Nova Scotia Practitioner Training
and Certification Program
Practitioner’s Handbook
for the Communication Modules:
The Beginning Reader: Basics (COM BR)
Techniques for Teaching Reading, Writing and Spelling (COM RWS)
Communications: Learners in Transition (COM LT)
Literacy Nova Scotia
Truro, Nova Scotia
Copyright © 2010 Literacy Nova Scotia
Literacy Nova Scotia
PO Box 1516
Truro NS B2N 5V2
Tel.: 902.897.2444
Fax: 902.897.4020
E-mail: [email protected]
All rights reserved. This publication can be reproduced in whole or in part with the
written permission of Literacy Nova Scotia. To gain this permission, please contact:
These materials are to be used solely for non-commercial purposes.
This publication is available electronically on Literacy Nova Scotia’s website at
www.ns.literacy.ca
Acknowledgements
Literacy Nova Scotia wishes to acknowledge and thank the following for their
contributions:
1) The Office of Literacy and Essential Skills (HRSDC) for funding this project.
2) The Department of Labour and Workforce Development, Adult Education
Division; Nova Scotia Community College; Nova Scotia Provincial Library;
National Adult Literacy Database for their support and partnership.
3) The members of the Project Work Group who provided valuable input during the
development of the program and the comments and feedback during revisions:
Allan Banks
Avril Lewis
Donna MacGillivray
Julie Nickerson
Catherine Wile
4) The members of the Project Advisory Group who provided valuable advice for
the project and the comments and feedback to complete this report:
Ann Marie Downie - Literacy Nova Scotia
Marlene Duckworth – Queens County Learning Network
Peter Gillis -Valley Community Learning Association
Meredith Hutchings -Department of Labour and Workforce Development
Earl Letts – National Adult Literacy Database
Nova Scotia Provincial Library
David Pilmer- Department of Labour and Workforce Development
Mel Pothier -Nova Scotia Community College
Grail Sangster-Guysborough County Adult Learning Association
Lynne Wells-Orchard- Department of Labour and Workforce Development
5) Those who took part in the piloting of the program and provided valuable
feedback: Matt Taylor, Andrea Manthorne, Patricia Cloutier, André Davey,
Shannon Davis, Carollynne Nemecek, Hannah Mills, Kirsteen Thompson,
Jennifer Steeves, Brenda Lavandier, Donna Casey, Pam O’Neil, Tracey Grosse,
Jane Bolivar, Valerie Cheel, Pat Robinson, Sue Balkam, Dale Taylor, Bonnie
Boivin, Gayle Morrison; as well as their network and regional Adult Education
coordinators
6) The project team – Jayne Hunter, Program Manager; Kate Nonesuch, Curriculum
Writer; Elaine Frampton, IT Specialist; and Gary Mason, Pilot Facilitator.
Contents
Introduction ............................................................................................................1
Section 1: Teaching Literacy Skills ......................................................................3
Introduction .................................................................................................................... 3
Using Authentic Materials .............................................................................................. 4
Moving Instruction Out of the Classroom ...................................................................... 6
Metacognition (Learning about Learning) ...................................................................... 8
Assessment ...................................................................................................................... 9
Automaticity ................................................................................................................. 10
Standard English ........................................................................................................... 11
Section 2: Teaching Techniques .........................................................................15
Teaching Techniques: General ................................................................................... 15
Brainstorm and Mind Map .................................................................................................... 15
Using Other Graphic Organizers ........................................................................................... 18
Marking for Confidence ........................................................................................................ 22
The Think-Aloud .................................................................................................................. 28
Teaching Techniques: Reading ................................................................................... 29
Assisted Reading ................................................................................................................... 29
Assignment: Read a Book a Week ........................................................................................ 30
Book Talk.............................................................................................................................. 31
Choosing a Book by Its Cover .............................................................................................. 31
Choral Reading ..................................................................................................................... 32
Cloze ..................................................................................................................................... 33
Sequencing ............................................................................................................................ 35
Quest/Request ....................................................................................................................... 36
Teaching Techniques: Writing .................................................................................... 38
The Writing Process: Think, Write, Edit, Proofread ............................................................. 38
Language Experience Approach (LEA) ................................................................................ 40
Proofreading Strategies ......................................................................................................... 42
Written Conversation ............................................................................................................ 46
Journals ................................................................................................................................. 48
Timed Writings ..................................................................................................................... 50
Teaching Techniques: Spelling ................................................................................... 52
The Blackboard in Your Mind .............................................................................................. 52
Pattern Spelling ..................................................................................................................... 53
Personal Dictionary ............................................................................................................... 58
Teaching Grammar and Punctuation ......................................................................... 59
References .............................................................................................................60
Practitioner’s Handbook for the Communications Modules 1
There is an attitudinal shift that
occurs with learners, and it was
expressed to me this way by a learner
who came in with low Level I skills and
has gone on, I believe, to Level III
over a number of years and has been
an award winner. When I was working
with him, he told me, "I was standing
pumping gas, looking around at all the
signs around me at the Gas Station. It
struck me like a bolt that I was
reading everything. It was like I
had never even noticed the signs
before. At that point, I knew that I
was a reader."
Avril
Introduction This manual will provide background reading as you work on any or all of the
communications modules in the Nova Scotia Practitioner Training Program, and will be a
useful reference as you work with learners on reading, writing, listening, and speaking
skills from Level I to Level III.
Section 1 of this manual discusses some general issues facing instructors and tutors, and
some guidelines for making your work successful. However, the bulk of the manual is
Section 2, a collection of teaching strategies for use with learners. Detailed instructions
for these strategies are given. They can be modified for use with learners at any of the
levels and for use with groups of learners or a single learner; suggestions are included to
help you make those modifications. As a further aid, look in the online Teaching
Toolbox, http://alt.ns.literacy.ca/course/view.php?id=29 a collection of videos in which
literacy practitioners talk about or demonstrate many of the strategies.
The Learners in the Adult Learning Program
Learners in community literacy programs may say they have trouble reading long words,
or that they can‘t figure out the forms they need at work; many say that they can read the
words, but after they are finished reading,
they can‘t say what it was all about. They
often have inaccurate ideas about what
reading is, or about how good readers read.
For example, they may believe that good
readers know every word, that they never
substitute one word for another, that they
never guess about the meaning of a word or
a sentence, or that they never skip
something they don‘t understand and go
back to it later.
Most adult learners in Level I can read some
words, or some familiar material, but they
may believe they can‘t read, especially if
they have some of the inaccurate beliefs
about reading mentioned above. They may
think that if they cannot read perfectly it
isn't worth doing at all. They may have bad
memories about reading that are associated
with feelings of failure and shame, and so
avoid it altogether. Some have developed
ways of coping that let them avoid reading. For example, some have a family member or
friend who does all the reading for them. Others rely on a quick wit and a good memory.
As a practitioner, one of the first things you‘ll want to do is to help your learners realize
that they are readers—readers who want to become better readers.
2 Practitioner’s Handbook for the Communications Modules
Learners who come into the program at Level II do more reading in their lives—they may
know how to deal with forms of print that are familiar, for example, a form at work that
they use everyday, or consent forms and other material that comes from their children‘s
school, or some of the features of their community newspaper. They also often have
inaccurate ideas about reading, and need help recognizing their strengths and
understanding the particular skills that good readers use.
Similarly, learners at Levels I and II will often write little or nothing at first. They may
want you to write for them, even though they may be capable of writing their own stories.
The complexity of the writing task, and the fear of being ridiculed or having their many
mistakes pointed out to them, may lead them to say they ―can‘t write.‖ It is fortunate that
they come to community programs with so many hidden abilities, because it is easier to
bring these hidden abilities into the light than to teach skills that are truly not there.
Many Level I and II learners will want to use their growing literacy skills to meet their
needs and goals outside the school setting—to be good role models to help their kids stay
in school; to help their kids with schoolwork; to find a job or sharpen the skills needed to
maintain their current job; and to take part in community activities that meet their
political, recreational and civic interests. The work they do in a literacy program will
support these aims.
Other learners, however, will use their literacy work in Levels I and II to go on to Level
III and to qualify for further training; they will want to develop literacy skills that will
help them succeed as students in whatever further education they embark upon. We can
call them ―transitional learners‖ because for them, the work they do in a community
program is a means to further education. For these transitional learners, beginning
sometime in Level II and continuing in Level III, there is a sharper focus on the kinds of
communications tasks undertaken by students—using text books, writing essays, taking
notes and making formal presentations.
Whatever the level or the goal of learners in the Adult Learning Program, the skills
needed for reading, writing, listening and talking are similar, but the content need not be
the same; instructors and tutors can vary the material they use to teach the basic skills
depending on the ability, interests and goals of the learners they work with. This
flexibility of content and the ability of literacy practitioners to tailor the program to suit
the needs of the learners is a major strength of the Adult Literacy Program.
Practitioner’s Handbook for the Communications Modules 3
Section 1: Teaching Literacy Skills
Introduction
Pat Campbell, a well-known and respected Canadian expert on teaching reading to adults,
has articulated a set of basic principles for working with beginning readers in her book
Teaching Reading to Adults. We can extend these principles to apply also to teaching the
other communication skills.
Principles for Teaching Adult Beginning Readers
1. Instruction is linked to assessment.
2. Instruction includes discussion about the student‘s conceptual understanding of
reading.
3. Instruction builds upon the student‘s expectations and intentions.
4. Reading instruction is integrated and balanced.
5. Students are expected to take responsibility and ownership of their learning, and
educators to provide opportunities for them to do so.
6. The instruction program responds to the needs of each individual student.
7. Instruction emphasizes the student‘s knowledge.
8. When needed, phonics instruction is integrated into lessons.
9. Reading material is relevant and authentic.
10. Opportunities are provided for interactive learning
(Campbell, 2003, pp 25, following).
You will notice the similarity between these principles and the principles of adult
learning which are stated in the introductions to curriculum guides for the NSSAL
courses, and which are examined in detail in other modules of this program. You will see
these principles at the base of everything in this manual.
But before we get to specific teaching strategies in Section 2 of this Handbook, there are
some general points to consider, either because they present particular difficulties in
execution, or because they should be considered in relation to all the strategies in Section
2. These considerations are: the difficulties that go with the joys of using authentic
materials; the importance of making learning relevant outside the classroom; the issue of
standard English; and the importance of learning about learning (metacognition).
4 Practitioner’s Handbook for the Communications Modules
Using Authentic Materials
Authentic materials are things that would be read/watched/listened to by adults in the
normal course of their lives outside of a school context. They include menus; signs and
billboards; newspapers and magazines; diagrams, patterns and forms (such as score
sheets) related to hobbies and sports; work-related documents; books, TV and radio; and
computer programs and the internet.
In real life, such materials are interesting (or not) in themselves, and are used for a
purpose that comes from inside the reader, not from a teacher or tutor. For example, a
newspaper article does not come with a set of comprehension questions. You read it
thoroughly because it is interesting or has information you want, or you skim it or skip it
because it does not answer your needs.
Authentic materials are connected to other authentic materials, and build on previous
knowledge and experience. The story in today‘s paper is easier to read if you read the
story about the same topic in yesterday‘s paper and watched the news on TV last night.
The article about soccer in the sports magazine is easier to read if you actually play or
watch the game. The knitting pattern for the complicated sweater is easier to read if you
started by following patterns for scarves and hats and simple sweaters.
When adult learners use authentic materials, they join the club of readers and writers.
They can recognize their own increasing skill; they don‘t have to wait to have their paper
marked to know they are making progress. Both the progress and their own awareness of
the progress increase their self-esteem and confidence.
Literacy programs, however, usually take place in a classroom or at a time and place
designated as ―school.‖ Traditionally, school does not use authentic materials. Everything
goes by levels and stages. Instead of going through your day solving problems, you do
math in one period, reading in another. In science the world gets parceled up into
chapters, with vocabulary lists and comprehension questions. When you write a letter as
an assignment, you get feedback on grammar and form, rather than waiting to see the
effect your letter has on the person you wrote to.
