Personality
1. Structure of Personality
Freud’s Theory
2. Personality Assessment
What is Personality? How people differ at the individual level
Personality An individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking,
feeling, and acting
The Psychoanalytic Perspective
Freud’s Theory
Unconscious motivations influence personality
The Psychoanalytic Perspective
Psychoanalysis - Freud Theory of personality that attributes our thoughts and
actions to unconscious motives and conflicts People are motivated by unacceptable passions for sex and
aggression, so we repress those motivations from consciousness, causing conflict
Techniques used in treating psychological disorders that seek to expose and interpret unconscious conflicts
The Psychoanalytic Perspective
Free Association Dream Interpretation Jokes
Psychoanalytic Structure of the Mind
• The mind is divided into 3 parts:- Conscious mind contains things that occupy one’s
current attention- Preconscious mind contains things that aren’t
currently in consciousness, but can be accessed- Unconscious mostly unacceptable thoughts,
wishes, feelings and memories that are beyond
awareness
Psychoanalytic Personality Structure
• Personality is also divided into 3 structures:- Id: Governed by inborn instinctual drives, especially those related
to sex and aggression- Obeys the pleasure principle
- Superego: Motivates people to act in an ideal fashion, according to moral customs of parents and culture
- Obeys the idealistic principle- Ego: Induces people to act with reason and deliberation, and to
conform to the requirements of the outside world- Obeys the reality principle
• Id is entirely in unconscious mind• superego and ego are divided between conscious and unconscious mind
Psychoanalytic Personality Structure
Freud’s “iceberg” idea of the mind’s structure
Abstract concepts for understanding the mind’s conflicts between pleasure-seeking and social restraint
Preconscious
Psychoanalytic Personality Structure
Id (unconscious psychic energy) strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives operates on the pleasure principle, demanding
immediate gratification (think of an infant) Must be restrained by reality “id-dominated” people more often use tobacco,
alcohol, drugs
Psychoanalytic Personality Structure
Superego (conscience) Internalized ideals (how we ought to behave) The conscience Idealized Self Internalized Parent At odds with the id
Psychoanalytic Personality Structure
Ego (personality executive) the largely conscious, “executive mediator” part of
personality In charge of coping with reality by constraining our
perceptions, thoughts, judgments and memories Struggles to reconcile the id and the superego operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id’s
desires in ways that will realistically bring long-term pleasure rather than pain
Psychoanalytic Defense Mechanisms
Some Defense Mechanisms Ego’s protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously
distorting reality• Different parts of personality are in constant conflict, especially with regard to the
id• Defense mechanisms ward off the resulting anxiety from these conflicts, often
through self-deception
• Repression • Denial• Reaction formation• Projection• Rationalization
• Displacement • Sublimation
Psychoanalytic Defense Mechanisms
Repression Cornerstone of psychoanalytic theory the basic defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-
arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness Incomplete repression when urges seep out in dream
symbols and “Freudian slips”
Psychoanalytic Defense Mechanisms
Denial defense mechanism in which an individual faced
with anxiety denies the source of the anxiety
Psychoanalytic Defense Mechanisms
Reaction Formation defense mechanism by which the ego unconsciously
switches unacceptable impulses into their opposites people may express feelings that are the opposite of
their anxiety-arousing unconscious feelings e.g., if you are jealous of someone, you may try to become
their friend to suppress the jealousy
Psychoanalytic Defense Mechanisms
Projection defense mechanism by which people disguise their
own threatening impulses by attributing them to others You accuse your mate of cheating on you because you have
been fantasizing about another person
Psychoanalytic Defense Mechanisms
Rationalization defense mechanism that offers self-justifying
explanations in place of the real, more threatening, unconscious reasons for one’s actions “It’s okay for me not to vote, because one vote doesn’t
matter anyway” Disguises “I’d rather sleep late/hang out with my friends”, “I
haven’t bothered to find out where to vote or the issues or candidates on the ballot” etc.
Psychoanalytic Defense Mechanisms
Displacement defense mechanism that shifts sexual or aggressive
impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person
as when redirecting anger toward a safer outlet You’re mad at your boss, so you punch the wall/kick the
dog/yell at your friend, etc.
Psychoanalytic Defense Mechanisms
Sublimation defense mechanism similar to displacement, but has
positive (pro-social) consequences
Assessing the Unconscious
If personality emerges from the unconscious, how can we measure it?
