from carrying, since most buildings tend to be well insulated. carrying, since most buildings tend to be well insulated. Since the whole operation depends on a steady flow of Since the whole operation depends on a steady flow of electricity, a break in the middle of the wire would also electricity, a break in the middle of the wire would also cause problems. Of course, the fellow could shout, but the cause problems. Of course, the fellow could shout, but the human voice is not loud enough to carry that far. An human voice is not loud enough to carry that far. An additional problem is that a string could break on the additional problem is that a string could break on the instrument. Then there could be no accompaniment to the instrument. Then there could be no accompaniment to the message. It is clear that the best situation would involve message. It is clear that the best situation would involve less distance. Then there would be fewer potential less distance. Then there would be fewer potential problems. With face to face contact, the least number of problems. With face to face contact, the least number of things could go wrong things could go wrong
Dr. K. A. KorbUniversity of Jos
About the James headache woman her About the James headache woman her asked.asked.
James asked the woman about her James asked the woman about her headache.headache.
Dr. K. A. KorbUniversity of Jos
Schemas and Schemas and Information ProcessingInformation Processing
Perception:Perception: Attaching meaning to a stimulus Attaching meaning to a stimulus Bottom-Up : Notice separate defining features and Bottom-Up : Notice separate defining features and
assemble them into a recognizable patternassemble them into a recognizable pattern Top-down: Perceive based on the context and the Top-down: Perceive based on the context and the
patterns you expect to occur in the situationpatterns you expect to occur in the situation
Dr. K. A. KorbUniversity of Jos
Schemas and Schemas and Information ProcessingInformation Processing
Schema Theory proposes an interaction Schema Theory proposes an interaction between bottom-up and top-down processingbetween bottom-up and top-down processing Incoming information activates a schemaIncoming information activates a schema
Bottom-upBottom-up
Facilitates activation and modification of old schema or Facilitates activation and modification of old schema or generation of new schemageneration of new schema
Once appropriate schema is activated, schema fills in Once appropriate schema is activated, schema fills in necessary but not explicit details with assumed valuesnecessary but not explicit details with assumed values
Top-downTop-down
Dr. K. A. KorbUniversity of Jos
Schema and Schema and Information ProcessingInformation Processing
Concept:Concept: General category whose General category whose members share certain properties.members share certain properties.
Prototype:Prototype: Best representative of a Best representative of a concept.concept. Prototypes result from experiences with many Prototypes result from experiences with many
exemplars of the conceptexemplars of the concept Incoming information is compared to the Incoming information is compared to the
prototypical schemaprototypical schema
Dr. K. A. KorbUniversity of Jos
Schemas and Schemas and Information ProcessingInformation Processing
If incoming information matches the script, If incoming information matches the script, schema is strengthenedschema is strengthened
If incoming information does not match the If incoming information does not match the script, search for more accurate schemascript, search for more accurate schema
Information that does not fit into any Information that does not fit into any schema likely to:schema likely to: Not be comprehended or Not be comprehended or Comprehended incorrectlyComprehended incorrectly
Dr. K. A. KorbUniversity of Jos
Schemas and Schemas and Information ProcessingInformation Processing
Information Processing:Information Processing: Incoming Incoming information matches outgoing informationinformation matches outgoing information Memory matches the environmentMemory matches the environment
Schema Theory:Schema Theory: Active attempt to Active attempt to understand information based on prior understand information based on prior knowledge and experiencesknowledge and experiences Memories are shaped by prior knowledge and Memories are shaped by prior knowledge and
experiencesexperiences
Dr. K. A. KorbUniversity of Jos
Functions of SchemaFunctions of Schema
Organize knowledgeOrganize knowledge
Assist recallAssist recall
Guide behaviorGuide behavior
Enable predictionsEnable predictions
Make sense of current experiencesMake sense of current experiences
Dr. K. A. KorbUniversity of Jos
Learning New KnowledgeLearning New Knowledge
Three reactions to new information:Three reactions to new information: Accretion:Accretion: Incorporate new information to Incorporate new information to
existing schemata without making changes to existing schemata without making changes to the schematathe schemata
Tuning:Tuning: Modify schemata to be more Modify schemata to be more consistent with experienceconsistent with experience
Restructuring:Restructuring: Create a new schemata Create a new schemata because of inconsistency between old because of inconsistency between old schemata and new informationschemata and new information
Dr. K. A. KorbUniversity of Jos
Benefits of SchemaBenefits of Schema
Benefits of connecting new information to Benefits of connecting new information to prior knowledge:prior knowledge: Better retention of informationBetter retention of information Better ability to access information in Better ability to access information in
authentic situationsauthentic situations
Dr. K. A. KorbUniversity of Jos
You have been employed by a manufacturer of educational You have been employed by a manufacturer of educational materials to ensure that the cards in one of their materials to ensure that the cards in one of their educational games have been correctly produced. The rule educational games have been correctly produced. The rule governing the production of the card states that if the card governing the production of the card states that if the card has the letter S on one side, then it has the number 3 on has the letter S on one side, then it has the number 3 on the other.the other.