Learners and instructors and tutors and administrators all know what school looks like
from their years in elementary and high schools, and many of us feel comfortable in that
situation. We know where we stand. As instructors and tutors we may have faith in
worksheets and textbooks as a way of teaching skills. We like the feedback we get from
pencil and paper tests, because it is easy to tell if we have done our job well. Funders and
administrators like to count the number of levels successfully completed, because we
want to know we are getting our money‘s worth from the program. Learners know how
the system works; although they may have found it demoralizing, humiliating and boring,
and may blame themselves for failing in that system earlier in their lives, they come back
to school to ―work harder‖ and succeed at it this time.
Resistance to Using Authentic Materials
So when you try to take your literacy program out of the classroom, when you try to use
authentic materials, when you invite the learners to take control over and responsibility
Practitioner’s Handbook for the Communications Modules 5
for their learning, you will meet resistance. Resistance from the learner, resistance from
inside yourself, and perhaps resistance from administration and from funders.
There are frequent discussions about dealing with resistance from learners in the modules
of this practitioner training course. Giving learners control over their learning and
inviting them to think about how they learn best are two tactics which, valuable in
themselves, also have the effect of diminishing some automatic resistance from learners
to learning in a way they are not used to and not expecting when they come back to
school. However, as you plan and prepare for teaching communication skills, you will
have to lead the way to using authentic materials and shifting the balance of power from
teacher to learner. To do so, you may have to overcome your own resistance. You may
have to talk back to the voices in your head.
Dealing with Your Own Resistance
As you move to teaching or tutoring using authentic material, to giving responsibility for
decision making to learners, and to using literacy skills in real life situations, you may
hear your own resistance in your mind. Here are some ways to talk back to that inner
voice that is getting in your way.
The inner voice …. The reply…
This is not ―real school‖… It doesn‘t look like real school, but it is real
learning!
There is so much material to cover, you
don‘t have time for these ―frills.‖
I don‘t think this project is a ―frill‖!
Planning and working together are
important skills for life and work, and
organizing a community event involves real
reading, writing, listening and speaking.
The real life aspect increases learners‘
motivation to get things right, and when we
evaluate the program after it‘s over, they
can see how much they have learned.
It‘s too much work to throw all your old
plans out the window and start again—and
it probably won‘t work anyway.
I‘ll start small, with one tiny authentic
activity, next week.
These new methods will not help learners
pass the exam.
They can‘t hurt.
You‘re the only one making these changes.
Why do you have to be out of step?
I‘m one of a growing number. I‘m going to
find my allies and stick with them.
6 Practitioner’s Handbook for the Communications Modules
Moving Instruction Out of the Classroom
Find an audience for learners‘ writing. Find a use for learners‘ reading and speaking. Find
a purpose for listening. Here are some ways to put your learners‘ writing and reading to
use in real life, beginning on a small scale and working up to more elaborate projects:
1. Make a display
Display writing on a bulletin board or a window (facing out) of your program. Writing
should be word processed and in a font large enough for people to read easily. Learners
could add photos or graphics to the page, and decide whether or not to use their real
names in the display.
2. Get published
There is a video on publishing learners’ work in the Teaching Toolbox:
http://alt.ns.literacy.ca/file.php/29/PublishingLearners.htm.
Send stories in to organizations looking for learner writing (list follows).
When the publication comes out or comes online, have a celebration in the program. Ask
the learners who have been published to read their stories. You could have a special
occasion to do this, or you could ask the learners to come to a board meeting, tutor
meeting, or other gathering of program people.
When the publication comes out or comes online, spend some time helping the learner to
share the news—for example, sending out copies to friends and families far away, or
sending out an e-mail announcement giving the link to the online story. You could send
out the announcement to your colleagues, and some would write e-mails of
congratulations to the learner.
Here is a list of places looking for stories by adult learners:
Every year Literacy Nova Scotia sponsors a contest, with prizes and publication, for
adult learners. For more information, go to http://www.ns.literacy.ca/index.htm
National Adult Literacy Database (NALD) runs a story of the week by adult
readers, with an archive by date, author and province. You can see stories at this
link: http://www.nald.ca/storyoftheweek/archive.asp?lang=1. Submit stories by
sending them to [email protected]. Along with the story, send a bit of
biographical information: the name of the program, and something about the
learner‘s hobbies, interests, goals, or family—whatever the learner wants the world
to know.
Literacy Nova Scotia: The Learning Beacon. Click on ―Student Writing.‖
http://www.ns.literacy.ca/TheLearningBeacon/LB4/index.html
WELEARN (Women Expanding / Literacy Education Action Resource Network)
accepts writing by women learners; sometimes has contests, with prizes.
http://www.litwomen.org/learn.html
Practitioner’s Handbook for the Communications Modules 7
3. Make a book
Invite learners to make a book to give away as a gift. They should collect several related
stories, add art or photos, and make a cover and a title page giving place and date of
publication. The books can be bound in report covers, or folded and stapled, or coil bound.
There is lots of important practice in choosing which pieces to put in, revising them,
deciding on the order of the pieces, making titles and headings, adding photos or graphics,
proofreading, etc. Give this project plenty of time.
With a single learner: make a book to give to family and friends. A photocopier will
produce 3 – 10 copies, depending on how many the learner needs to give away. There are
many topics—for example, memories of incidents involving children, to be given to kids
and grandparents; stories about individuals in the extended family, to be given to family
members; stories about different places the learner loves; stories to mark a special
occasion such as an anniversary or a holiday, and so on.
With a group: If the group has been working on a topic, collect pieces from all of the
learners. As a group, decide on a title for the whole collection and titles of sections if you
have many stories, and decide how the sections and the pieces will be ordered. If you
have room for, say, two stories from each learner, or a total of two pages for each learner,
there is a lot of useful work in going over all the stories they have written to pick the ones
to go into the book. Learners could add photos or graphics to their own stories, or a group
decision could be made on how to decorate the whole thing. More than a few copies will
likely be required, so there may be many options in terms of printing and binding.
Consider also putting the collection online. Have a book launch and invite the world (and
the press) and ask the learners to read from the book at the event.
4. Celebrate
Once a year, have a reception for everyone who got published during the year. Ask them
to read a story each at the reception. Invite the community and the press. There‘s lots of
room here for public speaking, sharing emcee duties, planning, making flyers and
invitations, etc.
5. Express an opinion
Find an issue the learner is interested in, and help do some background research to learn
more about it. Then find some way to express that opinion, for example, write (and send)
a letter to the editor, or talk at a public meeting (e.g., a parents‘ meeting about a school
issue). Write to a politician about an issue—they often answer.
With a group: Gather information, make posters or models, and hold a workshop for the
public to share what you have learned.
6. Make a connection
Invite the learner(s) to make a connection with someone they haven‘t seen for awhile by
sending an invitation to have coffee, writing an e-mail or a letter, or making a card.
8 Practitioner’s Handbook for the Communications Modules
7. Say thanks for the support
Ask the learner(s) to write about one person who supports their efforts to come back to
school. Take a picture of each learner and supporter together; make a frame for the
picture and the writing, one each for the learner and the supporter.
With a group: Invite all the supporters to come in to have coffee; each learner reads the
piece about his or her supporter and invites the supporter up to the front to get the copy of
the piece. Again, this entails lots of speaking, acting as emcee, designing invitations,
planning, and evaluation of the results—all of which develop thinking, speaking, writing
and reading skills, as well as teamwork. This one also increases the support learners have
for staying in school, and gives good publicity to your program.
8. Decorate a hero
Ask learners to write about someone they know or someone in the community who is an
unsung hero, and make a certificate of bravery or courage or whatever heroic
qualification the person has, and present the writing and certificate to the hero. Arrange
for the learner to present the story and certificate to the hero.
With a group: Invite all the heroes to come for coffee; each learner reads the story and
asks the hero to come up and be presented with the certificate. Invite the community and
the press. Again, this entails lots of speaking, acting as emcee, designing invitations,
planning, and evaluation of the results—all of which develop thinking, speaking, writing
and reading skills, as well as teamwork. This one also increases the support learners have
for staying in school, and gives good publicity to your program.
9. Put learners online
If your program has a website, develop a section for learners‘ writing, whether it be
personal stories or reports of activities.
Help learners develop their spaces on Facebook or other social networking sites, with an
eye to internet safety. (There is more on internet safety in the module ―Integrating
Information Technology [IT] Skills Into Your Teaching.‖)
Metacognition (Learning about Learning)
Many adult learners are not used to being active learners in school subjects, and do not
understand that they need to take an active part in the proceedings if they are going to
succeed. Even those who are very actively involved in learning skills and information in
other parts of their lives, when they get to school, may sit back and cross their arms as if
to say, ―So teach me.‖ As well, many are unaware of the separate skills that are involved
with reading, writing, listening and speaking; they may think that it is some kind of
magic rather than a set of skills.
Part of the job of the literacy practitioner is to make learners aware of the separate skills
(such as skimming or proofreading), the names of the skills, and when and how to use
them. Some of the teaching techniques in Section 2 help learners articulate the skills,
particularly the ―think-aloud‖ and marking for confidence.
Practitioner’s Handbook for the Communications Modules 9
Another important part of learning about learning is for learners to become aware of their
learning strengths and preferred learning styles. There are questionnaires online (links
below) and on paper to assess learning styles and multiple intelligences. It is helpful to do
more than one, because usually the results will be a little different from different
questionnaires, and learners will be able to reflect on which one they think is more
accurate. Knowing the learning strengths and styles of the learner(s) allows the literacy
practitioner to plan instruction based on that information.
http://www.edutopia.org/multiple-intelligences-learning-styles-quiz
http://www.learning-styles-online.com/inventory/ (You will have to give your name
and an e-mail address to get your results, but you don‘t have to pay or to sign up for
any deluxe package.)
http://www.bgfl.org/bgfl/custom/resources_ftp/client_ftp/ks3/ict/multiple_int/index
.htm
Evaluate the Strategies
A useful activity is to have the learner(s) evaluate the teaching techniques you are using.
For example, you might show learners two or three different ways to work on
remembering how to spell words they are learning. Work on a couple of words with each
technique. Talk to the learner(s) about which strategy works best. Repeat the process at
your next session, using the same techniques but different words, and talk again about
how the strategies are working. Let them decide which strategy or strategies seem most
helpful, and which they will continue to use.
By inviting learners to evaluate the strategies, you ask them to reflect on their learning,
and to be aware of what and how they are learning. When they evaluate the strategies,
they are in a strong position of self-knowledge and control, rather than in the weaker
position of being evaluated (and perhaps found wanting) by the strategy.
Assessment
Often the word ―assessment‖ brings to mind tests, exams and grades. These are usually
forms of ―summative assessment‖ or evaluation, and are used to compare a learner to
other learners or to a particular standard of achievement. They are often used to decide if
a learner is ready to advance to the next level of the program, or to place learners in a
particular level.
More important in the lives of most practitioners is the kind of assessment usually called
―formative assessment‖ which is an assessment made for the purpose of planning
instruction. Practitioners are constantly making formative assessments of learning and
learners. As a lesson progresses, the practitioner notes whether learners understand a
particular point of the lesson; at the next session the practitioner notes how much and
what kind of information learners remember from the previous lesson. Before beginning
to teach something new, the practitioner assesses how ready learners are to begin the new
material, what they know, and what needs to be taught or reviewed before new material is
introduced. This formative assessment is the kind of assessment practitioners most
10 Practitioner’s Handbook for the Communications Modules
frequently make, although it often goes unnoticed because it is almost automatic and an
integral part of working with learners.
