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MahbhtaFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Classical Elements
vde
Babylonian
Sky
Sea Wind
Earth
Greek
Air
Water Aether Fire
Earth
Hinduism (Tattva)and
Buddhism (Mahbhta)
Vayu/Pavan(Air/Wind)
Ap/Jal(Water) Akasha(Aether/Space) Agni/Tejas(Fire)
Prithvi/Bhumi(Earth)
Chinese (Wuxing)
Wood()
Water() Fire()
Metal() Earth()
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Japanese (Godai)
Air/Wind()
Water() Void/Sky/Heaven(
)
Fire()
Earth()
Tibetan (Bn)
Air
Water Space Fire
Earth
Medieval Alchemy
Air
Water Aether Fire
Earth
Sulphur Mercury Salt
Part of aserieson
Buddhism
OutlinePortal
History
TimelineCouncils
Gautama Buddha
Disciples
Later Buddhists
DharmaorConcepts
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a.org/wiki/Aether_(classical_element)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_(classical_element)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_(classical_element)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five_elements_(Japanese_philosophy)8/13/2019 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Four Noble Truths
Dependent Origination
Impermanence
SufferingMiddle WayNon-selfEmptiness
Five Aggregates
KarmaRebirth
SamsaraCosmology
Practices
Three Jewels
PreceptsPerfections
MeditationWisdom
Noble Eightfold Path
Wings to Awakening
MonasticismLaity
irvFour StagesArhat
BuddhaBodhisattva
TraditionsCanons
TheravdaPali
MahynaChinese
VajraynaTibetan
CountriesandRegions
Related topics
Comparative studies
Cultural elements
Criticism
vde
MahbhtaisSanskritandPlifor "great element."[1]
InBuddhism,the "four great
elements" (Pali: cattro mahbhtni) are earth, water, fire and air.Hinduismadds
a fifth "great" or "gross" element: ether.
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Contents
[hide]
1 Hinduism
2 Buddhism
o 2.1 Definitions
2.1.1 Four primary elements
2.1.2 Fifth and sixth elements
o 2.2 Sensory qualities, not substances
o 2.3 Soteriological uses
2.3.1 Understanding suffering
2.3.2 Meditation object
o 2.4 Buddhist sources
3 See also
4 Notes
5 Bibliography
[edit]Hinduism
Further information:The 36 tattvas
In Hinduism's sacred literature, the "great" or "gross" elements (mahbhta) are
fivefold: space (or "ether"), air, fire, water and earth.[2]
For instance, theTaittiryaUpaniaddescribes the five "sheaths" of a person
(Sanskrit:purua), starting with the grossest level of the five evolving great
elements:
From this very self (tman)did space come into being; from space, air; from
air, fire; from fire, the waters, from the waters, the earth; from the earth,
plants; from plants, food; and from food, man.... Different from and lying within
this man formed from the essence of food is the self (tman) consisting oflifebreath.... Different from and lying within this self consisting of breath is the
self (tman) consisting of mind.... Different from and lying within this self
consisting of mind is the self (tman) consisting of perception.... Different from
and lying within this self consisting of perception is the self (tman) consisting
of bliss....[3]
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In thevetvataraUpaniad,God is identified as the source of the great
elements:
Some wise men say it is inherent nature, while others say it is time all
totally deluded. It is rather the greatness of God present in the world by
means of which this wheel ofbrahmangoes around. Who always
encompasses this whole world the knower, the architect of time, the one
without qualities, and the all-knowing one it is at his command that the
work of creation, to be conceived of as earth, water, fire, air, and space,
unfolds itself.[4]
[edit]Buddhism
In Buddhism, the four Great Elements (Pali: cattro mahbhtni) are earth,
water, fire and air. Mahbhta is generally synonymous withcatudhtu,which is Pli for the "Four Elements."
[5]In earlyBuddhism,the Four
Elements are a basis for understanding and for liberating oneself from
suffering. They are categories used to relate to the sensible physical world,
and are conceived of not as substances, but as sensorial qualities.[6]
[edit]Definitions
In thePali canon,[7]
the most basic elements are usually identified as four in
number but, on occasion, a fifth and, to an even lesser extent, a sixth
element may be also be identified.
