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Lecture Notes on Nursing Research
Prepared By: Mark Fredderick R Abejo R.N, MAN
Introduction to Nursing Research Abejo
NURSING RESEARCH
Lecturer:Mark Fredderick R. Abejo RN, MAN________________________________________________
NATURE OF RESEARCH
Research Definition
Derived from the old French word CERCHIERmeaning to seek or to search.
The prefix re means again and signifiesreplication of the search, implying that the personhas to find out or to take another more careful look.
Is a scientific study or investigation that is pursuedto discover theories and concepts based on new factsand information and its practical application.
Systematic collection and analysis of data toilluminate, describe or explain new facts and
relationship and for the purposes of prediction orexplanation.
An attempt to gain solutions to the problem. (Treece,1986)
Refers to a problem solving process that utilizesscientific and develop ideas and theories that give
meaningful answer to complex questions abouthuman beings and the environment.
The Committee on Research of the PhilippineNurses Association has come up with its owndefinition of research: Research is an honest,
scienti fi c investigation undertaken for the pur pose
of discovering new facts or establishing new
relationship among facts alr eady known whi ch wil l
contr ibu te to the present body of knowl edge and
can lead to an effective solution of existing
problems.
Nursing Research Definition
It is defined as a formal, systematic, rigorous andintensive process used for solutions to nursing
problems or to discover and interpret new facts andtrends in the clinical practice, nursing education and
nursing administration. (Waltz and Bausell, 2001)
Systematic study and assessment of nursingproblems or phenomena; finding ways to improvenursing practice and patient care through creative
studies;initiating and evaluating change; and takingaction to make new knowledge useful in nursing(Vreeland, 1963 )
Includes the breadth and depth of the disciple ofnursing and the rehabilitative, therapeutic andpreventive aspects of nursing as well as the
preparation of practitioners and personnel involvedin the total nursing sphere.
According to NCNR, nursing research is the testingof knowledge that can be used to guide nursing
practice. It is concerned with examining questionand verifying interventions based on human
experiences.
Sources of Knowledge in Nursing
Faith, Habits and Traditions Authority Borrowing Clinical / Personal Experience Trial and Error Intuition Role Modeling Logical Reasoning Assembled Information Disciplined Research
Reason for Conducting Research in Nursing
1. Gather data or information on nursing situations orconditions about which little knowledge is available.
2. Provides scientific knowledge base from which nursingtheories emerge and develop.
3. Helps correct, clarify and validate perceptions andexpands these.
4. Provides theoretical and scientific basis for nursingpractice.
5. Defines the parameters of nursing and identifies itsboundaries.
6. Documents the social relevance and efficacy of nursingpractice to people and health care providers.
7. Describes the characteristics of the nursing situationabout which little knowledge is known.
8. Predicts probable outcomes of nursing decisions inrelations to client care.
9. Provides knowledge for purposes of problem solving anddecision making.
10. Develops and evaluates nursing theories, concepts andpractices these for clarity and validity of nursing actions.
11. Prevents undesirable client reactions.12. Develops a considerable degree of confidence.
Theory systematic, abstract explanation of some
aspect of reality.Concepts building blocks of theoriesData pieces of information obtained in the course ofinvestigationPhenomenon an event, happening, incident and
observable facts.
The Goals of Nursing Research
Efficiency and effectiveness in nursing care. Worthiness and value of the nursing
profession.
Indentify, implementing and evaluatingeffective health care modalities.
Potential for providing quality care ofclients.
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Lecture Notes on Nursing Research
Prepared By: Mark Fredderick R Abejo R.N, MAN
Introduction to Nursing Research Abejo
General and Specific Purposes of Research
General Pur poses
Research in general, answer questions to solve problems.
Provide tools for observation in order to generate
knowledge as basis for predicting and controlling thephenomenon. Thus, a nurse can apply this knowledge in
practice and prescribe accurately and professionallywithout untoward client response or reactions to nursinginterventions. (Polit and Beck, 2004 )
Specif ic Pur poses
Specifically, research aims to do the following tasks: Description Exploration Explanation Prediction ControlResearch Purpose Related to Evidence- Based Practi ce
Treatment, Therapy or Intervention Diagnosis and Assessment Prognosis Prevention of harm Etiology or causation Meaning and Process
Paradigms for Nursing
Paradigmsan overall belief system, a view of the world that
strives to make sense of the nature of reality and the basis ofknowledge.