Formative assessment is often more useful to the practitioner than to the learner. As the
examples in the previous paragraph show, the practitioner uses the assessments from
moment to moment and from day to day to make decisions about how and what to teach a
particular learner or group of learners. The learner is also making an assessment, and the
section on Metacognition (above) discusses the importance of learner involvement in
assessing learning. However, learners cannot make the same assessment as the
practitioner because they don‘t know what there is to know, and don‘t know what is
coming next. They are asking more general questions, such as ―Do I understand this? Do
I know what I‘m supposed to do? Can I do it correctly?‖
Giving feedback
An interesting question for the practitioner, then, is ―When do I share my assessment with
the learner?‖ When is it useful for the learner to know that they understand the lesson
totally, or that they got the first part, but missed an important point in the second part, or
that they have understood nothing at all, even though they were in the room while the
lesson was being taught?
The Communications Level II Curriculum suggests several questions to guide your
thinking about when and what kind of feedback to give to the learner:
Is the feedback providing clear and useful information to the student about their
progress? …
Can the student make use of this feedback in order to progress?
What effect will this feedback have on the motivation of the student to continue
learning? (page 17)
In conclusion then, the formative assessment is essential to the practitioner, but need not
always be passed on to the learner. ―Marking for Confidence‖ (page 22) is a technique
which allows the practitioner to give feedback in a positive way and which encourages
learners to articulate what they know.
Automaticity
Getting to be automatic. Over learning. Learning to mastery level. You start a sentence
with a capital letter without thinking. The correct spelling of a word pops out the end of
your fingers before you can wonder how to spell it. You see a heading in bold type and
you unconsciously understand more than the meaning of the words—you know it is the
topic of the section. These are some examples of automaticity, and it is important to help
learners get to the point of automaticity for any literacy skill we teach. Learners who
consciously and laboriously decode each word spend so much time and memory and
brain power to do so that they cannot remember the beginning of the sentence by the time
they get to the end, and so cannot understand what they are reading even if they can
decode each word correctly. A learner who sees the phrase ―to the store‖ and does not
Practitioner’s Handbook for the Communications Modules 11
David wrote a wonderful story about an
early morning walk he took. It started,
“Today I seen two Roosevelt elks.” When
I gently suggested that “I saw,” was more
correct, and that most people said, “I
saw,” he snorted. He said that sounded
ridiculous to him. He had never heard
anyone say that.
I backed down immediately, and made it
clear that I wanted his own voice on the
page, but I got a glimpse into a world I
didn’t know existed. Imagine how many
times people had said “I saw,” in his
presence, but he had never heard it,
because it didn’t match his own language.
Kate
consciously notice the words ―to the‖ but reads them and understands the phrase as a
whole has reached some level of automaticity, and can concentrate on getting the
meaning out of the sentence and the paragraph.
Making time and room to develop automaticity means that large parts of study time are
taken up with things that the learner finds easy to do. It means reading many small books
that are easy to decode, so that reading speed, and the ability to make inferences and use
context cues, can be practiced. Practice makes permanent. For many of our learners,
reading has been a struggle with material that is too long and difficult, because they have
been in classes where the reading level of the texts was beyond them. Many will read a
whole book for the first time in a literacy program. Let them also read their tenth,
twentieth and fortieth, until page turning is automatic and they have the opportunity to
enjoy what they can do easily. The danger here is the temptation to move too soon to
more difficult material.
Standard English
The question of standard English is a thorny one for those of us who work with adult
learners, and you will hear many opinions about what we should do about it. It will send
shivers down the spine of some literacy practitioners when a learner says, ―I seen him
yesterday,‖ or writes ―Her and
me are friends.‖ However, as in
all things, it is important to start
thinking about this issue from the
perspective of the learner.
Standard English is nothing more
or less than the language spoken
by people who have education; it
is not ―correct‖ in itself, and in
fact is constantly changing. For
example, it is now considered
correct to sometimes split an
infinitive, and in Canada most
people manage to get through
days, weeks, and even months,
without using ―whom.‖
Nonetheless, literacy
practitioners‘ speech patterns
usually differ from the learners
they work with, and certainly the
two groups have different forms
of written language. Learners learn to speak in their homes and communities, which may
not use standard English. Moreover, their English may be coloured by another language
also spoken in their community, such as French or an aboriginal language, which may
give rise to certain phrases or pronunciations that mark the language as coming from that
community. Immigrants may have the accent and characteristic ―errors‖ made by
someone who did not learn English as a first language.
12 Practitioner’s Handbook for the Communications Modules
When we teach reading and writing, we invite learners to join us in our use of standard
English; we ask them to give up their own ways of speaking, to leave the ways of their
families, friends and communities, to take on a new identity, and to become one of ―us.‖
If we insist that standard English is inherently correct and more precise or more beautiful
than non-standard English, learners have to admit that the way they speak is incorrect,
sloppy and ugly. Even worse, they have to agree that the way their families and friends
speak is also sub-standard. Nothing good will come of asking learners to put themselves
and their communities down.
For example, many learners are troubled by friends and families who say that they will
become ―high and mighty‖ if they carry on with school, that they will be too stuck up to
keep up old connections. As a result, when we insist that learners use standard English
―because it is correct,‖ we put them in an untenable position. Of course they resist the
idea that they and their families are sub-standard. If they have to choose between us and
their community, they will have a hard choice. They may want the education we offer,
but they may not be willing to pay such a high price. We will not likely enjoy having to
fight their resistance to learning standard English, and our task will be more difficult than
it has to be.
There is another, more practical, problem with insisting on standard English with
emergent readers. When we talk about doing language experience with learners, we insist
that we write down the words the learner actually says, not the standard form. If we
change his words to the standard form, he will not recognize them when he reads the
story back. David‘s story (see box) is an example. David had quite limited reading skills,
and had trouble decoding many ordinary words. If the teacher had insisted he write ―I
saw,‖ it might have caused him problems with decoding. When he read it back, he would
likely have read, ―I seen,‖ because he would remember the context in which he had said
the words in the first place. We do not want to put learners in a position where it is easy
to read a word incorrectly, where it is natural to read ―seen‖ instead of ―saw.‖ Possibly he
might have realized the word written there was not ―seen‖ and tried out ―saw,‖ but ―saw‖
doesn‘t make sense to him. The meaning he associates with ―saw‖ is the tool used for
cutting wood. Since ―saw‖ makes no sense to him in this context, he might read ―I was,‖
which will not make sense either, and may earn him the label of dyslexia. Much better,
with beginning readers, to encourage them to use their own language, and to speak in
their own voices.
However, we do not want to forget about standard English, accept everything learners
write, and send them on to further education and training unaware of the conventions and
grammar of standard English. They will almost surely be penalized in further education
or on the job for not using standard English. It would be a disservice to them not to teach
them standard English; as they gradually emerge as more fluent and confident readers, as
they begin to make the transition to further education, they must come to learn to speak
and write standard English when it is appropriate.
What can the literacy practitioner do to facilitate this process? What stance can we take?
We can admit that standard English is simply the form of English that educated
people usually speak and write, and the form they always use when they are in
formal or semi-formal situations.
Practitioner’s Handbook for the Communications Modules 13
We can acknowledge that non-standard English is perfectly good at conveying
meaning, and has its own beauty.
We can acknowledge that in a general sense the people with education are the
people with status, so they get to say what is the ―standard‖ way to speak, and other
people copy them. We might mention that if the people of Newfoundland woke up
one morning to find their province covered knee-deep in diamonds, the whole
world would soon want a Newfoundland accent, vocabulary and grammar.
We can reveal that we may speak standard English while we are in class, but that in
other situations we may use less formal language, adapting our language to the
situation we are in.
We can let learners know that they can learn to use standard English in situations
where it is appropriate, and continue to use non-standard English in situations
where that is appropriate.
When we take this attitude, we allow learners to learn standard English, to think of it as a
kind of puzzle rather than a moral dilemma, and to be in control of the way they speak in
any situation. Then they don‘t have to resist our teaching. They probably already monitor
their behaviour in different situations; for example they may control the amount of
swearing they do in church or around children. They can learn to control a few
grammatical idiosyncrasies when they want their education to show.
14 Practitioner’s Handbook for the Communications Modules
Practitioner’s Handbook for the Communications Modules 15
Section 2: Teaching Techniques This section contains detailed instructions for some useful teaching techniques. The first
part gives some general techniques, the next focuses on teaching reading and the final
part on teaching writing. In some cases a video about the technique is available in the
teaching toolbox, and the link to the video is given.
Teaching Techniques: General
The strategies in this section reinforce the inter-connectedness of speaking, listening,
reading and writing, and encourage the learner to actively engage with the content being
examined.
Brainstorming and Mind Mapping
What skills do these strategies build? generating ideas; categorizing and organizing
thoughts; risk taking
Who are they useful for? learners who are not sequential, logical thinkers; visual
learners; learners who have trouble producing ideas for writing
The important strategies of brainstorming and mind mapping are often used together. A
brainstorm asks participants to generate many ideas, without evaluating them as they
come out. A mind map organizes the ideas visually--usually by rewriting the ideas in
clusters and by drawing lines or circles to show relationships between various ideas--and
often includes finding names for categories of ideas as they are grouped together.
Sometimes a list of ideas is brainstormed, and then a mind map is created on a separate
sheet, using the ideas from the list. At other times, the mind map may be created at the
same time as ideas are generated, by placing related ideas together. This combination
often happens if one person is acting as a recorder for a brainstorm generated by another
person or a group.
A brainstorm is a good way to bring people‘s background knowledge to the foreground.
Whether learners are about to tackle a writing, reading, listening or speaking task, it is
important to prepare by assembling what they already know about the subject, what their
experience has told them, what other reading has told them. If the task ahead is reading or
listening, they will be well served by an advance look at vocabulary they might meet, and
they will uncover their awareness of how various parts of the material fit together. They
may also uncover gaps in their knowledge; an awareness of these gaps will sharpen their
focus in the reading or listening task that follows.
If the task ahead is writing or speaking, they will have a host of decisions to make: what
to say, what not to say, and how much to say; how to organize their thoughts; how to
spell or pronounce words. A brainstorm will help them articulate and clarify their ideas
for themselves before they start to write or make a speech. A mind map will help them
organize their ideas, and see how they are related to each other. Making such connections
in advance will allow them to concentrate later on the mechanics of writing or speaking,
and will make those tasks much easier.
16 Practitioner’s Handbook for the Communications Modules
In a true brainstorm, ideas are encouraged to come out without analysis or criticism; the
idea is to generate as many ideas as possible about the topic. Some learners may have
difficulty at the first stage, that of generating ideas. There is no easy or magical way to
develop this skill, but practice helps. Try short but interesting brainstorms about known
topics and do them on a regular basis as needed.
In the next stage, making a mind map, many learners will have difficulty organizing ideas
and recognizing the connections that can be made. They may also have a hard time
coming up with names for categories or clusters. You can model this kind of organizing
and categorizing by doing a ―think aloud,‖ asking questions about how different ideas are
related, and suggesting and testing some names or categories for the clusters and
describing why these names or categories would be appropriate. In subsequent
brainstorms, invite the learners to think along with you.
In the race to get ideas down before they disappear, perfect spelling or penmanship is not
necessary. This may be the place to use abbreviations and shortcuts used in text messages.
Method:
1. State the topic clearly. If the brainstorm is being used before reading, the topic will
come from the reading they are about to do. If the brainstorm is to generate ideas
for writing, help the learner define a topic that is not too broad.
2. If there is more than one person doing the brainstorm, decide who will be the
recorder. The recorder‘s job is to write down all ideas produced, without change
and without judgement.
3. The recorder writes the topic in the centre of the page or the board. Some people
find it useful to circle the topic word so that, as the ideas are written around the
topic, they start to look like the spokes of a wheel.
4. Participants throw out ideas that come to them when they think about the topic, and
when they hear ideas from other participants.
5. The recorder writes down all the ideas. Depending on the pace, the recorder may be
able to group (cluster) ideas together as they are generated. Otherwise this can be
done when the brainstorm is over.