[edit]Four primary elements
In canonical texts, the four Great Elements refer to elements that are both
"external" (that is, outside the body, such as a river) and "internal" (that is,
of the body, such as blood). These elements are described as follows:
Earth element(pahav-dhtu)
Internal earth elements include head hair, body hair, nails, teeth, skin,
flesh, sinews, bone, organs, intestinal material, etc.[8]
Water (or liquid) element(po-dhtu)
Internal water elements include bile, phlegm, pus, blood, sweat, fat,
tears, nasal mucus, urine, etc.[9]
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Fire element(tejo-dhtu)
Internal fire elements include those bodily mechanisms that produce
physical warmth, aging, digestion, etc.
Air (or wind) element(vyo-dhtu)Internal air elements includes air associated with the pulmonary system
(for example, for breathing), the intestinal system ("winds in the belly
and ... bowels"), etc.
These four elements are described as "primary" or "underived" (no-upd)
matter (rpa), meaning that they cannot be analyzed into further atomistic
units. While underived, this does not mean that they are
"unconditioned."[10]
Thus, for instance, according to the 5thc.
CEcommentarialVisuddhimagga,"as to the proximate cause, each[element] has the other three as its proximate cause."
[11]
[edit]Fifth and sixth elements
In addition to the above four elements of underived matter, two other
elements are occasionally found in the Pali Canon:[12]
Space element(ksa-dhtu)
Internal space elements includes bodily orifices such as the ears,
nostrils, mouth, anus, etc.
Consciousness element(via-dhtu)
Described as "pure and bright" (parisuddhapariyodta), used to
cognize the three feelings (vedana)of pleasure, pain and neither-
pleasure-nor-pain, and the arising and passing of the sense contact
(phassa)upon which these feelings are dependent.
According to theAbhidhamma Pitaka,the "space element" is identified as
"secondary" or "derived" (upd).[13]
[edit]Sensory qualities, not substances
Rpa(matter) means both materiality and sensibilityit signifies, for
example, a tactile object both insofar as that object is tactile and that it can
be sensed. Rpa is never a materiality which can be separated or isolated
from cognizance; such a non-empirical category is incongruous in the
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context of early Buddhism. Rpa is not a substratum or substance which
has sensibility as a property. It functions in early Buddhist thought as
perceivable physicality. Matter, or rpa, is defined in terms of its function;
what it does, not what it is.[14]
As such, the four great elements are
conceptual abstractions drawn from the sensorium. They are sensorial
typologies, and are not metaphysically materialistic.[15]
They are not meant
to give an account of matter as constitutive of external, mind-independent
reality.[16]
[edit]Soteriological uses
The Four Elements are used inBuddhisttexts to both elucidate the concept
of suffering (dukkha)and as an object of meditation. The earliest Buddhist
texts explain that the four primary material elements are the sensory
qualities solidity, fluidity, temperature, and mobility; their characterization as
earth, water, fire, and air, respectively, is declared an abstractioninstead
of concentrating on the fact of material existence, one observes how a
physical thing is sensed, felt, perceived.[17]
[edit]Understanding suffering
The Four Elements pertinence to the Buddhist notion of suffering comes
about due to:
The Four Elements are the primary component of "form" (rpa).
"Form" is first category of the "Five Aggregates" (khandhas).
The Five Aggregates are the ultimate basis for suffering (dukkha) in the
"Four Noble Truths."
Schematically, this can be represented in reverse order as:
Four Noble Truths Suffering Aggregates Form Four Elements
Thus, to deeply understand the Buddha's Four Noble
Truths, it is beneficial to have an understanding of the
Great Elements.
[edit]Meditation object
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In theMahasatipatthana Sutta("The Greater Discourse on
the Foundations of Mindfulness,"DN22), in listing various
bodily meditation techniques, theBuddhainstructs:
"...Just as if a skilled butcher or his assistant, having slaughtered a cow, were
to sit at a crossroads with the carcass divided into portions, so a monk
reviews this very body ... in terms of the elements: 'There are in this body the
earth-element, the water-element, the fire-element, the air-element.' So he
abides contemplating body as body internally...."[18]
In the Visuddhimagga's well-known list of forty
meditation objects (kammahna), the great elements
are listed as the first four objects.
