1
What is the perceptual process?
Perception.– The process by which people select, organize,
interpret, retrieve, and respond to information.– Perceptual information is gathered from:
• Sight.• Hearing.• Touch.• Taste.• Smell.
2
What is the perceptual process?
Factors influencing the perceptual process.
– Characteristics of the perceiver.
– Characteristics of the setting.
– Characteristics of the perceived.
3
What is the perceptual process?
Characteristics of the perceiver.
– The perceptual process is influenced by the
perceiver’s:
• Past experiences.
• Needs or motives.
• Personality.
• Values and attitudes.
4
What is the perceptual process?
Characteristics of the setting.
– The perceptual process is influenced by the
setting’s:
• Physical context.
• Social context.
• Organizational context.
5
What is the perceptual process?
Characteristics of the perceived.
– The perceptual process is influenced by characteristics
of the perceived person, object, or event, such as:• Contrast.
• Intensity.
• Figure-ground separation.
• Size.
• Motion.
• Repetition or novelty.
6
What is the perceptual process?
Stages of the perceptual process.
– Information attention and selection.
– Organization of information.
– Information interpretation.
– Information retrieval.
7
What is the perceptual process?
Information attention and selection.– Selective screening.
• Lets in only a tiny proportion all the information that bombards a person.
– Two types of selective screening.• Controlled processing.• Screening without perceiver’s conscious
awareness.
8
What is the perceptual process?
Organization of information.– Schemas.
• Cognitive frameworks that represent organized knowledge about a given concept or stimulus developed through experience.
– Types of schemas.• Self schemas.• Person schemas.• Script schemas.• Person-in-situation schemas.
9
What is the perceptual process?
Information interpretation.
– Uncovering the reasons behind the ways
stimuli are grouped.
– People may interpret the same information
differently or make different attributions about
information.
10
What is the perceptual process?
Information retrieval.
– Attention and selection, organization, and
interpretation are part of memory.
– Information stored in memory must be
retrieved in order to be used.
11
What is the perceptual process?
Response to the perceptual process.
– Thoughts.
– Feelings.
– Actions.
12
What are commonperceptual distortions?
Common perceptual distortions include:– Stereotypes or prototypes.– Halo effects.– Selective perception.– Projection.– Contrast effects.– Self-fulfilling prophecy.
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What are commonperceptual distortions?
Stereotypes or prototypes.
– Combines information based on the category
or class to which a person, situation, or object
belongs.
– Strong impact at the organization stage.
– Individual differences are obscured.
14
What are commonperceptual distortions?
Halo effects.– Occur when one attribute of a person or
situation is used to develop an overall impression of the individual or situation.
– Likely to occur in the organization stage.– Individual differences are obscured.– Important in the performance appraisal
process.
15
What are commonperceptual distortions?
Selective perception.– The tendency to single out those aspects of a
situation, person, or object that are consistent with one’s needs, values, or attitudes.
– Strongest impact is at the attention stage.– Perception checking with other persons can
help counter the adverse impact of selective perception.
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What are commonperceptual distortions?
Projection.– The assignment of one’s personal attributes to
other individuals.– Especially likely to occur in interpretation
stage.– Projection can be controlled through a high
degree of self-awareness and empathy.
17
What are commonperceptual distortions?
Contrast effects.
– Occur when an individual is compared to other
people on the same characteristics on which
the others rank higher or lower.
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What are commonperceptual distortions?
Self-fulfilling prophecy.– The tendency to create or find in another
situation or individual that which one expected to find.
– Also called the “Pygmalion effect.”– Can have either positive or negative outcomes.– Managers should adopt positive and optimistic
approaches to people at work.
19
How can the perceptualprocess be managed?
Impression management.– A person’s systematic attempt to behave in
ways that create and maintain desired impressions in others’ eyes.
– Successful managers:• Use impression management to enhance their own
images.• Are sensitive to other people’s use of impression
management.
20
How can the perceptualprocess be managed?
Distortion management.
– Managers should:
• Balance automatic and controlled information
processing at the attention and selection stage.
• Broaden their schemas at the organizing stage.
• Be attuned to attributions at the interpretation
stage.
21
What is attribution theory?
Attribution theory aids in perceptual interpretation by focusing on how people attempt to:– Understand the causes of a certain event.– Assess responsibility for the outcomes of the
event.– Evaluate the personal qualities of the people
involved in the event.
22
What is attribution theory?
Internal versus external attributions of
causes of behavior.
– Internal causes are under the individual’s
control.
– External causes are within the person’s
environment.
23
What is attribution theory?
Factors influencing internal and external attributions.– Distinctiveness — consistency of a person’s
behavior across situations.– Consensus — likelihood of others responding
in a similar way.– Consistency — whether an individual
responds the same way across time.
24
What is attribution theory?
Fundamental attribution error.– Applies to the evaluation of someone’s else
behavior.
– Attributing success to the influence of situational factors.
– Attributing failure to the influence of personal factors.
25
What is attribution theory?
Self-serving bias.
– Applies to the evaluation of our own behavior.
– Attributing success to the influence of
personal factors.
– Attributing failure to the influence of
situational factors.
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What is attribution theory?
Attributions across cultures.
– The fundamental attribution error and self-
serving bias operate differently in different
cultures.
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