Each card has a letter on one side and a number on the Each card has a letter on one side and a number on the other. Indicate which cards you definitelyother. Indicate which cards you definitely need to turn over, need to turn over, and only those cards, to determine whether the rule is and only those cards, to determine whether the rule is broken in the case of any of these four cards.broken in the case of any of these four cards.
S Q 3 7
Dr. K. A. KorbUniversity of Jos
You are the Housemaster at a boarding school. It is your You are the Housemaster at a boarding school. It is your responsibility to ensure that the students keep their rooms responsibility to ensure that the students keep their rooms tidy, so you introduce a rule which states that if a student tidy, so you introduce a rule which states that if a student eats biscuits then their room must be tidy.eats biscuits then their room must be tidy.
Each card represents one student. One side states whether Each card represents one student. One side states whether or not the student’s room is tidy. The other side details or not the student’s room is tidy. The other side details whether they have been eating cookies. Indicate the cards whether they have been eating cookies. Indicate the cards you definitely need to turn over, and only those cards, to you definitely need to turn over, and only those cards, to determine whether the rule is broken from any of the four determine whether the rule is broken from any of the four students.students.
Ate cookies
No cookies
Messy room
Tidy room
Dr. K. A. KorbUniversity of Jos
Expert and Novice SchemaExpert and Novice Schema
Watson Selection Task (Watson, 1966)Watson Selection Task (Watson, 1966) Cheater Detection Task: Cheater Detection Task: Second Second
contextualized itemcontextualized item
Learning is easier in contextLearning is easier in context
Expertise in a domain influences Expertise in a domain influences performanceperformance
Dr. K. A. KorbUniversity of Jos
Expert and Novice SchemaExpert and Novice Schema
Experts: Complete and comprehensive Experts: Complete and comprehensive schemataschemata Recognize a pattern related to a developed Recognize a pattern related to a developed
schemaschema Enable to reason using specific, domain-Enable to reason using specific, domain-
based strategiesbased strategies Use automatized skillsUse automatized skills
Novice: Incomplete schemataNovice: Incomplete schemataUse general problem solving strategiesUse general problem solving strategiesGreater load on working memoryGreater load on working memory
Dr. K. A. KorbUniversity of Jos
Goal of EducationGoal of Education
Students construct and apply appropriate Students construct and apply appropriate schemata to solve practical problems in schemata to solve practical problems in various domainsvarious domains Become “expert” problem solvers in school Become “expert” problem solvers in school
coursescourses
Instructional StrategiesInstructional Strategies Reduce extra cognitive load – Irrelevant tasksReduce extra cognitive load – Irrelevant tasks Increase relevant cognitive loadIncrease relevant cognitive load
Dr. K. A. KorbUniversity of Jos
Identifying Students’ SchemasIdentifying Students’ Schemas
ObserveObserve
Ask for explanationAsk for explanation
Ask to make predictionsAsk to make predictions
Ask to teach another studentAsk to teach another student
Dr. K. A. KorbUniversity of Jos
Teaching StrategiesTeaching Strategies
Connect new information to prior knowledgeConnect new information to prior knowledge Advanced Organizer:Advanced Organizer: Bridge between new Bridge between new
information and prior knowledgeinformation and prior knowledge Schema Signals: Schema Signals: Indicate the schema that students Indicate the schema that students
should use to approach the new informationshould use to approach the new information
Make instructional materials meaningfulMake instructional materials meaningful Concept Maps: Concept Maps: Diagram showing the relationship Diagram showing the relationship
between conceptsbetween concepts Identify and correct schemas that are contradictory, Identify and correct schemas that are contradictory,
wrong, or unnecessarywrong, or unnecessary
Directly teach transferDirectly teach transfer
Dr. K. A. KorbUniversity of Jos
Developing an Advanced OrganizerDeveloping an Advanced Organizer
List major principles of new lessonList major principles of new lesson
List knowledge or skills necessary for List knowledge or skills necessary for understanding new materialunderstanding new material
Assess students’ understanding of prerequisite Assess students’ understanding of prerequisite materialmaterial
Re-teach knowledge and skills if necessaryRe-teach knowledge and skills if necessary
Write the advanced organizer that illuminates Write the advanced organizer that illuminates the similarities between old and new conceptsthe similarities between old and new concepts
Dr. K. A. KorbUniversity of Jos
Present Advanced OrganizerPresent Advanced Organizer
Present contentPresent content Use examples beginning from simple to Use examples beginning from simple to
complexcomplex
Relate content back to the Advanced Relate content back to the Advanced OrganizerOrganizer
Using Advanced OrganizersUsing Advanced Organizers
Dr. K. A. KorbUniversity of Jos
Advanced OrganizersAdvanced Organizers
Checklist for good Advanced Organizers:Checklist for good Advanced Organizers: Does the organizer allow students to discover Does the organizer allow students to discover
the logical relationships in the lesson?the logical relationships in the lesson? Does the organizer relate unfamiliar material Does the organizer relate unfamiliar material
to existing knowledge?to existing knowledge? Is the organizer easy for the learner to use?Is the organizer easy for the learner to use?