MAJOR ASSUMPTIONS OF THE POSITIVIST AND
NATURALISTIC PARADIGMS
Positivist
Paradigm
Naturalistic
ParadigmNature of
reality
Reality exist Reality is multiple and
subjectiveRelationship
bet.
Researcher
and those
being
researched
Inquirer is independent
from those beingresearched
Inquirer interacts with
those being research
The role of
values in
inquiry
Values and biases are
to be held in check
Subjectivity and value
are inevitable
Best method
for obtaining
evidence
Deductive processes
Emphasis on discrete,
specific concept
Focus on objectives
Verification of
researchers predictionsFixed designed
Outsider knowledge as
externalMeasured
Seek generalizationFocus on the product
Inductive processes
Emphasize on whole
Focus on the subjective
Flexible
Insider knowledge as
internalNarrative information
Seek in depth
understandingFocus on the product and
process
Types of Research
1. General Classification
Basic / Pure ResearchThe researcher tries to find the truth about
something.
It is done for the intellectual pleasure olearning to search for knowledge for its ownsake and eventually filter down the result intoreal life situation.
Applied ResearchApplied research seeks for practical application
of theoretical or abstract knowledge. The truthis adapted to every situation.
It results from present problems or from
socially disorganized situations. It frequentlyraises theoretical questions that must beanswered by basic/ pure research.
Purpose of Conducting Applied Research
To solve a problem To make a decision To develop a new program, product
methods and procedure To evaluate program and methods.
Action ResearchThe process involves the study of certain
problem and from that experience, decisionsactions and conclusion are drawn.
Findings are limited to settings actuallystudied.
2.
According to Level of Investigation
Exploratory ResearchAllows one to study the variables pertinent to aspecific situation.
Descriptive ResearchThe exploration and description of phenomena
in real life situation.
Provides an accurate account of characteristics
of particular individuals, situations or groups.
3. According to Time Element Historical Research
Describes what was?
Descriptive ResearchDescribes what is?
4. According to Duration Longitudinal Study
Follows the subjects for a long period of timein order to observe change.
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Lecture Notes on Nursing Research
Prepared By: Mark Fredderick R Abejo R.N, MAN
Introduction to Nursing Research Abejo
Crosssectional StudyTakes information one at a time and may
require subjects to recall past events or feelings.
It may contribute to a loss of accuracy and
support bias. It is more often done than thelongitudinal studies
5. According to Research Design Correlational Research
Involves the systematic investigation of
relationship between or among variables.
This design is used to quantify the strength of
the relationships in the real world.
This design is used to quantify the strength ofthe relationship between variables or in testing
a hypothesis about a specific relationship.
ExperimentalAn objective, systematic, highly controlledinvestigation for the purpose of predicting andcontrolling phenomena in nursing practice.
The researcher actively introduces some formof treatment and has greater control over
extraneous variables.
Non ExperimentalThe researcher collects data without
introducing any treatment or making anychanges.
Non experimental research usually includes
studies where the researchers primary interestis understanding some human behavior innaturalistic contexts.
QuasiExperimentalIs like experimental research because it activelyintroduces some form of treatment ormanipulation of an independent variable.
Unlike experimental research, however, it does
not utilize randomization or control group.
Nursing Research Methodologies
Quantitative ResearchA formal, objective, systematic process in which
numerical data are used to obtain information aboutthe world.
This method is used to describe variables, examine
relationships among variables and determine causeand effect interactions between variables.
Qualitative ResearchA systematic, interactive, subjective approach used
to describe life experiences and give them meaning.
A type of research conducted to describe and
promote understanding of human experiences.Evolved from the behavioral and social sciences as amethod of understanding unique, dynamic, holistic
nature of human beings.
Approaches in Qualitative Research
Phenomenological Research- Used to answer questions of meaning- Begin with accumulation of evidence
when little topic is known or when
studying new topic it involves gathering ofresh perspective.
- The goal of phenomenological inquiry isto understand fully lived experience and
perceptions.- Aspects of Lived Experience involves:
a. Lived Space (spatiality)b. Live Body (corporeality)c. Lived Time (temporality)d. Live Human Relation (relationality)
Grounded Theory Research- Method designed to inductively develop a
theory based observations of selectedpeople.