6. When every possible idea has been generated, participants look at the brainstorm on
the board or paper, and examine the ideas. Ideas that fit together (clusters) can be
circled and given a heading.
7. If the brainstorm was used to generate ideas for writing, clusters or details not
wanted for the writing can be crossed out, and the remaining clusters numbered in
the order they will be used in the writing.
8. If the brainstorm was used to generate background knowledge for reading, nothing
should be deleted or numbered. After the piece is read, come back to the brainstorm
to compare the ideas from the reading with the knowledge that was generated
beforehand. What new ideas came up in the reading? What ideas were in the
brainstorm that didn‘t show up in the reading?
Practitioner’s Handbook for the Communications Modules 17
Sample Brainstorm and Mind Map
This learner wanted to write a story about her ailing father. She discussed her
recollections and feelings, while the tutor helped her to place these around the circle. The
tutor also helped her to consider what information could be grouped or categorized
together.
Once completed, the learner considered in what order she wanted to write these ideas.
She discussed her choices with her tutor and numbered the categories. Notice how she
decided that two paragraphs were so similar that they should be written together as the
second category.
Brainstorm about Father
18 Practitioner’s Handbook for the Communications Modules
Variations:
Have a couple of pairs of learners, or small groups, do separate brainstorms on the
same topic, and compare the results. Learners will see that there are many ways of
looking at the same topic and organizing ideas. This may come as a surprise at first,
but after a while it will encourage freer thinking.
Add to a brainstorm over a number of sessions. You can use different coloured
pencils, pens, or markers to contrast what has been added on different days.
Begin a project with a brainstorm. Brainstorm again at the end of the project and
compare the two. This can provide an effective way to recognize what has been
learned.
Using Other Graphic Organizers
What skills do graphic organizers build? generating ideas; categorizing and organizing
thoughts; seeing relationships between ideas; taking notes
Who are they useful for? visual learners; learners who have trouble producing ideas for
writing; learners who have trouble recognizing how a piece of reading is organized
The brainstorm and clustering technique in the previous section is only one of many ways
to organize ideas graphically. Some examples follow, and more are available online. All
of them provide ways to show a set of ideas visually. Any of them can be used to
organize thoughts before writing, or to analyze a piece of reading to show its content.
Many community programs in Nova Scotia have Inspiration software available, and
learners use it to generate and organize their ideas.
K W L (Know, Want to find out, Learned)
This graphic organizer can be used as a pre-reading activity, or as a starting point for
research on a topic a learner is interested in.
As a pre-reading activity, it helps learners to recall their own knowledge of the subject, to
sharpen their purpose for reading, and to get meaning from the text. In this case, the title
of the text you are reading goes in the first line.
As a starting point for research, before any reading or writing is done, it helps learners to
establish their own knowledge of the topic, to articulate their questions, and to keep track
of the answers as they find them. Here the topic goes in the first line; it is usually best to
narrow the topic somewhat before you begin. (For example, a broad subject such as
―cooking‖ should be reframed as something closer to what the learner is interested in,
such as ―Cooking on a Budget,‖ or ―Training to be a Chef.‖)
Practitioner’s Handbook for the Communications Modules 19
Title/topic:
What I know… What I want to find out… What I learned…
20 Practitioner’s Handbook for the Communications Modules
Time Order (sequencing)
Single events are written in each box, in the order they happened; boxes can be added as
necessary. (Sometimes after boxes 1 – 4 are filled, it becomes apparent that something
has been left out that should come between the third and fourth box. Rather than erasing,
it may be easier to cut the boxes apart, reassemble them in the correct order, and tape
them down.
Main Idea and Supporting Details
A graphic like the one below could be used to analyze something that has been read, or to
organize ideas for writing an essay. (This graphic is available in WORD. On the menu,
choose ―insert‖ then ―picture‖ then ―organization chart.‖)
Topic
main idea
supporting detail
supporting detail
supporting detail
main idea
supporting detail
supporting detail
supporting detail
main idea
supporting detail
supporting detail
supporting detail
Practitioner’s Handbook for the Communications Modules 21
Compare/Contrast
The following two graphic organizers, the Venn diagram and the grid, can be used to
compare and/or contrast two things, people or ideas.
Venn Diagram
A Venn diagram can be used to compare two or more people or things. Draw two or more
overlapping circles, and to each circle assign one of the things you are comparing. Fill
each circle with characteristics of each thing, and where the circles overlap, write the
characteristics that they have in common.
Grid
Make a grid like the one below; in the first column list the qualities you would like to
compare, and use the second and third columns to give the details for each of the two
things you are comparing.
Halifax Big Pond
Size
Night Life
Friendliness
Public Transit
Close to Nature
Shopping
Alligators
have four legs breathe air
swim lay eggs
Birds
have two legs
fly
22 Practitioner’s Handbook for the Communications Modules
Marking for Confidence
There is a video on this topic in the Teaching Toolbox:
http://alt.ns.literacy.ca/file.php/29/Kate-comm-confidence-video.htm
and a podcast: http://alt.ns.literacy.ca/file.php/46/Marking_part_1.mp3
What skills does it build? ability to verbalize skills and strategies; ability to think about
thinking (metacognition)
Who is it useful for? learners who lack confidence and are unwilling to take the risk of
attempting to do something for fear of getting it wrong; learners who are unaware of or
unable to verbalize the skills and strategies they do know.
The following material is taken from the podcast by Kate Nonesuch:
http://alt.ns.literacy.ca/file.php/46/MarkingForConfidence.pdf
Marking for confidence is a way of giving feedback to students that increases their
confidence in their ability to tackle similar problems or situations in the future. When I
mark for confidence, I focus on the parts of the assignment or process that the learner is
doing well. I comment on those parts, and help the learner articulate exactly what they
are doing at that point, and why their procedure is correct.
Marking for confidence is not the same as just being encouraging. If I say to a learner,
―I‘m sure you‘ll be able to do these questions,‖ the student only knows that I have
confidence in her. She may or may not agree with me. She may not have confidence in
herself. If I say to a learner, ―great work,‖ he may not believe me, or if he believes me, he
doesn‘t necessarily know what he did that made it great work or how to do it again.
Marking for confidence gives him a chance to see, articulate, and remember the details of
the work that make it ―great work.‖
I call it marking for confidence because it looks like marking, and because marking is
something the learner is familiar with. But in reality, I turn the marking process into an
opportunity for teaching.
People say, ―But don‘t you think that it‘s good for people to see what they did wrong?
They learn from their mistakes. We‘re not doing them any good by being positive all the
time!‖
I say that learners are sometimes in a frame of mind to learn from their mistakes, and
sometimes not. So if a learner asks me how to do something, or asks if something is right
or wrong, I tell him. For example, if he says, ―I‘m not sure if I‘ve got this right here.
Should it be a period or a comma? I‘m thrilled. Isn‘t that what a teacher lives for?
Someone wants to know something I know how to do! I can tell by the question that the
learner wants to know if he‘s right or wrong, and I say, ―No, you‘ve got that part wrong.
Let me show you…‖ and I do.
But if a learner is just handing something in, or says, ―I‘m finished. Can you mark this?‖
I‘m not sure what her frame of mind is. Maybe she thinks it‘s all right! If so, I don‘t want
to destroy her confidence. Maybe she‘s not sure about her work, but she‘s handing it in
Practitioner’s Handbook for the Communications Modules 23
without asking for help, so I want to tread lightly about offering help. Maybe she knows
it‘s all wrong and she just wants to get it over with. Again, no indication that she‘s in a
frame of mind to learn from her mistakes. And if it‘s something I initiate by sitting down
beside her and asking to see her work, for sure I have no idea if she‘s interested in
learning from her mistakes.
As teachers, we often have the mindset to see where students have gone wrong, to find
the errors. This is a useful mindset to us—it helps us figure out what to review, to notice
how one way of explaining is more useful than another, to notice patterns of errors, and
so on—but it is not useful to the learner. The mindset of seeing errors improves teaching
and learning when I keep the information to myself. When I say it out loud, it decreases
confidence in learners who hear it.
Of course, when you help students see and articulate what they do know, they may notice
areas where they have trouble. For example, someone may say, ―I make most of my
mistakes when the denominators are different.‖ When a student notices where she needs
help, that is a big step, but quite different from you telling her where she needs help.
It is confidence that allows learners to make decisions, to decide how to tackle a problem,
to believe they can tackle a problem. If they have no confidence, they won‘t take risks. If
they believe they have failed at similar tasks in the past, they are unlikely to believe they
can be successful with a new assignment. If they believe they are going to fail, they won‘t
fully engage in the new task.
One way to increase confidence is to point out what learners have done well. We are not
talking about empty praise here; it is not enough to say, ―good work,‖ or ―you‘re getting
better at this.‖ It is essential to be specific about exactly what the learner has done
successfully and why that is important, so as to encourage the learner to do it again. It is
also important to help the learner articulate the strategy or skill being used. The
practitioner needs to cultivate the habit of cutting the work into small pieces, so that the
parts learners do correctly can shine out and the practitioner can acknowledge them.
Commenting on assignments in the Practitioner Training Course
Marking for confidence can be done ―in public‖ as we do in the practitioner training
course when we ask participants to comment on the assignments posted by other
participants. When we comment in public, either online or in front of a group of learners
or participants, it is essential that the comments be only positive. In this course, we ask
participants to post their assignments. This is a classic case of us not knowing whether
the author of the assignment is ready to ―learn from mistakes‖ or not. Indeed, the act of
posting the assignment takes courage and commitment to the process, and participants
may well feel nervous about showing their work, anxious about judgements their peers
may make, or resentful at having to produce the quality of work that will stand up to
public scrutiny. (We all know that if you just have to hand something in to the instructor
for a grade, sometimes it is not your best work.)
Allowing only positive comments helps make the space safe enough for people to post, in
spite of anxiety about public scrutiny. If we allowed comments about errors, however
small, some participants would refuse to post their work at all, and might drop out of the
course. Others would post, but in self-defence would make their work smaller, take fewer
24 Practitioner’s Handbook for the Communications Modules
chances, and thus produce work that is more pedestrian. In this course we see people go
out on a limb to learn new software, speak passionately and personally on things they feel
strongly about, and reflect on their work openly in spite of the vulnerability that goes
with that openness. None of this would happen if we allowed people to comment on
errors or on how to improve the assignments.
(As an aside, if you personally feel ready to learn from your mistakes, you may ask for
more feedback from other participants or from the facilitator. Ask them to send you a
private e-mail, or set a time to meet in person or on the phone. Ask a question that will
get you the feedback you want, for example, ―How can I make this better?‖ or ―I want
this to be perfect. Can you point out all the errors so I can correct them?‖)
When we ask you to comment on three assignments from other participants, we are
inviting you to practice the art of being specific about what is good. We ask you to think
about the qualities that make an excellent assignment, and assess the posted assignments
with those qualities in mind. We want you to teach by finding an example of good
practice in the work of your peers, and by explaining how that example works to further
the aim of the assignment. None of these things is easy. We are used to teachers and
tutors pointing out errors, and that is what comes automatically. And to top it all off, we
are asking you to practice those things in public, by making public comments!
So thank you for being brave enough to put yourself on the spot. We hope you will notice
the same reaction in yourself that usually happens when you mark for confidence with
learners—a sense of pride in your work, a sense that others respect your work, a more
specific sense of how your work affects the reader.
Method
Marking for confidence can be done with any subject at any level. Two examples are
given here.
Example 1: Marking a worksheet or a set of questions
First, take a quick look at the work the learner has done, to see if there are a few
mistakes, or many.
A. If there are no errors, or only a few, start with the first correct answer.
1. Say it is correct. Mark it with a check.
2. Ask the learner to explain how they got that right answer.
3. Ask questions or remind them of the rule or the method; the point is to give the
learner a chance to go over and say out loud their method of getting the right
answer.
