ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIORORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR
Foundations of Individual Behavior
CH: 2CH: 2
2–2
Biographical CharacteristicsBiographical Characteristics
Biographical Factors:
Age
Gender
Marital Status
Tenure
Biographical CharacteristicsPersonal characteristics—such as age, gender, and marital status, tenure—that are objective and easily obtained from personnel records.
2–3
Ability, Intellect, and IntelligenceAbility, Intellect, and Intelligence
AbilityAn individual’s capacity to perform the various tasks in a job.
1. Intellectual AbilityThe capacity to do mental activities.
2–4
Parameters of Intellectual AbilityParameters of Intellectual Ability
Dimension Description Job Example
Number Aptitude
Verbal Comprehension
Perceptual Speed
Inductive Reasoning
Deductive Reasoning
Rapid visualization
Memory
Ability to do speedy and accurate arithmetic.
Ability to understand what is read or heard and the relationship of words to each other.
Ability to identify visual similarities and differences quickly and accurately.
Ability to identify a logical sequence in a problem and them solve the problem.
Ability to use logical and assess the implication of an argument
Ability to imagine how an object would look if its position in space were changed
Ability to retain and recall past experiences
Accountant: Computing the sales tax on a set of items.
Plant manger: Following corporate policies
Fire investigator: Identifying clues to support a charge of arson.
Market Researcher: Forecasting demand for a product in the next time period.
Supervisor: Choosing between two different suggestions offered by employee.
Interior decorator: Redecorating an office.
Salesperson: Remembering the names of customers.
2–5
2. Physical Abilities2. Physical Abilities
The capacity to do tasks demanding stamina, dexterity, strength, and similar characteristics.
2–6
Parameters of Physical AbilitiesParameters of Physical Abilities
Strength Factors
1. Dynamic Strength
2. Trunk Strength
3. Static Strength
4. Explosive strength
Ability to exert muscular force repeatedly or continuously over time
Ability to exert muscular strength using the trunk (particularly abdominal) muscles
Ability to exert force against external objects
Ability to expend a maximum of energy in one or a series of explosive acts
Flexibility Factors
5. Extent flexibility
6. Dynamic Flexibility
Ability to move the trunk and back muscles as far as possible
Ability to make rapid, repeated flexing movements
2–7
Parameters of Physical AbilitiesParameters of Physical Abilities
Other Factors
7. Body Coordination
8. Balance
9. Stamina
Ability to coordinate the simultaneous actions of different parts of the body
Ability to maintain equilibrium deposit forces pulling off balance
Ability to continue maximum effort requiring prolonged effort over time
2–8
LearningLearning
Learning• Involves change
• Is relatively permanent
• Is acquired through experience
Learning• Involves change
• Is relatively permanent
• Is acquired through experience
Any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience.
2–9
Theories of LearningTheories of Learning
Key Concepts
• Unconditioned stimulus
• Unconditioned response
• Conditioned stimulus
• Conditioned response
Key Concepts
• Unconditioned stimulus
• Unconditioned response
• Conditioned stimulus
• Conditioned response
Classical Conditioning
A type of conditioning in which an individual responds to some stimulus that would not ordinarily produce such a response.
2–10
Theories of Learning (cont’d)Theories of Learning (cont’d)
Key Concepts
• Reflexive (unlearned) behavior
• Conditioned (learned) behavior
• Reinforcement
Key Concepts
• Reflexive (unlearned) behavior
• Conditioned (learned) behavior
• Reinforcement
Operant Conditioning
A type of conditioning in which desired voluntary behavior leads to a reward or prevents a punishment.
2–11
Theories of Learning (cont’d)Theories of Learning (cont’d)
Key Concepts
• Attentional processes
• Retention processes
• Motor reproduction processes
• Reinforcement processes
Key Concepts
• Attentional processes
• Retention processes
• Motor reproduction processes
• Reinforcement processes
Social-Learning Theory
People can learn through observation and direct experience.
2–12
Theories of Learning (cont’d)Theories of Learning (cont’d)
Key Concepts
• Reinforcement is required to change behavior.
• Some rewards are more effective than others.
• The timing of reinforcement affects learning speed and performance.
Key Concepts
• Reinforcement is required to change behavior.
• Some rewards are more effective than others.
• The timing of reinforcement affects learning speed and performance.
Shaping Behavior
Systematically reinforcing each successive step that moves an individual closer to the desired response.
2–13
Types of ReinforcementTypes of Reinforcement
Positive reinforcementProviding a reward for a desired behavior.
Negative reinforcementRemoving an unpleasant consequence when the desired behavior occurs.
PunishmentApplying an undesirable condition to
eliminate an undesirable behavior.
ExtinctionWithholding reinforcement of a behavior to
cause its cessation .
2–14
Schedules of ReinforcementSchedules of Reinforcement
Continuous Reinforcement
A desired behavior is reinforced each time it is demonstrated.
Intermittent Reinforcement
A desired behavior is reinforced often enough to make the behavior worth repeating but not every time it is demonstrated.
2–15
Schedules of Reinforcement (cont’d)Schedules of Reinforcement (cont’d)
Fixed-Interval Schedule
Rewards are spaced at uniform time intervals.
Variable-Interval Schedule
Rewards are initiated after a fixed or constant number of responses.
2–16
Schedules of ReinforcementSchedules of Reinforcement
ExampleNature of
Reinforcement Effect on Behavior
Reinforcement Schedule
Continuous
Fixed-interval
Variable-interval
Fixed-ratio
Variable-ratio
Reward given after each desired behavior
Reward given at fixed time intervals
Reward given at variable times
Reward given at fixed amounts of output
Reward given at variable amounts of output
Fast learning of new behavior but rapid extinction
Average and irregular performance with rapid extinction
Moderately high and stable performance with slow extinction
High and stable performance attained quickly but also with rapid extinction
Very high performance with slow extinction
Compliments
Weekly paychecks
Pop quizzes
Piece-rate pay
Commissioned Sales
2–17
Behavior ModificationBehavior Modification
Five Step Problem-Solving Model
1. Identify critical behaviors
2. Develop baseline data
3. Identify behavioral consequences
4. Develop and apply intervention
5. Evaluate performance improvement
Five Step Problem-Solving Model
1. Identify critical behaviors
2. Develop baseline data
3. Identify behavioral consequences
4. Develop and apply intervention
5. Evaluate performance improvement
OB Mod
The application of reinforcement concepts to individuals in the work setting.
2–18
OB MOD Organizational ApplicationsOB MOD Organizational Applications
Well Pay versus Sick PayReduces absenteeism by rewarding attendance, not absence.
Employee DisciplineThe use of punishment can be counter-productive.
Developing Training ProgramsOB MOD methods improve training effectiveness.
Self-managementReduces the need for external management control.
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