B. Alan Wallacecompares the Theravada meditative
practice of "attending to the emblem of
consciousness" to the practice
inMahamudraandDzogchenof "maintaining the
mind upon non-conceptuality", which is also aimed at
focusing on the nature of consciousness.[19]
[edit]Buddhist sources
In thePali canon,the Four Elements are described in
detail in the following discourses (sutta):
Mahahatthipadompama Sutta ("The Greater
Discourse on the Simile of the Elephant's
Footprint,"MN28)[20]
Maharahulovada Sutta ("The Greater Discourse of
Advice to Rahula," MN 62)[21]
Dhatuvibhanga Sutta ("The Exposition of the
Elements," MN 140)[22]
The Four Elements are also referenced in:
Kevaddha Sutta (DN11)[23]
Mahasatipatthana Sutta(DN 22)
Satipatthana Sutta(MN10)
Chabbisodhana Sutta (MN 112)
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Bahudhatuka Sutta (MN 115)
Kayagatasati Sutta (MN 119)[24]
Anathapindikovada Sutta (MN 143)[25]
Catudhatu-vaggo (SNch. 14, subch. IV), several
discourses[26]
Saddhammapatirupaka Sutta (SN 16.13)[27]
Bija Sutta (SN 22.54)[28]
Asivisa Sutta (SN 35.197 or 35.238)[29]
Kimsuka Sutta (SN 35.204 or 35.245)[30]
Dutiya-mittamacca Sutta (SN 55.17)[31]
various briefSamyutta Nikayadiscourses entitled,
"Dhatu Sutta" (SN 18.9,[32]
SN 25.9,[33]
SN
26.9,[34]SN 27.9[35])
Tittha Sutta (AN3.61)[36]
Nivesaka Sutta (AN 3.75)
Rahula Sutta (AN 4.177)
In addition, the Visuddhimagga XI.27ffhas an
extensive discussion of the Four Elements.[37]
Bhtais aSanskritword that has several meanings:
true, matter of fact, reality, (that which is or has been) existing, present, being or
being like anything, consisting of, mixed or joined with
Bhootcan refer to the ghost of a deceased person or a bodilessspiritin
theIndian subcontinent
of an heretical sect (withJainas,a class of the Vyantaras)
the 14th day of the dark half of the lunar month
the lived world (bhtajagata)
well-being, welfare, prosperity
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InHindu philosophyandBuddhism,bhtadenotes aclassical element.The five
elements:Akasha,Vayu,Agni,Ap,andPrithvi(in the same order) constitute
thePancha Mahabhutas(five great elements).
Pishacha
Pishachasare flesh eatingdemons,according to Hindu mythology.Their origin is
obscure, although some believe that they were created byBrahma.Another legend
describes them as the sons of either Krodha (aSanskritword meaning anger) or
ofDakshas daughterPishacha. They have been described to have a darkcomplexion with bulging veins and protruding, red eyes. They are believed to have
their own language, which is called Paishachi.
They like darkness and haunt cremation grounds along with other demons
likeBhutas(meaningghosts)andVetals.Pishachas have the power to assume
different forms at will, and may also become invisible. Sometimes, they possess
human beings, and the victims are afflicted with a variety of maladies and
abnormalities like insanity. Certainmantrasare supposed to cure such afflicted
persons, and drive away the Pishacha which may be possessing that particular
human being. In order to keep the Pishachas away, they are given their share of
offerings during certain religious functions and festivals.
VetalaFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article may containoriginal research.Pleaseimproveitbyverifyingthe claims made and addingreferences.Statements
consisting only of original research may be removed. More details
may be available on thetalk page.(July 2009)
A vetala(Sanskrit vetla or ) is a ghost-like being fromHindu mythology.The
vetala are defined as spirits inhabiting corpses andcharnel grounds.These corpses
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may be used as vehicles for movement (as they no longer decay while so inhabited);
but a vetala may also leave the body at will.
Gray (undated: c2009) provides an excellent survey of chthonic charnel ground
accoutrement motif such as skull imagery in the textual tradition of theYogini
tantrasand discusses 'vetala' (Sanskrit).[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 General Description
2 Notes
3 See also
4 References
[edit]General Description
In Hindu folklore, the vetala is an evil spirit who haunts cemeteries and
takesdemonic possessionof corpses. They make their displeasure known by
troubling humans. They can drive people mad, kill children, and cause miscarriages,
but also guard villages.
They are hostile spirits of the dead trapped in the 'twilight zone' between life
andafterlife.These creatures can be repelled by the chanting of holymantras.Onecan free them from their ghostly existence by performing their funerary rites. Being
unaffected by the laws of space and time, they have an uncanny knowledge about
the past, present, and future and a deep insight into human nature. Therefore many
sorcerers seek to capture them and turn them into slaves.