4. Go on to the next one that is correct.
5. Say it is correct. Mark it with a check.
6. Again, ask the learner how they got the right answer.
Practitioner’s Handbook for the Communications Modules 25
When a learner does not do well on a
piece of work, I take my share of
the responsibility for asking them to
do something they were not
prepared for, so they know that
their mistakes were part of a
complex process that involve my
explanations, their ability to attend
to them, time pressures, their
previous knowledge, my knowledge of
their skill level, and emotional
factors. I might say, “I made a
mistake with this—I’m sorry I asked
you to do this sheet right away. I
didn’t know you weren’t clear on how
to do it.”
Then they get a chance to be
generous with me. Maybe they’ll say,
“That’s all right, Kate. Everybody
makes mistakes sometimes.” Talk
about role reversal! That is a great
position for them to be in.
Maybe they’ll say, “I guess I should
have asked some questions when you
were explaining it before.” Again,
that is a step forward as they
recognize their responsibility to get
clear explanations, and articulate
one strategy for doing so.
Kate
7. Repeat with other correct answers until the learner can easily articulate the process
for arriving at the answer.
8. Then look at the first one that was wrong. Do not mark it wrong, but ask the learner
how they got the answer.
9. Likely the learner will find the error and correct it.
10. Comment that finding your own
mistakes is a mark of a good student.
11. Put check marks beside the rest of the
right answers, and ask the learner to
look at the others and check his
answers. Do not mark them wrong.
When the learner has finished, the
remaining questions can be marked as
the previous ones were.
B. If there are many errors, go to the first
one that is correct.
1. Mark it right.
2. Ask the learner if you can guess what
they were thinking as they worked.
3. Go over the question, teaching and
dialoguing with the learner about the
method.
4. Present a new question to the learner
and ask them to do it while you watch
and coach.
5. Present another, and ask them to do it
while you watch and coach.
6. Ask questions so the learner gets a
chance to articulate the process.
7. When you are sure the learner has the
process firmly in mind, offer a clean
copy of the worksheet to do, or a new
worksheet with similar problems.
8. If all the learner‘s answers are
incorrect, set their paper aside and start
at step 4.
26 Practitioner’s Handbook for the Communications Modules
Example 2: Proofreading for periods
Remind the learner that it is important to proofread for periods as a separate step, so you
will be looking only for the periods this time you go through the piece of writing. Ask the
learner to read the piece aloud. Let them read until they come to the first correct period.
Ignore places where the period is missing or incorrectly placed.
When the learner reaches the first period that is correct, stop them and comment that that
period is correct. Give a brief explanation of why a period is needed there, for example, a
change of subject. The learner continues reading until the next correct period. Again you
ignore any missing or incorrect periods along the way. Comment again that the period is
correct, and say how you can tell a period is needed there; perhaps you have noticed their
shoulders lifting as they inhale to start the next sentence, or have heard them stop at the
end of the sentence. Ask them to continue reading. Since you have clearly focused
attention on the periods, learners will likely notice a missing period when they come
across one while reading out loud. Here you can comment on their good proofreading,
and ask them how they know a period should go there. Continue to the end of the piece of
writing. Learners will not find all the periods the first time you do this, but they are
gaining confidence in their ability to use periods, and learning to think of themselves as
proofreaders. Pay attention to when they have perfect periods through a whole paragraph,
and notice that out loud.
If a learner gets 80% of the periods right in a piece of writing, then you don‘t have to
teach them about where to put the periods—they already know. They just forget to do it,
and don‘t think about checking for them when they proofread. Marking for confidence
helps learners think of themselves as proofreaders who check for periods.
Drummond, T. (2002). A brief summary of the best practices in teaching intended to challenge the professional development of all teachers. From http://webshare.northseattle.edu/eceprogram/bestprac.htm.
Poster by Kate Nonesuch.
All teaching
moves learners into areas of
risk and
iiinnncccooommmpppeeettteeennnccceee. So often
the job of a teacher
is to find
nascent deftness when it is easier to
notice the m a l adroi t .
28 Practitioner’s Handbook for the Communications Modules
The Think-Aloud
There is a video on this topic in the Teaching Toolbox:
http://alt.ns.literacy.ca/file.php/29/kate_thinkcomm_video.htm
This technique is just what it says it is—thinking out loud to demonstrate a reading,
writing or math skill, so the learner gets an insight into how you think. Many learners
have misconceptions about reading and writing; they may think that people who read and
write well can do any literacy task at a glance; they may be unaware of the separate steps
and skills used. Thinking out loud helps dispel these misconceptions.
To prepare to do a think-aloud, go over all the separate steps and skills in your mind, so
that when you are with the learner, you will be able to demonstrate how you think as you
go. Then offer to show the learner how you tackle a task such as reading a passage. At
first, the learner will likely concentrate on the passage itself, but after you have done a
couple of think-alouds, ask the learner to listen to you think aloud again, and concentrate
on the steps and skills you use, rather than on the content of the particular problem. When
you have finished the think-aloud, make a list of the steps and skills you used and discuss
them.
Practitioner’s Handbook for the Communications Modules 29
Teaching Techniques: Reading
Assisted Reading
What skills does it build? active reading; using clues other than words (e.g., pictures,
titles, chapter headings, size and type of font, italics, lines and boxes) to find meaning
Who is it useful for? all readers, especially those who concentrate on decoding words,
and not on making meaning from the page
Assisted reading allows you to give learners a glimpse into the kind of reading that fluent
readers do. Many beginning readers are not aware of the many techniques a fluent reader
uses; many are passive, not active, in their reading; many think that the reading process
starts at the first word on the text and continues word by word to the end without pause.
Assisted reading gives you the opportunity to model active, fluent reading; there are
many opportunities for informal ―think-alouds‖ and for generating questions that help the
beginning reader bring his own background knowledge and experience to bear on the
new material.
Method:
1. Select a text that the learner wants to read.
2. Examine the text together. Look at the title, illustrations, photos, headings, chapter
titles, captions, first sentences in paragraphs, and highlighted words, and then
discuss what the text might be about.
3. Record the discussions on a sheet of paper, flipchart, or chalkboard. Encourage
learners to ask questions about illustrations, headings, etc.
4. Take turns reading parts of the text. For learners who find reading aloud difficult,
have them read the passage silently before they read it aloud.
5. Stop occasionally for discussion. Confirm any predictions made earlier when the
learner examined the illustrations, photos, and headings. Also, predict what might
happen next in the text.
6. Continue to take turns reading. You do not have to finish reading the entire text.
7. Provide support as learners read. If they run into problems, here are some strategies:
Ask ―Does it make sense?‖ (draw on readers‘ semantic knowledge) or ―Does it
sound right?‖ (draw on readers‘ syntactic knowledge).
Encourage them to make an educated guess about the word based on its
position in the sentence, its sound, and its appearance.
Encourage them to notice word endings and prefixes, which they may leave off
if they read too quickly.
Suggest that they read ahead and then come back to reread difficult parts of the
text.
30 Practitioner’s Handbook for the Communications Modules
Ask, ―What can you do if you are stuck? What worked the last time? What are
you going to try this time?‖
8. At the end of the reading, go back to the predictions learners made before they
started to read. Were they on the right track? What surprised them?
9. Discuss the reading strategies used. Name them. Which were most effective?
Where and when was a particular strategy effective? Which are hard to remember
to do? Which are becoming automatic?
10. After several sessions of assisted reading and the concluding discussion, ask the
learners to make a bookmark that lists the strategies they want to remember to use
when they are reading on their own. If they use the bookmark for their independent
reading, the strategies will be right there.
Assignment: Read a Book a Week
What skills does it build? independent reading; predicting what a book is about;
evaluating its relevance and interest to the learner
Who is it useful for? all learners
Many learners will gasp when they hear you ask them to read a book a week, since many
of them have not read a book in their whole life. So along with this assignment has to
come an assortment of very short books for adults, and some help in picking a book that
the learner will enjoy. These books must absolutely be at a level that the learner can read
with no trouble, where they know all the words, and where they can bring some
background knowledge to the book, so they are in familiar territory. Think of the kind of
―summer reading‖ that good readers do. You don‘t want to spend your days at the beach
reading something that requires reading and re-reading and looking things up in a
dictionary. You want a page-turner. Help your learner find that kind of book.
Learners often have difficulty picking a book for independent reading because they do
not use jacket blurbs as a source of information, nor do they easily pick up a book and
leaf through it to get a sense of what is in it. So they may be reluctant to read anything
independently, or they may choose a book which in fact they are not interested in or
which is too difficult for them, and get stuck.
The drama of having to finish it inside of a week will encourage them to pick a short
book, and this is a useful exercise in estimating how long the task will take, and making
choices that will allow them to complete the assignment on time. It may mean that on the
last day of the week they will need help finding a book, and sit down and read it at one
sitting. Good. Help them find a book they can read in ten minutes to complete their
assignment.
Don‘t ask them to write a book review of these books! A book that takes half an hour to
read should not be linked with a book report that takes an hour or more to complete.
Better to spend that time reading two more books! Give them an opportunity when they
are finished the book to have a short conversation. What was it about? Did they like it?
Why? What surprised them about the book? Would they like to read another one about
Practitioner’s Handbook for the Communications Modules 31
the same topic or by the same author? This is the kind of ―book report‖ friends give to
one another all the time, and they are the stuff of book clubs.
Following are two techniques for helping learners pick a book that they will enjoy
reading independently.
Book Talk
A ―book talk‖ may start or end every session you are with your learner. It is modeled on
the way we read and talk about books in the real world, and gives the learner a guideline
to follow when you ask about their book at the end of the week.
Method:
1. Pick a book which you think will be interesting to the learner(s), and which is easy
enough for them to read independently.
2. Hold up the book and announce its title.
3. Tell a little about what the book is about.
4. Say why you liked it or why you think some learners will like it.
5. Read a short passage aloud, expressively and dramatically.
6. Stop in the middle of an interesting passage, making a ―cliff hanger‖ so that learners
will be interested in finding out what comes next.
7. Invite the learner(s) to borrow the book.
8. If no one wants to read the book, don‘t worry—there are lots of books. Bring another
one the next time you see the learner(s).
Choosing a Book by Its Cover
Method:
1. Choose several books at an appropriate reading level (very easy for your learners to
read).
2. Photocopy the front and back covers of each book.
3. Put the actual books away in a drawer or cupboard.
4. Take each of the photocopies in turn and read and discuss them with the learner,
asking ―What is this book about?‖ and ―Who is it for?‖ Use the information on the
front and back cover, both picture and text, to answer the questions.
5. Repeat with the photocopies of the covers of the other books you have selected.
6. Ask the learner to pick the two books they are most interested in.
7. Get those two books out of your drawer, leaving the others behind.
32 Practitioner’s Handbook for the Communications Modules
8. One at a time, invite the learner to look inside the books. Does it look like the
predictions made while looking at the cover were correct? Is the book an
appropriate length to read in a week?
9. Ask the learner to turn to the first page and read it. This is a check to see if it is easy
to read. If the learner has any problems with the reading, it is not for independent
reading—make it a book they read with a tutor, an instructor or a more advanced
learner.
10. When this has been done with both books, ask the learner if they would like to
choose either of them to read.
11. It is important that the learner be allowed to say, ―No, I don‘t feel like reading that
book,‖ and that they feel no pressure to choose any particular one. They must also
feel free to refuse all the books being offered at that time. Many learners have an
exaggerated respect for print, and end up ―choosing‖ books for independent reading
that they are not interested in. Imagine going into a bookstore and buying and
having to read the first one you laid your hands on, just because you touched it.
That, in effect, is what many learners do when faced with the necessity of picking a
book for independent reading. Encourage them to reject many, many books until
they find the right one for the assignment to read a book a week.
