1

Overview of Silicon Semiconductor Device Physics

Dr. David W. Graham

West Virginia UniversityLane Department of Computer Science and Electrical Engineering

©

2009 David W. Graham

2

Silicon

Nucleus

Valence Band

Energy Bands(Shells)

Si has 14 Electrons

Silicon is the primary semiconductor used in VLSI systems

At T=0K, the highest energy band occupied by an electron is called the valence band.

Silicon has 4 outer shell / valence electrons

3

Energy Bands

•

Electrons try to occupy the lowest energy band possible

•

Not every energy level is a legal state for an electron to occupy

•

These legal states tend to arrange themselves in bands

Allowed Energy States

Disallowed Energy States

Increasing Electron Energy }

}

Energy Bands

4

Energy Bands

Valence Band

Conduction Band

Energy BandgapEg

EC

EVLast filled energy band at T=0K

First unfilled energy band at T=0K

5

Band Diagrams

Eg

EC

EV

Band Diagram RepresentationEnergy plotted as a function of position

EC Conduction bandLowest energy state for a free electron

EV Valence bandHighest energy state for filled outer shells

EG Band gapDifference in energy levels between EC and EVNo electrons (e-) in the bandgap (only above EC or below EV)EG = 1.12eV in Silicon

Increasing electron energy

Increasing voltage

6

Intrinsic Semiconductor

Silicon has 4 outer shell / valence electrons

Forms into a lattice structure to share electrons

7

Intrinsic Silicon

EC

EV

The valence band is full, and no electrons are free to move about

However, at temperatures above T=0K, thermal energy shakes an electron free

8

Semiconductor PropertiesFor T > 0K

Electron shaken free and can cause current to flow

e–h+

•

Generation

–

Creation of an electron (e-) and hole (h+) pair

•

h+

is simply a missing electron, which leaves an excess positive charge (due to an extra proton)

•

Recombination

– if an e-

and an h+

come in contact, they annihilate each other

•

Electrons and holes are called “carriers”

because they are charged particles –

when they move, they carry current•

Therefore, semiconductors can conduct electricity for T > 0K …

but not much current (at room temperature (300K), pure silicon has only 1 free electron per 3 trillion atoms)

9

Doping

•

Doping

–

Adding impurities to the silicon crystal lattice to increase the number of carriers

•

Add a small number of atoms to increase either the number of electrons or holes

10

Periodic Table

Column 4 Elements have 4 electrons in the Valence Shell

Column 3 Elements have 3 electrons in the Valence Shell

Column 5 Elements have 5 electrons in the Valence Shell

11

Donors n-Type MaterialDonors

•

Add atoms with 5 valence-band electrons

•

ex. Phosphorous (P)•

“Donates”

an extra e-

that can freely travel around

•

Leaves behind a positively charged nucleus (cannot move)

•

Overall, the crystal is still electrically neutral

•

Called “n-type”

material (added negative carriers)

•

ND

= the concentration of donor atoms [atoms/cm3

or cm-3]~1015-1020cm-3

•

e-

is free to move about the crystal (Mobility μn

≈1350cm2/V)

+

12

Donors n-Type MaterialDonors

•

Add atoms with 5 valence-band electrons

•

ex. Phosphorous (P)•

“Donates”

an extra e-

that can freely travel around

•

Leaves behind a positively charged nucleus (cannot move)

•

Overall, the crystal is still electrically neutral

•

Called “n-type”

material (added negative carriers)

•

ND

= the concentration of donor atoms [atoms/cm3

or cm-3]~1015-1020cm-3

•

e-

is free to move about the crystal (Mobility μn

≈1350cm2/V)

+

+

+

+

++

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

++

+–

–

– –

–

––

–

–

–

–

–

––

–

–

–

+

+

n-Type Material

+–

+

Shorthand NotationPositively charged ion; immobileNegatively charged e-; mobile;

Called “majority carrier”Positively charged h+; mobile;

Called “minority carrier”

13

Acceptors Make p-Type Material

––

h+

Acceptors•

Add atoms with only 3 valence-

band electrons

•

ex. Boron (B)•

“Accepts”

e–

and provides extra h+

to freely travel around

•

Leaves behind a negatively charged nucleus (cannot move)