Asorcereronce asked KingVikramadityato capture a vetala who lived in a tree that
stood in the middle of a crematorium. The only way to do that was by keeping silent.
Every time Vikramaditya caught the vetala, the vetala would enchant the king with a
story that would end with a question. No matter how hard he tried, Vikramadityawould not be able to resist answering the question. This would enable the vetala to
escape and return to his tree. The stories of the vetala have been compiled in the
bookBaital Pachisi.
There is also a strong Vetala cult in the Konkan region, under the names of Betal,
Vetal, etc. It seems, however, that the relation between the literary Vetala and this
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demigod's is feeble at best. There is a Shree Betal temple ( ) in Amona, Goa.
Vetal is the worshipper (or sevak) of KalBhairav and is the head of all spirits and
ghouls and vampires and all kinds of pisachas. He has another form which is a more
potent and fiery form, that of Agni Vetal who is the sevak of none other than Kalika.
Lord Agnivetal has flames on his head and controls fire. He is also known as Agya
Vetal. Agnivetal is used by Tantriks to perform evil black magic on people. But it isn't
Lord Agnivetal's fault because the Tantriks misuse the powers given to them on
propitiating Agnivetal(rather his Daityas which are at his feet-they are the ones who
accept the blood sacrifices).
Vetal HillFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Vetal Hill
Vetal Hill
Elevation 2,600 ft (792 m)
Location
Location Pune,Maharashtra,India
Range Western Ghats
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Vetal Hill (Marathi:) is a prominent hill in the city limits ofPune,India.
The hill is the highest point within the city limits, with an elevation of 2600 ft. There is
a temple ofVetalalocated on the top of the hill from which the hill derives its name.
The place is an excellent getaway from the hustle and bustle of the city and provides
a great morning trek location for the weekends. One can view the whole of Pune
from the top in a clear day.
Contents
[hide]
1 Location and Physiography
2 Climate
3 Flora
4 The Hill Today
[edit]Location and Physiography
Vetal Tekdi is prominent and is visible fromPashan,Panchavati,Chaturshringiand
other parts of the city. It is located nearChatushringi,nearPune University.It has
two spurs, Fergussen College Hill andChaturshringi Hill.
Vetal Hill spreads over an area of 10.5 square kilometres (4.1 sq mi).
[edit]Climate
A small forest fire in a hot summer day in Vetal Tekdi
Summers are hot and dry on the hill. The onset ofMonsooncauses clouds to form
over the summit of the hill, causing zero-visibility in the summit. Winter days are cool
and foggy.
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The area shares almost same climatic conditions as that of Pune in the rest of the
time.
[edit]Flora
The forest type in this area is dry-deciduousas that of hills around Pune. Medium
sized trees along with shrubs constitute majority of the vegetation. Diversity of
herbaceous species is at its peak in monsoon months. Some parasites
like Dendropthoe, Strigaare also reported in the area. One important characteristic
of the area is total absent of epiphytic species. Detailed Floristic Study of Vetal Hill
was carried out by V. N. Joshi and M. S. Kumbhojakar of Agharkar Research
Institute, Pune in 1997. They enumerated occurrence of 416 species of angiosperms
belonging to 101 families, 2 pteridophytes and one Bryophyte.
Much before Joshi and Kumbhojkars work, ecological survey of the hill wasconducted by Ezekiel around 1917-1918. Joshi, Kumbhojkar and Kulkarni in their
work on changing floristic pattern of Vetal hill (1992) reported absence of 30 species
which were reported by Ezekiel.
The dominant plant community in the area is Boswellia serrata-Anogeissus latifolia.
Other dominant members of this area are Dalbergia lanceolaria,Acacia
chundra, Dolichandrone falcata,Albizzia procera, Capparis grandis. Some
herbaceous and shrubby weeds which are now naturalized in the area
include Tridax procumbens, Lagascea moollis, Cassia uniflora,Lantana camara.Plantation of some exotic species like Gliricidia sepium,Leucaena leucocephalahas
been undertaken by forest department. Dalbergia melanoxylonis one interesting
example for spread of exotic species. This species was planted by Britishers in Pune
University area. This species was totally absent on other areas of Pune. Recently
however, the species is observed to be spreading in and around the area of the
Vetal Hill, and is on the verge of becoming dominant species there.
The area is important on account of the occurrence of some important endemic
species. Some examples of the endemic species found here are Jatrophanana,Cissus woodrowii, Mussanda laxa, Indoneesiella echioides, etc.