Choral Reading
What skills does it build? fluent, expressive reading
Who is it useful for? readers who read word by word with little rhythm or expression;
self conscious readers who are unwilling to read aloud by themselves
Choral reading allows the tutor/instructor and learner to read together. It is a good way
for beginning readers to hear the rhythm (speed, tone, volume, and pitch) of fluent
reading.
Caution: this activity may bring back difficult memories of forced oral reading during
school, and, like all learning activities, should be presented as a matter of choice.
Method:
1. Learners should choose what they want to read. They may select material that is
interesting and useful to them, but is too difficult for independent reading.
2. Read texts that require different kinds of expression, such as plays or pieces with
lots of conversation.
3. Ask learners to read out loud with you so that your voices are reading at the same
time. Learners may read one word behind you, but their participation should be
encouraged.
4. Keep the reading pace smooth.
5. When learners seem more confident, let your voice fade away and see if they
continue reading independently. If they hesitate, return to choral reading again.
Practitioner’s Handbook for the Communications Modules 33
6. Take frequent breaks to discuss the meaning of the material.
Variations:
For more independent work, consider a computer ―text-to-speech‖ program. The
good programs have high quality speech synthesis and may be set to read at varying
speeds. Several free ones are available to download.
Small groups may occasionally choose to read chorally.
Use choral reading as a warm-up at the beginning of a session or at the end to wind
down.
Cloze
What skills does it build? prediction strategies; making meaning from context;
substitution; reading ahead; re-reading; metacognition
Who is it useful for? learners who tend to read word by word, or who stop reading
completely whenever they do not know a word; learners who consistently leave out
particular words or parts of words
Cloze is most effective with beginning readers if there is someone to assist during the
reading. Talking learners through the possibilities and the process of using prediction,
reading ahead, re-reading, and confirming makes cloze a particularly effective technique
to reinforce good reading strategies. Stress that substitutions must make sense in the
passage.
Cloze can seem like a convenient activity to do as independent written work. However,
the purpose of the activity is to develop reading strategies, and this happens mainly in the
discussion of possible choices. If it becomes independent busy work (fill-in-the-blanks),
it is not being used effectively.
Cloze activities should be open-ended, without one right answer. Pre-packaged cloze
exercises often include answer keys. These should be avoided—they do not encourage
fluent reading strategies such as risk taking and substitutions, and they reinforce incorrect
views about reading such as the belief that reading should be perfect.
Method
1. Type out a short, complete passage at an appropriate reading level. You may use a
piece of learners‘ writing or something from a published text. Double-space the
lines as you type.
2. Then go back and delete some single words, scattered throughout the text. Keep the
first sentence intact. Substitute a long underline for each word you delete. The
learner will write on the line to put in a word that makes sense in the context.
3. The more words you delete, the harder it is to complete the cloze.
For a beginning reader, delete the more predictable nouns.
34 Practitioner’s Handbook for the Communications Modules
For more advanced readers, delete a random selection of words. Start with
deleting every twelfth word, then every tenth word, and so on, until you are
deleting every seventh word.
If you make every blank the same length, no matter how long the words they
replace, you don‘t give the learner any clues about the word that is missing.
For learners who don‘t pay attention to word endings, instead of deleting whole
words, simply delete final ―s‖, ―ed,‖ and ―ing.‖
For learners who miss the ―little‖ words in writing, delete every ―a‖ and ―the‖
in the passage, and tell learners that one of those words goes into every blank.
In another passage, delete ―to‖ and ―in‖ and ―on.‖
If you are studying grammar, delete all the nouns in the passage, or all the
verbs, or all the adjectives, etc.
4. Learners read the passage, out loud or silently, trying to insert an appropriate word
into the blanks. Encourage learners to ―read around‖ the blank, thinking about the
ideas that come before and after. Often it will be possible to come up with several
words to fit in the blank.
5. Discuss how each possibility was chosen. What reading strategies were required to
choose a word that makes sense? How can these strategies be used during regular
reading?
Variations:
Pairs of learners can work on the same cloze passage together, then read their
completed passage to the whole group. The most effective part of this activity is
discussing how they arrived at their answers, and comparing the finished passage
with those of other pairs.
Learners can create cloze texts for other learners.
Cloze texts can be published in newsletters. Completed variations of these passages
can be posted, circulated, or published in later editions.
Practitioner’s Handbook for the Communications Modules 35
Cloze Sample: Visit to the Nova Scotia Museum
One tutor/learner pair visited the Nova Scotia Museum and wrote about their
recollections of the trip. This story was then used as a cloze exercise and was published
in a program newsletter. The process was effective and the feedback was a big boost for
the learner‘s confidence.
Visit to the Nova Scotia Museum
First we saw pictures of Peggy‘s Cove. I have never been to Peggy‘s Cove.
It would be _______________ to visit and see what it‘s like in person.
Next we saw the old painted stagecoach which _______________ from
Halifax to Truro and took all day. It was interesting to see how they
_______________ the luggage on the back and top of the coach. The driver had
to sit outside.
The scene I liked the ______________ was the moose with the lake
and woods scene behind. We had to feel if there was glass; it was
_________ real.
It‘s the first time I‘ve been to a ________________ and I enjoyed it.
Sequencing
What skills does it build? reading for meaning; paying attention to transitions; making
inferences; organizing ideas
Who is it useful for? auditory, visual and kinaesthetic learners; passive readers
Sequencing can be done with a group of learners or one-on-one. It requires learners to
take an active part in constructing meaning from a text by putting the elements of the
story back into the sequence in which they actually happened. If done by a group of
learners, it requires them to talk about what they are thinking, and discussion is an
essential part of doing this exercise if you‘re working one-on-one.
36 Practitioner’s Handbook for the Communications Modules
Method for working one-to-one:
1. Use a story or narrative poem in which the events are told in the order they actually
happened.
2. Photocopy a section of the text four or five paragraphs long.
3. Cut the paragraphs apart and mix them up.
4. Ask the learner to re-assemble the paragraphs in the correct order.
5. Discuss what strategies they are using to decide on the correct order.
6. Read the original text and compare the results.
Method for working with a group of learners:
1. Prepare two or more texts of four or five paragraphs each, as above, enough so that
there is one paragraph for every learner.
2. Divide the learners into groups, one group for each text you have prepared.
3. Give one paragraph from the text to each learner.
4. Ask learners to read their paragraph to their small group, and work together to
figure out what order they should go in. The group should get ready to line up in the
correct order and each group member to read their paragraph to the class.
Variation:
1. Take a story that is not told in the order the incidents actually happened, such as a
newspaper story or a story with a flashback. Work with the learner(s) to make a list
of all the incidents in the story.
2. Photocopy and cut the list apart and ask learners to re-assemble the incidents in the
order they actually happened, not in the order they appeared in the story. They may
need to refer to the original story as they do this.
3. Discuss their reading strategies. What words in the story gave clues about the real
order things happened in? Were there headings or special fonts that showed the
order? Why do newspapers usually tell things out of order? Why would a writer use
a flashback to tell a story?
Quest/Request
What skills does it build? active reading; making inferences
Who is it useful for? auditory learners; learners who are passive readers; learners who
rely more on background knowledge than the text
The quest/request teaching strategy requires learners to engage with the text. Because
both learner and tutor or instructor take turns asking and answering questions, there is a
lot of room for modeling or ―thinking aloud,‖ which will give the learner an insight into
how to engage with text.
Practitioner’s Handbook for the Communications Modules 37
Method:
1. Use a text at the learner‘s instructional level; both learner and instructor/tutor need
a copy.
2. Read the first sentence silently. The instructor/tutor asks a question which can be
answered from the first sentence, and the learner answers. The instructor asks as
many questions as s/he likes.
3. Then the two participants switch roles. They both read the next sentence silently,
and the learner asks as many questions as s/he likes that can be answered from
reading the first two sentences, and the tutor/instructor answers.
4. They switch roles again and go on to the next sentence.
5. As you work your way through the text, questions will come up which require some
reading between the lines, or making an inference. The practitioner should model
making an inference by thinking out loud, and comment when the learner makes an
inference to show the kinds of thinking that go on during reading.
6. Stop before the process gets boring, i.e., while you are still having fun.
Variations:
Pairs of learners can do this work together.
A group of learners can work together to generate as many questions as possible
about a paragraph of text. A goal might be to come up with as many questions as
there are words in the paragraph.
38 Practitioner’s Handbook for the Communications Modules
Teaching Techniques: Writing
The Writing Process: Think, Write, Edit, Proofread
What skills does it build? metacognition; organization of tasks; writing multiple drafts;
evaluation of one‘s own writing
Who is it useful for? learners who need to have the task of producing a piece of writing
broken down in to smaller tasks
Teaching a four step process for producing a piece of writing enables learners to have
more control over their work because they get a sense of what needs to be done and don‘t
need to wait for the teacher to tell them when they are ―finished‖ or what to do next. It
lets them concentrate on one aspect of the writing at a time. It focuses attention away
from spelling and punctuation and onto bigger, more important tasks of considering the
audience, organizing the ideas, writing a first draft and editing it.
Many Level I and Level II learners, and some Level III learners, think of writing as
handwriting, or think that spelling and punctuation are the only elements they need to
concern themselves with; they are usually unaware of the elements of the craft of writing,
because in a published text these are hidden from view. In writing as well as reading, part
of the work of teaching is to make the hidden skills apparent to the learner, to model them
and to recognize the learner‘s attempts to use them.
You will find the steps of the writing process named and defined in various ways; there
may be four, or five, or even six steps elaborated in various systems or by various
authors. It really doesn‘t matter which one you use; the important thing is to pass on to
the learner a system for producing writing that is readable and reasonably correct.
In the following version, there are four steps: Think, Write, Edit, and Proofread. The
most important principle in every step is: consider your reader. The tasks get easier and
less abstract the further you go in the process, so learners should not expect perfection at
any step (until the last), but should press on with getting something done, so they can go
on to the next (easier) step.
The steps below are elaborate, and beginning learners will not do such an elaborate job of
each stage, but all four stages are necessary, even in the first piece of writing a learner
does. The editing stage may be very short for beginning writers, but the questions should
be asked: Is there anything else the reader needs to know? Anything you‘d like to add, or
take out, or change? The answers may be ―no‖ but the questions should be asked. In the
proofreading stage, even the very beginning writer needs to check periods and capital
letters, because getting them correct will help the reader understand what has been
written.
Step 1: Think
What do you want to say, and who will you say it to? Which part of a longer story will
you tell today?
Practitioner’s Handbook for the Communications Modules 39
Learners may generate ideas for their story in many ways: brainstorm and cluster, or use
some other graphic organizer; free write to see what ideas come out; talk about the
subject; go for a walk while they think. If there are no ideas, there will be no writing. If
there is an assignment, or a rubric that will be used for grading the assignment, think
about the requirements.
Step 2: Write
Write the first draft. Don‘t worry about mechanics of any kind. If you don‘t know how to
spell a word, ask someone who can quickly tell you, or make an attempt and go on.
Sometimes you can‘t think of exactly how the story will start, so start in the middle and
come back to the beginning later. Just get something on the paper.
Step 3: Edit
Editing consists of re-reading the first draft and making changes as needed. It is much
easier than writing the first draft, so learners should look forward to this stage.
Some questions to ask at this stage: Thinking about your readers, have you given enough
information? What do they need to know to understand the story—have you put it in? Is
there something you‘d like to take out, that a reader doesn‘t need to know? Think about
your organization— will your readers be able to follow the thread? How can you make it
easier for them? Think about paragraphing—have you used paragraphs to keep ideas
together that belong together and separate ideas that don‘t belong together? That will help
a reader follow your ideas. Do you need to help your reader move from part to part by
using such words as ―next,‖ or ―after a while,‖ or ―on the other side of the street,‖? This is
the time to find out how to spell all those words you weren‘t sure of. If you have a rubric
for this assignment, check to make sure you have included everything the rubric asks for,
and that you have answered the questions asked, if there are any.