Dr. K. A. KorbUniversity of Jos
Advanced OrganizersAdvanced Organizers
Cognitive theories focus on cognitive processes.Cognitive theories focus on cognitive processes.Before Spring Break, we discussed reasoning. Today we Before Spring Break, we discussed reasoning. Today we are going to discuss teaching methods.are going to discuss teaching methods.When discussing the Deviation IQ in the chapter on When discussing the Deviation IQ in the chapter on intelligence, I introduced you to a standard deviation. intelligence, I introduced you to a standard deviation. Standard deviations represent the variance of a variable. Standard deviations represent the variance of a variable. When one has calculated the variance of multiple When one has calculated the variance of multiple variables, then factor analysis can be used to determine variables, then factor analysis can be used to determine the communality of each variable.the communality of each variable.Bruner’s teaching method consisted of having students Bruner’s teaching method consisted of having students generalize a rule from examples. Ausubel, on the other generalize a rule from examples. Ausubel, on the other hand, viewed effective learning as typically taking place hand, viewed effective learning as typically taking place when teachers present the general rule first, and then when teachers present the general rule first, and then examples later.examples later.
Dr. K. A. KorbUniversity of Jos
PositiveReinforcement
NegativePunishment
SchemataSchemata
Behaviorism
ClassicalConditioning:
Involuntary behavior
OperantConditioning:
Voluntary behavior
UnconditionedStimulus
ConditionedStimulus
UnconditionedResponse
ConditionedResponse
Punishment:Behavior stops
Reinforcement:Behavior is repeated
Dr. K. A. KorbUniversity of Jos
NegativeReinforcement
PositivePunishment
Remove
Present
Developing Concept MapsDeveloping Concept Maps
Place the main idea in a circle in the centerPlace the main idea in a circle in the center
List all concepts to include in the concept mapList all concepts to include in the concept map
Group the concepts by higher-order topicsGroup the concepts by higher-order topics
Place the higher-order topics in circles linked to Place the higher-order topics in circles linked to the main ideathe main idea
Link the concepts around the higher-order topicLink the concepts around the higher-order topic
Verify the connections on the concept map and Verify the connections on the concept map and change if necessarychange if necessary
Dr. K. A. KorbUniversity of Jos
Concept MapsConcept Maps
Benefits of Concept MapsBenefits of Concept Maps Hierarchical structure helps organize major Hierarchical structure helps organize major
conceptsconcepts Cross-links between concepts helps to see Cross-links between concepts helps to see
how different concepts are relatedhow different concepts are related
Dr. K. A. KorbUniversity of Jos
Classroom ImplicationsClassroom Implications
Prior knowledge influences what and how a student Prior knowledge influences what and how a student learnslearnsWhat is remembered is largely a function of what was What is remembered is largely a function of what was understood to begin withunderstood to begin withStudents learn best when they link new information with Students learn best when they link new information with related existing ideasrelated existing ideas
Information is forgotten unless integrated into existing schemataInformation is forgotten unless integrated into existing schemata
The schemas of students are different from each other The schemas of students are different from each other and from the teacherand from the teacherBoth understanding and memory are driven by meaningBoth understanding and memory are driven by meaningLearning should occur in the context in which it will be Learning should occur in the context in which it will be usedused
Dr. K. A. KorbUniversity of Jos
Schema Theory OverviewSchema Theory Overview
Results: Organized representation of knowledge in memory Means: Comparison of new information to previously developed schemas
Accretion Tuning Restructuring
Inputs: Information that fits into previously developed schemas
Dr. K. A. KorbUniversity of Jos
Schema Theory OverviewSchema Theory Overview
Learning Outcomes: Schema, Organized body of knowledge used to interpret new informationRole of the Learner: Apply previously existing schema to new problems and modify schemas as appropriateRole of the Instructor: Identify students’ previously developed schema
Integrate new information with previously developed schemas Correct inaccurate schemas
Inputs for Learning: Link between new information and previous schemasProcess of Learning: Accretion, tuning, and restructuring of schema
Dr. K. A. KorbUniversity of Jos
RevisionRevision
What are schemas and how do they What are schemas and how do they influence perception?influence perception?How does top-down and bottom-up How does top-down and bottom-up perception influence the application and perception influence the application and development of schemas?development of schemas?What are the three ways that schemas are What are the three ways that schemas are developed?developed?How does schema theory influence How does schema theory influence education?education?
Dr. K. A. KorbUniversity of Jos
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