- The primary purpose of grounded theoryresearch is to develop a theory. The
concepts and theories discovered throughthis research approach are derived directlyfrom the data.
- The following are the major premises ofgrounded theory: Humans act toward objects on the
basis of the meaning those objecthave for them.
Social meaning arise from sociainteraction
People use interpretive processes tohandle and change meanings in
dealing with their situations.- Fundamental characteristic of grounded
theory research is that data collection, dataanalysis and sampling of participants
occur at the same time.- In depth interview and observation are themost common data source.
Ethnographic Research- A tool for studying cultures- It has been associated with studies of
primitive, foreign or remote culturewhich allows the researcher to acquire
new perspectives beyond his/her ownethnocentric perspective.
Rigor in Quantitative
Rigor is the striving for excellence in researchand it requires discipline, adherence to detailand strict accuracy.
Control in Quantitative
Involves the imposing of rules by theresearcher to decrease the possibility of error.
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Lecture Notes on Nursing Research
Prepared By: Mark Fredderick R Abejo R.N, MAN
Introduction to Nursing Research Abejo
Nar rati ve Research- Focus on story as the object of inquiry, to
determine how individuals make sense of
events in their lives.- The data can be collected as a story or
filed notes.- It may be used for comparison among
groups, to learn about a socialphenomenon or historical period or to
explore a personality
Case Study- Involves an in-depth description of
essential dimension and processes of thephenomenon being studied.
- Are means of providing in depth, evidencebase discussion of clinical topics alongwith practical information
COMPARISON ON PHASES OF COMPARISON OF
QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Quantitative Qualitative
Conceptual
Phase
Formulating problemReview related lit.Defining frameworkFormulating
hypotheses
Topic identificationSituation appraisalDevelophypotheses
FrameworkdevelopmentObjectiveformulation
Design /
Planning
Phase
Selecting researchdesignDevelop protocol for
interventionDesign sampling
planDevelop methods tosafeguard rights
Research planformulation
Empirical Collecting dataPreparing dataanalysis
Data gathering andcollection
Analytical
Phase
Analyze the dataInterpreting theresults
Data analysis andinterpretationConclusion
Dissemination
Phase
CommunicatingfindingsUtilizing findings in
practice
Communicatingand utilizing thefindings
COMPARISON OF QUANTITATIVE AND
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Quantitative Qualitative
General
Framework
Seek to confirm
hypotheses aboutphenomenon
Instrument use morerigid style ofeliciting andcategorizing
response to question
Use highlystructured methods
such asquestionnaires,survey andstructured
observation
Seek to explore
phenomena
Instrument use moreflexible, repetitiousstyle of eliciting andcategorizing
responses toquestions
Use semi structured
methods such as indepth interviews,focus groups and
participant
observation
Analytical
Objectives
To quantifyvariation
To predict causal
relationship
To describecharacteristics of a
population
To describe variation
To describe andexplain relationship
To describeindividualexperiences
To describe groupnorms
Question
Format
Close - ended Openended
Data Format Numerical Textual
Flexibility in
Design
Study design is
stable frombeginning to end
Participant
responses do notinfluence ordetermine how andwhich questions
researchers ask next
Study design is
subject to statisticalassumptions andconditions.
Some aspects of the
study are flexible.
Participant responses
affect how and whichquestions researchersask next
Study design isrepetitious, that is,data collection and
research question areadjusted according towhat is learned.
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Lecture Notes on Nursing Research
Prepared By: Mark Fredderick R Abejo R.N, MAN
Introduction to Nursing Research Abejo
CONTRAST OF QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH APPROACHES
Element Quantitative Qualitative
View of reality Reality is
objective and canbe seen and
measured
Reality is constructed
by the individual
View of time Reality is
relatively constant
Reality is
continuouslyconstructed
Context Reality can be
separated fromcontext
Reality is embedded
in its context
Researcher
Approach
Objective,detached
Personally involved
Population
Studied
Samples thatrepresent overall
populations, as
subjects
Individual cases,represented asinformants.