[edit]The Hill Today
During the last few years the area has been subjected to various stresses of
anthropogenic activities. Plantation of exotic species by forest department, urban
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development, tree cutting are few of them. Many aforestration programs have been
undertaken either byPune Municipal Corporationor by state forest Department have
resulted in growth of many ornamental and exotic species. This has affected in
some or other way on the natural vegetation of the hill. A new road
connectingBalbharatiandPaud Phatais proposed so as to decrease traffic pressure
inNal StopChowk. The road will cut across a nearly two kilometre patch of forest on
vetal hill, cutting close to ten thousand fully matured and grown trees. The proposed
bypass will bring automobile pollution, noise and congestion into the heart of a green
area at the foot and lower ridge of the Vetal hill. This is a catastrophic proposal and
will destroy one of the last virgin green areas left in Pune.
Several citizen groups and activists have opposed the proposal. Twelve NGOs
recently wrote a letter to the PMC opposing the road.A blogand an online petition
was promoted to stop the construction of the road.Nagrik Chetana Manchhas goneto the Mumbai high Court in a PIL and the HC has stayed the construction of the
road. Due to increased urbanization and increased population the biotic pressure in
the form of cutting of trees has increased on forest of Vetal Hill.ARAIis located in
vetal hills.
AsurasOriginally,Asura, in the earliest hymns of theRig Veda,meant any supernatural
spirit, both good and bad. Since the /s/ of the Indic linguistic branch is cognate with
the /h/ of the Early Iranian languages, the word Asura, representing a category of
celestial beings, became the word Ahura (Mazda), the Supreme God of the
monotheisticZoroastrians.Ancient Hinduism tells thatDevasandAsurasare half-
brothers, sons of the same father Kasyapa; but some of the devas, likeVaruna,are
also named Asuras. But much later at puranic ageAsura(alsoRakshasa)came to
exclusively mean any of a race of anthropomorphic, powerful, possibly evil beings.
All words such as Asura, Daitya (lit., sons of the mother "Diti"), Rakshasa (lit. from
"harm to be guarded against") are incorrectly translated into English as demon. A
dominant depiction of Asuras is someone who is in constant battle with devas, their
half-brothers, to establish supremacy and to secure immortality[citation needed]
. Both
asuras and devas are as much bound by theirkarmasas humans[citation needed]
. Asuras
do accept and worship the Gods, particularly the Hindu triumvirate; some of the
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rakshasas likeRavanaandMahabaliare exemplary devotees. Often the strife
between the asuras and the devas is simply a political one: devas are the ordained
maintainers of the realms with power (and immortality) accorded to them by the
gods and asuras ever strive to attain both. Asuras usually attain or enhance their
supernatural powers through penance to gods and waging war on devas using
powers thus attained. Unlike Christian notion of demons, asuras are not the cause of
the evil and unhappiness in mankind (unhappiness in humans, according
toHinduismis by one's own actions (Karma)and/or due to the continued ignorance
ofBrahman,the unchanging reality. Asuras, if any, are cogs in the wheel of Karma);
they are not fundamentally against the Gods, nor do they tempt humans to fall. In
fact, asuras, much like devas, do worship the Gods of Hinduism: many Asuras are
said to have been granted boons from one of the members of the Hindutrinity,
viz.,Brahma,VishnuandShivawhen the latter had been appeased from theirpenances. This is markedly different from the traditional Western notions of demons
as a rival army of God. In Hindu mythology, pious, highly enlightened asuras,
likePrahladaandVibheeshana,are not at all uncommon. Prahlada even said to
have secured enlightenment to his entire lineage (of asuras). All Asuras, unlike the
devas, are said to have born mortals (though they ever strive to become immortal).
Many people metaphorically interpret asuras as manifestations of the ignoble
passions in human mind and as a symbolic device. There were also cases of power-
hungry asuras challenging various aspects of Gods, but only to be defeated
eventually and seek forgivenessseeSurapadman,Narakasura.
[edit]Evil spirits
Hinduism advocates the theory of reincarnation and transmigration of souls
according to one'sKarma.Souls (Atman)of the dead are adjudged by theYamaand
are accorded various purging punishments before being reborn. Humans that have
committed extraordinary wrongs are condemned to roam as lonely, often evil, spirits
for a length of time before being reborn. Many kinds of such spirits
(Vetalas,Pishachas,Bhta)are recognized in the later Hindu texts. These beings, in
a limited sense, can be called demons.
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