•

Overall, the crystal is still electrically neutral

•

Called “p-type”

silicon (added positive carriers)

•

NA

= the concentration of acceptor atoms [atoms/cm3

or cm-3]•

Movement of the hole requires breaking of a bond! (This is hard, so mobility is low, μp ≈

500cm2/V)

14

Acceptors Make p-Type Material

Acceptors•

Add atoms with only 3 valence-

band electrons

•

ex. Boron (B)•

“Accepts”

e–

and provides extra h+

to freely travel around

•

Leaves behind a negatively charged nucleus (cannot move)

•

Overall, the crystal is still electrically neutral

•

Called “p-type”

silicon (added positive carriers)

•

NA

= the concentration of acceptor atoms [atoms/cm3

or cm-3]•

Movement of the hole requires breaking of a bond! (This is hard, so mobility is low, μp ≈

500cm2/V)

–

–

–

–

––

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

––

–+

+

+ +

+

++

+

+

+

+

+

++

+

+

+

–

–

p-Type Material

Shorthand NotationNegatively charged ion; immobilePositively charged h+; mobile;

Called “majority carrier”Negatively charged e-; mobile;

Called “minority carrier”

–+

–

15

The Fermi Function

f(E)

1

0.5

EEf

The Fermi Function•

Probability distribution function (PDF)•

The probability that an available state at an energy E will be occupied by an e-

E Energy level of interestEf Fermi level

Halfway pointWhere f(E) = 0.5

k Boltzmann constant=

1.38×10-23 J/K=

8.617×10-5 eV/KT Absolute temperature (in Kelvins)

( ) ( ) kTEE feEf −+

=1

1

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Boltzmann Distribution

f(E)

1

0.5

EEf

~Ef - 4kT ~Ef + 4kT

( ) ( ) kTEE feEf −−≈

kTEE f >>−If

Then

Boltzmann Distribution•

Describes exponential decrease in the density of particles in thermal equilibrium with a potential gradient

•

Applies to all physical systems•

Atmosphere Exponential distribution of gas molecules•

Electronics Exponential distribution of electrons•

Biology Exponential distribution of ions

17

Band Diagrams (Revisited)

Eg

EC

EV

Band Diagram RepresentationEnergy plotted as a function of positionEC Conduction band

Lowest energy state for a free electronElectrons in the conduction band means current can flow

EV Valence bandHighest energy state for filled outer shellsHoles in the valence band means current can flow

Ef Fermi LevelShows the likely distribution of electrons

EG Band gapDifference in energy levels between EC and EVNo electrons (e-) in the bandgap (only above EC or below EV)EG = 1.12eV in Silicon

Ef

f(E)10.5

E

•

Virtually all of the valence-band energy levels are filled with e-

•

Virtually no e-

in the conduction band

18

Effect of Doping on Fermi LevelEf

is a function of the impurity-doping level

EC

EV

Ef

f(E)10.5

E

n-Type Material

•

High probability of a free e-

in the conduction band•

Moving Ef

closer to EC

(higher doping) increases the number of available majority carriers

19

Effect of Doping on Fermi LevelEf

is a function of the impurity-doping level

EC

EV

Ef

p-Type Material

•

Low probability of a free e-

in the conduction band•

High probability of h+

in the valence band•

Moving Ef

closer to EV

(higher doping) increases the number of available majority carriers

f(E)10.5

E

f(E)10.5

E( )Ef−1

20

Equilibrium Carrier Concentrations

n = # of e-

in a materialp = # of h+

in a material

ni

= # of e-

in an intrinsic (undoped) material

Intrinsic silicon•

Undoped

silicon

•

Fermi level•

Halfway between Ev

and Ec•

Location at “Ei

”

Eg

EC

EV

Ef

f(E)10.5

E

21

Equilibrium Carrier Concentrations

Non-degenerate Silicon•

Silicon that is not too heavily doped

•

Ef

not too close to Ev

or Ec

Assuming non-degenerate silicon

( )