Measures Human behavioror other
observablephenomena
Study the meaningthat individuals create
Observations Analyze reality asdefinable variables
Make holisticobservations of the
total context
Design Preconceived andhighly controlled
Emergent and fluid,adaptable to
informants views
Analysis Descriptive andinferentialstatistics
Analytic induction todetermine meaning
Generalization Use inference togeneralize from asample to a
defined population
Transfer knowledgefrom case analysis tosimilar cases
Reports Objective,impersonal reportsin which
researchersopinions areundetectable
Interpretative reportsthat reflect theresearchers
reconstruction of themeaning of the data
JARGONS QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH APPROACHES
Concepts Quantitative Qualitative
Personcontributing
information
Study participant
Respondents
Study participant
Informant, Key
informant
Person
undertaking
the study
Researcher,investigator
Researcher,investigator
That which is
being studied
ConceptsVariables
PhenomenaConceptsVariables
Information
gathered
Data (numericvalue)
Data (narrativedescriptions)
Links
between
concepts
Relationships(causal,functional)
Patterns
Logical
reasoning
processes
Deductivereasoning
Inductive reasoning
Quality of
evidence
Reliability,
validity,generalization
Trustworthiness
Parts/phases
of research
output
Statement of theproblemsResults
Literature reviewSamplingStudy frameworkMain problem
Specific problemInterview guideData analysisMethod
Aim of the study
Findings
ReconnaissanceSelectionStudy simulacrumCentral question
IssuesAide memoirMode of analysisDesign
Outcome ResearchThis method examines the results of care andmeasures the change in health status of clients.
The following are areas that require investigationthrough outcome research: Clinical client response to medical and nursing
interventions. Functional maintenance or improvement o
physical functioning Financial outcomes achieved with mos
efficient use of resources. Perceptual clients satisfaction with outcomes
care received and providers.
Intervention ResearchInvolves the investigation of the effectiveness of anursing intervention in achieving the desired
outcome or outcomes in natural setting.
Intervention research should be theory driven, which
means that the theory determines the nature of theintervention, the health professionals to deliver theintervention, the setting where the intervention is to
be provided, the type of client to receive the
intervention and the selection and measurement ofoutcome variables.
Components of Scientific Research
Order and system Control Empiricism Generalization
Characteristics of Research
It involves the gathering of new data from new sources ofirst-hand information.
It is directed towards the solution of a problem It is characterized by carefully designed procedure
applying rigorous analysis
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Lecture Notes on Nursing Research
Prepared By: Mark Fredderick R Abejo R.N, MAN
Introduction to Nursing Research Abejo
It emphasizes the development of generalizations,principles hypotheses and theories that may be helpful inpredicting future occurrences.
It requires expertise It demands accurate observation and description of what
is being studied. It strives to be logical, applying every possible test to
validate the procedures being employed. It is characterized by patient and unhurried activities. It requires innovative approaches and determination to
succeed.
It is carefully and accurately recorded and reported.
Limitations of Research
Result of faulty planning and implementation of theproject.
The individual researcher The scope of knowledge or information available about
the topic and the problem under study also must beconsidered.
Sources of data The tools of measurement may be inadequate or entirely
lacking.
Reasons for Lack of Clinical Research
1. Nurses tend to feel that they are too busy to care forpatients.
2. Unless the nurse has had academic training in theoreticalconceptualizations, research may not seem important.
3. Unless the importance of research is felt and recognized,nurses may not be able to identify researchable problems.
4. Many nurse do not have the academic training needed tofeel confident in doing clinical research.
5. The ethics or research tends to researchers. Fear ofharming a patient is also a hindrance to some researchers.
6. Unless administrators are research-oriented, the nursingstaff feels the futility of support for nursing research,
hence, there is no motivation to pursue this.7. Research takes time, time costs money which must be
budgeted.
Characteristics of the Good Nurse Researcher
Honest and Credible Intellectual Curiosity Accurate in his/her data Organized and Systematic Prudence Logic Self- Awareness Healthy Criticism Intellectual Honestly Good Relationship with his/her respondents
The Consumer-Producer Continuum in Nursing Research
Consumer of Producer of
Research Research
The consumers of research are nurses at one end of thecontinuum whose involvement in research is indirectThese nurses:
Identify clinical problems in nursing practice
Use library and information technology resources.
Read research reports to develop new skills andsearch for relevant findings that affect practice.