This is a place for a true cut and paste. Get out the scissors if you want to re-order
something, don’t start writing again. Give marks for messiness during the editing stage.
Teach the learner(s) to use carets () or stars (*) to mark where an insertion should go,
and to write the words to be inserted somewhere else on the page.
When you‘ve finished, or when the page is so messy you can‘t find yourself anymore,
make a clean copy. This might be the time to put it into the computer, rather than writing it
out by hand again. You may make more changes as you write this clean copy. Then read it
again, and ask the same questions. When the writer is satisfied, the editing stage is done.
Stage 4: Proofread
This is the final stage, checking for tiny mistakes. Proofread out loud. Stand in the middle
of the room and read it as if you were giving a performance. Read it once, looking for
words left out and missing word endings. Read it again, checking the periods. Read it
again, checking for the spelling of homonyms and other problem words. Go over your
rubric one last time, and predict what kind of marks or comments you‘ll get from your
instructor. (See also the proofreading posters on page 43.)
40 Practitioner’s Handbook for the Communications Modules
Language Experience Approach (LEA)
What skills does it build? articulating thoughts; organizing ideas; moving from talking
to writing
Who is it useful for? learners who are unwilling to write anything; learners whose
thoughts run much faster than their ability to write them down
Method:
In the language experience approach, the literacy practitioner acts as a scribe, writing
down the story as the learner composes it. There are several stages to getting the story
down.
1. Find a subject to write about. Come to some agreement with the learner about what
the topic of the story will be. The more the topic comes from the learner, the more
they will have to say about it, and the more naturally it will flow.
If the learner comes into the session telling you about something that is going
on in their life, you might ask if they would like to write a story about it.
If you are just getting to know the learner, you might ask for a bit of biography,
or the learner‘s likes and dislikes, etc.
If you are working on a theme or a project, the topic may come from there.
2. Find out if the learner would like you to print the story, write in script, or type it
into the computer.
3. Make sure the learner can see as you write. If you are right-handed, the learner
should sit on your left; if you are typing, increase the font size so they can see it on
the screen from where they are sitting; if you are writing on the board, make sure
there is no glare on it.
4. Generate some ideas. If ideas are spilling out of the learner‘s mouth, you could skip
this step and just start writing, but if they are having trouble thinking of what to say,
do a brainstorm on the topic, with you writing down the ideas as the learner says
them, asking a question when necessary to prompt more ideas.
5. When all the ideas have been generated, look at them again, and let the learner
decide where to begin. It may be that one brainstorm will generate ideas for more
than one story, so the learner will have to choose what to write for this time. (For
more details on doing a brainstorm, see page 15.)
6. Write as the learner dictates to you. Your job is to write the words down as they
come, not to edit them or make suggestions.
Do not correct grammar or word usage. It is the learner‘s voice that we want to
shine through the story.
Do write correct spelling, not dialect; e.g., write ―running‖ when the learners
says ―runnin‘‖; write ―to the store‖ when the learner says ―t‘th‘store.‖ This is in
line with other correct spellings you write, for example, you would write
―often‖ even though the learner does not pronounce the ―t‖ in that word.
Practitioner’s Handbook for the Communications Modules 41
If the learner gets stuck, you could read over what they‘ve said so far, as a
prompt for further words, or you could ask an open-ended question, such as
―What happened then?‖ or ―What did you say?‖ If you have used a
brainstorm/mind map, draw their attention to it as you go along.
7. Put in the periods or question marks as you go along, and call attention to them, for
example, ―I heard you stop there, so I put in a period so the reader would stop in the
same place.‖
8. Find some way to get a satisfactory ending to the story. Language experience
stories are usually short (from one to ten sentences), but still we‘d like a beginning
and an end. So if it just stops without any natural conclusion, ask a question such
as, ―What would you like the reader to remember about this story?‖ or ―How did
you feel about the whole thing?‖ These questions will often produce a sentence that
wraps up the story and gives a satisfactory ending.
9. Ask the learner for a title for the story. A question such as ―What is this whole thing
about?‖ or ―What‘s the main idea in this story?‖ will often generate a useful title.
Again, your job is to write down the title that the learner comes up with, not to
make suggestions or edit. Learners may call the first one they write ―My Story,‖
and maybe the second one will have the same title. When they give their next story
the title of ―My Kids‖ you can comment that the title helps you get an idea of what
the story will be about, even before you start to read it.
10. Read the story back to the learner, and ask if you got it down right. Tap when you
come to a period so the learner will notice that you are reading the punctuation as
well as the words. Make any changes the learner would like to make. Read it again.
Ask if there are any more changes. Read it again. Repeat until the learner is happy
with the story. (This editing step is usually very short. Most learners will make very
few changes to their story after they have dictated it.)
11. Ask the learner to read the story out loud to you. Notice where they read something
different from what is written down. Ask if they‘d like you to change the writing so
it matches the reading. This is more useful than asking them to change the way they
read it, and more true to the proof reading process.
12. Get the story into a permanent form so the learner can save it in a portfolio or book
of writing.
If you have been writing on the board, ask the learner to copy the story.
If you have been writing on paper, ask the learner to make a neat copy (yours is
full of erasures, small additions, etc.), or type it into the computer.
If you have been working on the computer, ask the learner to change the font
size back to normal and save and print it.
Activities to use with Language Experience Stories
The most important thing is to find your learner an audience for the stories, whether it be
in print somewhere, or displayed where the public can see them, or at a reading of works
by learners. (Ideas for getting learners an audience are given on page 6.)
42 Practitioner’s Handbook for the Communications Modules
You can also do the kinds of activities you might do with any piece of text, such as the
examples below. These are easiest to do if the story is saved on a computer, but can also
be done if the story is handwritten and you can make photocopies.
1. Sequencing: Separate the sentences so each begins on a new line with double space
between the sentences, then print and cut them apart. Mix them up and ask the
learner to put them back in order. If that is easy for the learner, cut the sentences
into phrases and ask them to reconstruct the story; another possibility is to take one
sentence at a time and cut it into separate words.
2. Cloze passages: See the directions for this on page 33. Asking learners to make the
cloze themselves is also valuable.
3. Take one of the words and expand it into a study of other words in the same
rhyming family.
4. The learner may wish to learn to spell some of the words.
Proofreading Strategies
What skills does it build? careful reading; ability to step back from one‘s own work
Who is it useful for? calls on both visual and auditory strengths.
Proofreading is the final step in the writing process, after editing/revising. As with most
things in writing, proofreading is done in order to help the readers understand and
sympathize with what is written. Proofreading makes the writing easy for the readers to
handle, and encourages them to keep on reading.
You don‘t want to be the proofreader for learners; your
job is to help them learn to proofread. That means you
will have to expect less than perfect proofreading while
the learner‘s skill grows.
Before the learner hands the writing in for you to read and
comment on, take a few minutes to proofread it with
them. If you are working with a very beginning writer,
this is the time to instill the habit of proofreading; if you are working with learners
transitioning into higher level training, they need to learn to proofread with you, so that
the work they hand in in their future classes is not penalized because of writing errors.
Method:
1. Ask the learner to read the piece out loud. By reading it out loud, the writer hears
the story the way they want the reader to hear it. The writer reads aloud, listening
carefully, while looking at the writing. The job is to notice when the message you
hear is different from what you see, that is, you have not written exactly what you
want to say.
2. Proofreading should be done in several stages, reading the piece out loud each time.
At each reading you will look for a different type of error. Beginning writers may
go through the story only twice, once for missing words and once to deal with end
Learner: “Oh, I never
bother with periods and
that. I just hand it in
and let the teacher put
them in.”
Practitioner’s Handbook for the Communications Modules 43
punctuation. More advanced writers will go through it several more times, to check
for other kinds of errors.
3. The first time, read it to make sure there are no missing words and that the endings
on words are there and correct. Ask the learner to read the first sentence. If there is
a mismatch that the learner doesn‘t catch, you may say, ―I heard you say ‗started.‘
Do your eyes see ‗started‘? What do you need to add to make the writing match
what you hear?‖ Then go on to the next sentence and repeat the process.
4. Some learners who are strongly visual, or who work mainly by print-based cues,
will try to read what they have mistakenly written. For example, someone who has
left out a word will try to read the sentence without the word, assuming that what
they see is correct, rather than listening for the true message. It may be necessary to
ask them to cover up the writing and say the sentence out loud as they want it to be,
then go back to look at what they actually wrote and change that.
5. Ask the learner to do the next round of proofreading looking at end punctuation.
They should start at the beginning and notice periods and question marks and
exclamation marks. You may help by pointing out non-textual messages you notice.
For example, if there is a period missing and you hear the learner take a breath, you
could say, ―I heard you take a breath. That usually means there should be a period.
Where should it go?‖ Or you may notice that the learner‘s shoulders rise as they
inhale, and say, ―I saw your shoulders lift a little there. Can you read it again, and
put the period in where you take a breath?‖ Or you may say, ―Somewhere in here
you need a period. Listen while I read it, and see if you can find the spot.‖ Start to
read from the last correct period and read the next couple of sentences.
6. The next round of proofreading should look at spelling, and particularly at
homonyms. Check each instance of there/their/they‘re, to/two/too, etc. to make sure
they are correct, and check any other spelling they are not sure of. Capital letters
can be checked here too.
7. Another round will look for commas, and another will check the use of quotation
marks. Quotation marks are very complicated. Start by making sure that both the
beginning and ending quotation mark are inserted, and that they are around the
exact words said by the speaker. Even very beginning writers can do this. More
advanced writers can worry about the use of commas and capital letters with
quotations.
Posters on Proofreading
Learners may find the following posters useful to have in their binders or on the wall. As
they become more automatic with the elements of proofreading, they may want to make
their own posters to show the strategies in their own words and images.
44 Practitioner’s Handbook for the Communications Modules
Where do the periods go? Your body can help you figure it out!
Read slowly, out loud, and…
Use your shoulders:
when they lift, put in a period.
Use your ears:
when you hear yourself breathe in,
put in a period.
Use your brain:
when you say a name again, or
when you say ―he‖ or ―she‖ or ―it‖
or ―they,‖ you may need a period
just before that word.
Use a period to keep sentences apart. Use
a joiner* to join them together. Don’t use
a period and a joiner at the same place.
*Joiners: “and,” “but,” “or,” “because,” “so,” etc.
Practitioner’s Handbook for the Communications Modules 45
Proofread Out Loud!
You get one
message from
your ears
and another
message
eyes. from your
Do you get the same message from both eyes and ears?
Yes? Great.
No? Then change the words on the
paper to match the words you hear.
Trust your ears to catch the
message you want to write.
46 Practitioner’s Handbook for the Communications Modules
Written Conversation
There is a video on this topic in the Teaching Toolbox:
http://alt.ns.literacy.ca/file.php/29/writtenconversation.htm
What skills does it build? reading; thinking and communicating; fluent reading and
writing skills
Who is it useful for? learners who are just beginning to write for themselves; learners
who are frightened of a blank page
Have a conversation on paper. This strategy allows you to model writing skills which are
rarely demonstrated in front of adult learners. Written conversations allow you to give
immediate feedback and support so that ideas can be nurtured and developed. Many
learners at this level benefit from seeing how you express your ideas and how you back
up your opinions. Take time to explain what decisions you make when you write and how
you come to these decisions.
Method:
1. Make sure that learners sit on your left if you are right-handed and on your right if
you are left-handed so that they can see what and how you are writing.
2. Write a question that you might ask in everyday conversation.
Use printing if script is difficult for them to read.
Try to avoid questions that can be answered with a one-word answer, such as
yes or no.
3. Pass the paper to the learner, who will then write a reply.
It may be easier to talk before writing, so ideas can be generated and articulated
separately from the task of writing.