( ) kTEEi

kTEEi

fi

if

enp

enn−

−

=

=

2innp =

Multiplying together

22

Charge Neutrality Relationship

•

For uniformly doped semiconductor•

Assuming total ionization of dopant

atoms

0=−+− AD NNnp# of carriers # of ions

Total Charge = 0Electrically Neutral

23

Calculating Carrier Concentrations

•

Based upon “fixed”

quantities•

NA

, ND

, ni

are fixed (given specific dopings for a material)

•

n, p can change (but we can find their equilibrium values)

nn

nNNNNp

nNNNNn

i

iDADA

iADAD

2

21

22

21

22

22

22

=

⎥⎥⎦

⎤

⎢⎢⎣

⎡+⎟

⎠⎞

⎜⎝⎛ −

+−

=

⎥⎥⎦

⎤

⎢⎢⎣

⎡+⎟

⎠⎞

⎜⎝⎛ −

+−

=

24

Common Special Cases in Silicon

1.

Intrinsic semiconductor (NA

= 0, ND

= 0)2.

Heavily one-sided doping

3.

Symmetric doping

25

Intrinsic Semiconductor (NA

=0, ND

=0)

i

i

i

npnnpnn

====

Carrier concentrations are given by

26

Heavily One-Sided Doping

iADA

iDAD

nNNNnNNN

>>≈−>>≈−

This is the typical case for most semiconductor applications

iDAD nNNN >>>> ,If (Nondegenerate, Total Ionization)Then

D

i

D

Nnp

Nn2

≈

≈

iADA nNNN >>>> ,If (Nondegenerate, Total Ionization)Then

A

i

A

Nnn

Np2

≈

≈

27

Symmetric Doping

Doped semiconductor where ni

>> |ND

-NA

|

•

Increasing temperature increases the number of intrinsic carriers

•

All semiconductors become intrinsic at sufficiently high temperatures

inpn ≈≈

28

Determination of Ef

in Doped Semiconductor

iADAi

Afi

iDADi

Dif

nNNNnNkTEE

nNNNnNkTEE

>>>>⎟⎟⎠

⎞⎜⎜⎝

⎛=−

>>>>⎟⎟⎠

⎞⎜⎜⎝

⎛=−

,ln

,ln

for

for

Also, for typical semiconductors (heavily one-sided doping)

⎟⎟⎠

⎞⎜⎜⎝

⎛−=⎟⎟

⎠

⎞⎜⎜⎝

⎛=−

iiif n

pkTnnkTEE lnln [units eV]

29

Thermal Motion of Charged Particles

•

Look at drift and diffusion in silicon•

Assume 1-D motion

•

Applies to both electronic systems and biological systems

30

DriftDrift

→ Movement of charged particles in response to an external field (typically an electric field)

E

E-field applies forceF = qE

which accelerates the charged particle.

However, the particle does not accelerate indefinitely because of collisions with the lattice (velocity saturation)

Average velocity<vx

> ≈

-µn

Ex

electrons< vx

> ≈

µp

Ex

holes

µn

→ electron mobility→ empirical proportionality constant

between E and velocityµp

→ hole mobility

µn ≈

3µp

µ↓

as T↑

31

DriftDrift

→ Movement of charged particles in response to an external field (typically an electric field)

E-field applies forceF = qE

which accelerates the charged particle.

However, the particle does not accelerate indefinitely because of collisions with the lattice (velocity saturation)

Average velocity<vx

> ≈

-µn

Ex

electrons< vx

> ≈

µp

Ex

holes

µn

→ electron mobility→ empirical proportionality constant

between E and velocityµp

→ hole mobility

µn ≈

3µp

µ↓

as T↑

Current Density

qpEJ

qnEJ

pdriftp

ndriftn

μ

μ

=

=

,

,

q = 1.6×10-19

C, carrier densityn =

number of e-

p =

number of h+

32

Resistivity•

Closely related to carrier drift

•

Proportionality constant between electric field and the total particle current flow

( ) Cqpnq pn

1910602.11 −×=+

= whereμμ

ρ

n-Type Semiconductor

Dn Nqμρ 1=

p-Type Semiconductor

Ap Nqμρ 1=

•

Therefore, all semiconductor material is a resistor–

Could be parasitic (unwanted)–

Could be intentional (with proper doping) •

Typically, p-type material is more resistive than n-type material for a given amount of doping