Participates in journal clubs
Use research to solve clinical problems
Use research in clinical decisions
Collaborate in developing an idea for a researchproject.
Reviews a research proposal for feasibility and offersuggestion to improve the plan.
Assist in data collection
Participate in research study or survey
Lead a journal club or ground discussion.
Participate in unit or service based research councils
The producers of research at the other end of thecontinuum are the nurses who actively participate in:
Designing and implementing studies
Conducting studies
Disseminating research findings
Appraising the clinical relevance of researchfindings.
Provides leadership for integrating findings inclinical practice.
Nursing Research Guidelines for the Investigative
Function of Nurses
1. Associate Degree in NursingDemonstrates awareness of the value or relevance ofresearch in nursing
Assists in identifying problem areas in nursing
practice.
Assists in collection of data within an established
structured format.
Qualities of a Good
Researcher
R - Research OrientedE - EfficientS - ScientificE - Effective
A - ActiveR - ResourcefulC - CreativeH - HonestE - EconomicalR - Religous
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Lecture Notes on Nursing Research
Prepared By: Mark Fredderick R Abejo R.N, MAN
Introduction to Nursing Research Abejo
2. Baccalaureate Degree in NursingReads, interprets and evaluates research for
applicability to nursing practice.
Identifies nursing problems that need to be
investigated and participates in the implementationof scientific studies.
Uses nursing practice as a means of gathering dataand refining and extending practice.
Applies established findings of nursing and other
health related research to nursing practice.
Shares research findings with colleagues.
3. Masters Degree in NursingAnalyzes and reformulates nursing practice
problems so that scientific knowledge and scientificmethods can be used to find solutions.
Provides expertise in clinical problems by providingknowledge about the way clinical services are
delivered which enhances quality and clinicalrelevance of nursing.
Facilitates investigation of problems in clinical
settings by contributing to a climate of supportiveinvestigative activities, collaborating with others ininvestigations and enhancing nurses access toclients and data.
Investigates for the purpose of monitoring thequality of nursing practice in a clinical setting.
Assists others in applying scientific knowledge in
nursing practice.
4. Doctorate Degree in Nursing or Related DisciplineProvides leadership for the integration of scientific
knowledge with others types of knowledge for the
advancement of practice.Conducts investigations to evaluate the contributions
of nursing activities to the well-being of clients.
Develops methods to monitor the quality of nursingpractice in a clinical setting and to evaluatecontributions of nursing activities to the well-being
of clients.
Role of Nurses in Research
As Principal Investigators As Member of a Research Team As Evaluator of Research Findings As Consumers of Research Findings As Client Advocate in a Research Study As Subject of ResearchEthics in Research
Informed Consent Beneficence and Non-maleficence
- Freedom from any Physical and Psychological Harm- Freedom from Exploitation
Respect for Human Dignity- The right to self determination- The right to full disclosure- Anonymity and Confidentiality
Justice and Fairness
_________________________________________
References:
1. Venzon. 2004. Introduction to Nursing Research: Quest for QualityNursing, 1sted. Philippines: C&E Publishing Inc.
2. Barrientos-Tan. 2006. A Research Guide in Nursing Education, 3 red. Philippines: Visual Print Enterprises.
3. Reyes & Layug. 2009. Comprehensive Reviewer for the NurseLicensure Exam, Philippines: East West Educational Specialists
C&E Publishing Inc.
4. Brink & Wood. 2001. Basic Steps in Planning Nursing Research5thed. Philippines: Jones and Bartlett Publisher Inc.
5. Burns & Grove. 2007. Understanding Nursing Research : Buildingan Evidence-Based Practice, 4th ed. China; Elsevier, Health
Sciences.
6. LoBiondo-Wood & Haber. 2006. Nursing Research: Methods andCritical Appraisal for Evidence-Based Practice, 6 thed. USA: Mosby
Inc.
7. Polit & Beck. 2008. Nursing Research: Generating and AssessingEvidence for Nursing Practice, 8 th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincot
Williams & Wilkins.
Ethics in research requires honesty and accuracy ofdata. The researcher must guarantee factual and
evidenced based data. There should be noplagiarism such as presenting the ideas or words ofanother as ones own, nor distort or fabricate data for
purposes of completing the research on time.The Philippine Copyright Law (R.A No. 8293 )
protects the intellectual property rights of authors andartist .
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