Projective Test a personality test, such as the Rorschach, that
provides ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger projection of one’s inner dynamics
People interpret unstructured or ambiguous stimuli- Idea is that you “project” true thoughts, feelings into the
interpretation, revealing your personality
Assessing the Unconscious
Rorschach Inkblot Test the most widely used projective test a set of 10 inkblots designed by Hermann
Rorschach seeks to identify people’s inner feelings by
analyzing their interpretations of the blots
Assessing the Unconscious
Is the Rorschach a good test of personality? Most scientists say no Subjective Not reliable (consistency of results)
Different raters may interpret a patient’s response quite differently
Not valid (do not predict accurately) Cannot identify who is suicidal and who isn’t
However, some therapists still use these tests today
Problems with Freud
• Extremely influential on Western culture, but not
accepted by many modern psychologists• Criticisms:
- Ideas are not testable, nor do they predict behavior
- His observations were not scientific- Over-reliance on case studies of disturbed individuals- Biased against women
- Freud attributed women’s reports of childhood sexual
abuse to unconscious conflicts and a weak superego
Neo-Freudians They Accept:
notions of id, ego, superego dynamics of anxiety and defense mechanisms importance of unconscious shaping of personality in childhood
In addition, they recognize: the importance of conscious motivations and social
interaction Instead of strictly sex and aggression, higher motives
also underlie motivation
TAT: Thematic Apperception Test
1. Who are these people? 2. What are they doing?3. What are they thinking &
feeling?4. What will happen?
Eysenck’s Trait Dimensions
Humanistic Perspective
Maslow (1908-70) studied self-
actualization processes of productive and healthy people (e.g., Lincoln)
Focuses on people’s unique capacity for choice, responsibility and growth
Humanistic Perspective
• Personality reflects where
you are in the hierarchy of
needs- if your physiological
needs are met, you
become concerned
with personal safety,
then love, and so on…- Problems arise from
failure to satisfy needs
Humanistic Perspective
Self-Actualization the ultimate psychological need that arises
after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved
the motivation to fulfill one’s potential
Humanistic Perspective Rogers’ Person-Centered Humanistic Approach
Unconditional Positive Regard an attitude of total acceptance toward another person
Conditions of growth People nurture our growth by being
Genuine, accepting, empathic
Self-Concept all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in an
answer to the question, “Who am I?”- Positive when ideal self and actual self are similar - Problems when ideal and actual are incongruent
Personality comes from self-concept
• Also influential on western culture
• Emphasizes individuality• Optimistic view of human potential for positive growth
• Criticisms:• Too optimistic? Drives for growth and self-actualization are sometimes
expressed and sometimes not• Focus on self can lead to self-indulgence, selfishness, erosion of
moral restraints
Were the humanists right?
Contemporary Research - The Trait Perspective
Descriptive approach to personality Contrasts with the explanatory psychoanalytic
and humanistic approaches Classifies personality according to “types” Uses objective questions to identify
personality traits that determine a type profile
Contemporary Research - The Trait Perspective
Trait a characteristic pattern of behavior a disposition to feel and act, as assessed by
self-report inventories and peer reports Personality Inventory
a questionnaire (often with true-false or agree-disagree items) on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors
used to assess selected personality traits
The Trait Perspective
Eysenck – uses two primary personality factors to describe personality variation Stable-unstable Introverted-
extroverted
UNSTABLE
STABLE
cholericmelancholic
phlegmatic sanguineINTROVERTED EXTRAVERTED
MoodyAnxious
RigidSober
PessimisticReserved
Unsociable
Quiet
SociableOutgoing
TalkativeResponsiveEasygoing
LivelyCarefree
Leadership
PassiveCareful
Thoughtful
Peaceful
ControlledReliable
Even-temperedCalm
TouchyRestlessAggressive
ExcitableChangeable
ImpulsiveOptimistic
Active
The Trait Perspective Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
(MMPI) the most widely researched and clinically used
of all personality tests People answer groups of questions about how
they typically think, act, and feel- Responses compared to averages compiled from large
groups of prior test takers (standardized!)
originally developed to identify emotional disorders (still its most appropriate use)
now used for many other screening purposes, such as job placement – hmmm…
The Trait Perspective
Empirically Derived Test a test developed by testing a pool of items
and then selecting those that discriminate between groups (e.g., suicidal and not)
such as the MMPI Have you stopped beating your wife?