•

Doping levels are often calculated/verified from resistivity measurements

33

DiffusionDiffusion

→ Motion of charged particles due to a concentration gradient•

Charged particles move in random directions•

Charged particles tend to move from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration (entropy –

Second Law of Thermodynamics)•

Net effect is a current flow (carriers moving from areas of high

concentration to areas of low concentration)

( )

( )dx

xdpqDJ

dxxdnqDJ

pdiffp

ndiffn

−=

=

,

,q = 1.6×10-19

C, carrier densityD =

Diffusion coefficientn(x) =

e-

density at position xp(x) =

h+

density at position x

→ The negative sign in Jp,diff

is due to moving in the opposite direction from the concentration gradient

→ The positive sign from Jn,diff

is because the negative from the e-

cancels out the negative from the concentration gradient

34

Total Current DensitiesSummation of both drift and diffusion

( )

( )

pqDqpEdx

xdpqDqpE

JJJ

nqDqnEdx

xdnqDqnE

JJJ

pp

pp

diffpdriftpp

nn

nn

diffndriftnn

∇−=

−=

+=

∇+=

+=

+=

μ

μ

μ

μ

,,

,,

pn JJJ +=Total current flow

(1 Dimension)

(3 Dimensions)

(1 Dimension)

(3 Dimensions)

35

Einstein Relation

Einstein Relation

→ Relates D

and µ

(they are not independent of each other)

qkTD

=μ

UT

= kT/q→ Thermal voltage= 25.86mV

at room temperature≈

25mV

for quick hand approximations→ Used in biological and silicon applications

36

Changes in Carrier Numbers

Primary “other”

causes for changes in carrier concentration•

Photogeneration

(light shining on semiconductor)

•

Recombination-generation

Photogeneration

Llightlight

Gtp

tn

=∂∂

=∂∂ Photogeneration

rate

Creates same # of e-

and h+

37

Changes in Carrier Numbers

nGR

pGR

ntn

ptp

τ

τ

Δ−=

∂∂

Δ−=

∂∂

−

−

Indirect Thermal Recombination-Generation

e-

in p-type material

h+

in n-type material n0

, p0 equilibrium carrier concentrationsn, p carrier concentrations under

arbitrary conditionsΔn, Δp change in # of e- or h+ from

equilibrium conditions

Assumes low-level injection

material type-p in material type-n in

00

00

,,

pppnnnnp

≈<<Δ≈<<Δ

38

Minority Carrier PropertiesMinority Carriers•

e-

in p-type material•

h+

in n-type material

Minority Carrier Lifetimes•

τn The time before minority carrier electrons undergo recombinationin p-type material•

τp The time before minority carrier holes undergo recombination in n-type material

Diffusion Lengths•

How far minority carriers will make it into “enemy territory”

if they are injected into that material

ppp

nnn

DL

DL

τ

τ

=

= for minority carrier e-

in p-type material

for minority carrier h+

in n-type material

39

Equations of State•

Putting it all together•

Carrier concentrations with respect to time (all processes)•

Spatial and time continuity equations

for carrier concentrations

)(

)(

)(

)(

1

1

lightother

GRp

lightother

GRdiffdrift

lightother

GRn

lightother

GRdiffdrift

tp

tpJ

q

tp

tp

tp

tp

tp

tn

tnJ

q

tn

tn

tn

tn

tn

∂∂

+∂∂

+⋅∇−=

∂∂

+∂∂

+∂∂

+∂∂

=∂∂

∂∂

+∂∂

+⋅∇=

∂∂

+∂∂

+∂∂

+∂∂

=∂∂

−

−

−

−

43421

43421

Current to Related

Current to Related

40

Equations of StateMinority Carrier Equations•

Continuity equations for the special case of minority carriers•

Assumes low-level injection

Ln

ppn

p Gn

xn

Dtn

+Δ

−∂

Δ∂=

∂

Δ∂

τ2

2

Light generation

Indirect thermal recombination

J, assuming no E-fieldx

JDJxnqD n

nnn ∂∂

→⋅∇∂∂

q1also and

Lp

nnn

n Gpx

pDtp

+Δ

−∂Δ∂

=∂Δ∂

τ2

2

np

, pn minority carriers in “other” type of material