The Trait Perspective MMPI Example
MMPI test profiles
Higher T scores indicate problems
Group differences are evident
The Trait Perspective
The “Big Five” Personality FactorsTrait Dimension DescriptionEmotional Stability Calm versus anxious
Secure versus insecure Self-satisfied versus self-pitying
Extraversion Sociable versus retiring Fun-loving versus sober Affectionate versus reserved
Openness Imaginative versus practical Preference for variety versus
preference for routine Independent versus conforming
Extraversion Soft-hearted versus ruthless Trusting versus suspicious Helpful versus uncooperative
Conscientiousness Organized versus disorganized Careful versus careless Disciplined versus impulsive
The Big FiveThe best (so far) index of personalityBig 5 traits are stable*, 50% heritable, culturally generalizableOutcomes are reasonably valid and reliable
Views behavior as influenced by the interaction between persons and their social context
Experience, plus how people interpret experience,
determine personality growth and development
Emphasizes learned behaviors over innate nature
Social-Cognitive Perspective
Social-Cognitive Perspective
Reciprocal Determinism the interacting influences between
personality and environmental factors Beliefs, behavior, and environment
interact to shape what you learn from experience
Social-Cognitive Perspective
Social-Cognitive Perspective
Personal Control our sense of controlling our environments
rather than feeling helpless
External Locus of Control the perception that chance or outside forces
beyond one’s personal control determine one’s fate
Social-Cognitive Perspective
Internal Locus of Control the perception that one controls one’s own
fate
Learned Helplessness the hopelessness and passive resignation an
animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events Dog experiments
Social-Cognitive Perspective
Learned Helplessness
Uncontrollablebad events
Perceivedlack of control
Generalizedhelpless behavior
Social-Cognitive Perspective
Positive Psychology the scientific study of optimal human
functioning aims to discover and promote conditions that
enable individuals and communities to thrive
• Idea that some personality traits are learned is
widely accepted, as is the role of cognitive
factors in learning- Example: Expectations and beliefs
• Criticisms:- Over-emphasizes how a person responds in
particular situations rather than on traits of
person as a whole- Under-emphasizes biological, genetic
factors in development
Is the social-cognitive approach right?
Exploring the Self
Spotlight Effect overestimating others noticing and evaluating
our appearance, performance, and blunders
Self Esteem one’s feelings of high or low self-worth
Self-Serving Bias readiness to perceive oneself favorably
Exploring the Self
Individualism giving priority to one’s own goals over group
goals and defining one’s identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications
Collectivism giving priority to the goals of one’s group
(often one’s extended family or work group) and defining one’s identity accordingly
Exploring the Self
Morality Defined by individuals Defined by social networks (self-based) (duty-based)
Attributing Behavior reflects one’s personality Behavior reflects socialbehaviors and attitudes and roles
Value Contrasts Between Individualism and CollectivismConcept Individualism Collectivism
Self Independent Interdependent (identity from individual traits) identity from belonging)
Life task Discover and express one’s Maintain connections, fit in uniqueness
What matters Me--personal achievement and We-group goals and solidarity; fulfillment; rights and liberties social responsibilities and
relationships
Coping method Change reality Accommodate to reality
Relationships Many, often temporary or casual; Few, close and enduring;confrontation acceptable harmony valued
• Do people really behave consistently across
situations, or is behavior just determined by the
situation?- Evidence suggests there’s more consistency in
behavior within the same kind of situation, less
across situations- Self-monitoring is one determinant of consistency
- High self-monitors tend to adjust behavior to
situation• Most psychologists believe that personality and
situation interact
The Person-Situation Debate
• Are identical twins highly similar in personality, even
when raised apart?- And: Are identicals more similar than fraternals?- MMPI scores indicate yes, irrespective of raising
environment• At least some traits are genetically determined
- However: How they are expressed may depend
on environment
What about genetic factors?
Why personality traits develop:- Psychodynamic, humanistic, and social-cognitive
approaches offer very different views of human nature,
how personality develops- Varied emphasis on biological urges, optimistic
view of growth potential, role of environment• Are personality characteristics expressed in a way that is
independent of the environment?- People are not always consistent in how they behave
across situations; personality and situation may interact- Genetics contribute to personality, as suggested by
studies of identical and fraternal twins
Personality Summary
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