Perfection is not necessary. Expecting perfect spelling or handwriting at this
time may take the fun and usefulness out of this ice-breaking activity.
4. Carry on the conversation, taking turns asking and answering questions.
5. Begin with some basic questions:
My name is _________. What is your name?
I live in ____________. Where do you live?
Similar questions may be asked about family members, place of work, and so on.
These basic questions build confidence and provide examples about how words
look and how writing can begin.
6. Talk out loud as you write. Explain sounds, letters, use of capitals, spacing, and
anything else that is pertinent to the writing process. Stay with the same topic
(ideally initiated by learners) during the written conversation. Words are more apt
to be repeated and this makes reading and writing easier.
Practitioner’s Handbook for the Communications Modules 47
7. Phrase questions and answers in a similar way. This makes it easier to predict and
therefore easier to read. Use complete but easy-to-follow sentences. Start with the
subject: ―The new fishing quotas were announced yesterday. What do you think
about them?‖
8. If there are words that learners do not know how to spell, try the following
suggestions:
Encourage the learners to write the word based upon the sounds (phonics) or
the way they think that the word looks (graphic cue). Have them put down as
many letters as possible.
Encourage them to make a quick guess so that the ideas are not forgotten.
Encourage them to leave a blank space for letters or words and to continue
writing the rest of the ideas down.
Use the correct spelling for the word when it is your turn to ask or answer a
question. This will reinforce correct spelling without making people feel
embarrassed. Wait and see if the learner notices and uses your correct spelling.
Depending upon their level of confidence, you may want to draw their attention
to this spelling.
9. If there is a great deal of hesitancy:
Offer assistance in writing down the learner‘s responses.
Help people focus on what they want to say.
Parts that are difficult for learners to read independently should be read
chorally.
10. If the activity seems dry:
Vary the questions.
Inject some humorous responses.
Encourage the learner to ask the questions.
With a group of learners:
Written conversations may go around the table rather than back and forth between two
people. This encourages learners to read. Everyone is curious about what other people
wrote and what questions were asked.
Variations:
Decide on an opening question for the written conversation before your next
session. This gives learners something to think about between sessions, and can get
the conversation off to an easy start.
If the learner is learning to use e-mail, the two of you could sit side by side at two
computers and e-mail the questions and answers back and forth.
48 Practitioner’s Handbook for the Communications Modules
Written Conversation Sample
The tutor and learner used written conversation to catch up with what the other had been
doing. In this sample, the dialogue at the beginning of the session allowed the learner to
set out what he wanted to accomplish that day.
Journals
A journal may be a paper or computer document in which learners write freely about any
topic, without having to worry about the mechanics of ―proper‖ writing. Journals provide
learners with an opportunity to express their thoughts on paper, which many say helps
them work through issues or find solutions to problems. Keeping a journal is a relatively
independent activity which appeals to some learners who are willing and able to find a
regular time to write. Journals come in several types, outlined below.
Private Journals
Some learners like to keep a private journal because they can write their thoughts and
feelings and record the events of their lives; they can reveal things to their journal that no
other person will ever see. This type of journal, by definition, has nothing to do with the
instructor or tutor.
Practitioner’s Handbook for the Communications Modules 49
Response Journals
Other learners like to write a journal which they will share with the literacy practitioner.
They write about the events of their lives, their thoughts and feelings about those events,
without worrying about spelling, grammar or structure, and hand the journal in for a
response from their instructor or tutor. The literacy practitioner reads journal entries and
responds to them in a direct and personal manner.
CAUTION: Confidentiality and safety are important issues when you ask a learner to
write a journal for you to read and respond to. Remind the learner that you will keep
confidential anything they write, except that you have a legal obligation to report to the
authorities if you think a child is in danger.
What steps will you take to ensure that the journal is safe when you have it in your
possession? Let the learner know how you are treating the journal. Have a conversation
with the learner about safety at home. What would happen if someone at home (e.g.,
spouse, parent or child) read the journal? What steps are they taking to be sure that no
one else can read the journal? If they keep it at school, rather than at home, what will
happen at the end of the term? For some learners, keeping a journal is not a safe activity.
Safety for the practitioner is also an issue. You are asking the learner to write personally,
about whatever thoughts and feelings they have. What will you do if the journal entries
trigger your own vulnerabilities? What will you say if the learner‘s values turn out to be
radically different from yours? Consider these questions before you start on the journal
writing process, so you can keep yourself safe, too.
Method:
1. Learners write in their journals as time permits. Some people find time to write
daily, others write regularly each week. Sometimes learners write in their journals
during a class or a tutoring session. Length of entries should not be a consideration.
2. Encourage learners to consult their personal dictionaries if they have questions
about spelling or punctuation, but not to spend time worrying about every spelling
error. A journal is a place for free writing, not for error-free writing.
3. Respond to the journals once a week on average. Some practitioners may want to
respond in a quiet moment, apart from the tutoring/instructing atmosphere. Others
may want to read the entries over with learners and respond on the spot.
4. Ask the learners about how they would like you to respond. One way is for the
literacy practitioner to write a few lines at the end of the last entry the learner has
made; another is for the learner to leave a wide margin on the right hand side of the
page for comments and questions from the tutor; a third way is for the instructor to
write on a stickie and put it in the journal, so the learner has the option of removing
it.
5. The literacy practitioner should respond to the content only. The quality and
sincerity of the responses are important to learners. One way to do it is to begin by
saying how the learner‘s writing affected you (―I laughed when you told about
taking your daughter to buy shoes, because the same thing has happened to me!‖ or
―I was sad when I read about ___. I know I would have been scared if that had
50 Practitioner’s Handbook for the Communications Modules
happened to me.‖) Then follow up by asking a question that encourages further
writing. (What do you think you will do next? How do you feel about it now? What
came up that you didn‘t expect?)
6. Don‘t correct any spelling or grammar errors, or comment on them. If you do, it is
not a journal any more—it is a writing assignment.
Learning Journals
Learning journals are a special kind of response journal which focuses on the learning
that happens in a particular course. So, for example, a learner could keep a math learning
journal, or a reading learning journal. At the end of each class, learners make an entry in
the journal briefly outlining the content of the lesson, and giving more details about what
they found easy or difficult, what techniques they used to solve problems, what
techniques worked or didn‘t work, what questions they still have about the content, and
how they are feeling overall about the content. They hand in the journals weekly, for a
response from the instructor or tutor. The practitioner may also respond by adjusting
teaching methods to take into account what the learner has written. In the following
example, a learner talks about reading a piece of her own writing to the class.
I felt a bit nervous, but I was trying to think positive and concentrate on what I
was going to read. What helped me was trying to focus on what my writing was
about and how it sounded. Once it was my turn to get up there in front of the
class, I would be OK because I was comfortable with my classmates (IF, May
17). (Beebe, 2006, p. 11)
Timed Writings
What skills does it build? fluent writing; risk taking; paying attention to ideas rather
than form
Who is it useful for? learners who have difficulty getting anything on paper
A timed writing is simplicity itself. This is a good way to start a writing session. It gets
the words flowing, and may generate some ideas that the learner will want to turn into a
piece of writing.
Method
1. Make sure everyone has a sheet of paper and a pen or pencil.
2. Explain how a timed writing works:
You will set a timer and everyone will write without stopping until the timer
goes off. You will write, too.
It does not matter what is written, so long as the pen keeps moving on the
paper. Spelling, grammar, facts—none are important. The only thing that
matters is to get some words on the page.
Practitioner’s Handbook for the Communications Modules 51
If you can‘t think of anything to write, write ―I can‘t think of anything to write‖
over and over again until something else comes into your mind.
3. For the first timed writing, set the timer for 4 minutes and, as weeks go by,
gradually increase it to 10 minutes as learners get used to the process.
4. When the bell goes off, give people time to complete the sentence they are writing.
Ask if anyone would like to share what they have written. Occasionally you should
share your writing, too, especially if it looks like this:
I can‘t think of anything to write. I don‘t know what to say. I don‘t know what to
write. I can‘t think of anything to say. My brain is empty. I have an empty brain. I
can‘t think of anything to say. I‘m brainless today. Sometimes I am brainy, but not
today. Sometimes my brain thinks of lots of things to write about, but not today.
I‘m empty. I can‘t think of anything to say…
5. When anyone who wants to has shared their writing, people who caught a good idea
during the free write will want to keep their paper to work on later; others can make
a great show of throwing out their papers, having achieved the goal of warming up
their hands and heads.
52 Practitioner’s Handbook for the Communications Modules
Teaching Techniques: Spelling
Often learners say they can‘t write because they think that writing is spelling. If you put
an emphasis on spelling while people are writing, it discourages them from writing well
and fully. Fear of not getting the spelling right may drive them to write ―It was nice out,‖
instead of ―The brilliant sun touched the hearts of adults and children, and filled them
with the joy of being alive.‖ So as learners are writing, just write down any word they ask
for; if they are writing at home or somewhere where no help is available, ask them to
write the first letter and a blank line, and get help later, either by asking or looking it up.
Sometimes practitioners say, ―Don‘t worry about the spelling,‖ and help the learners spell
whatever words they want to use, but then at the end ask the learners to put those words
on a spelling list and learn them. This may also deter learners from writing fully. The
words they want to use in writing, and which they may able to read or learn to read, may
be far beyond their ability to learn to spell. If you punish them by giving difficult spelling
work as a result of their wanting to write well, they will learn to censor themselves during
writing to save themselves the headache of learning to spell the hard words later. The
words they want to write may not be the words they want to learn to spell, or may be
beyond their spelling ability.
The Blackboard in Your Mind
There is a video on this topic in the Teaching Toolbox:
http://alt.ns.literacy.ca/file.php/29/KateBlackboard_video.htm
What skills does it build? spelling; memory
Who is it useful for? visual learners
This strategy teaches a method of remembering how words look; people who do not have
the ability to get a mental picture will find this method frustrating. You could model this
method until learners are used to it, then give them a copy of the questions and they could
work in pairs. Don‘t work on more than two words at a sitting.
Method:
1. Take a word the learner is learning to spell and write it where they can see it, either
on the board or on paper.
2. Ask them to look at the word.
3. Ask them to visualize a blackboard (or whiteboard) in their minds: look at the
board; notice its size; look at the frame around it; notice the size and colour and
shape of the frame. Many learners keep their eyes closed as they do this; others look
up or off into the distance.
4. Ask them to see the word written on the imaginary board, and read it to you, letter
by letter, from the board. If they can‘t do it, or do it wrong, ask them to look at the
Practitioner’s Handbook for the Communications Modules 53
correct version, then close their eyes again or look away, see the word on the
imaginary board and read it to you letter by letter. Repeat until firm.
5. Ask them to look at the word on the board they are visualizing, and answer the
following questions. If need be, they can look again at the correct version.
Spell the word (read the letters off their mental board.).
How many letters in the word?
Spell the word (reading from the mental board).
How many vowels? What are they (from left to right)?
What are the consonants, from left to right?
Spell the word (reading from the board).
What letters hang below the line? (g, y, etc.)
What letters stand up above the line? (h, l, t, etc.)
Are there any capital letters?
Are there any little words inside the word? Spell the little words (e.g., ―the‖ and
―eat‖ inside of ―theatre‖).
Spell the word (reading from the board).
What are the first 2 (or three) letters?
What are the last 2 (or three) letters?
What are the middle letters?
Spell the word (reading from the board).
6. Remind the learner that the word will always be written on their mental board.
Whenever they want to write the word, they can call it up in their mind and copy it
onto their paper.
7. If possible, a couple of times during the next hour or so, ask the learner to spell the
word from the mental board.
Pattern Spelling
There is a video on this topic in the Teaching Toolbox:
http://alt.ns.literacy.ca/file.php/29/kate_patternspelling_video.htm
What skills does it build? spelling; building words from their parts; word pattern
recognition; word processing skills; cooperation and teamwork
Who is it useful for? kinaesthetic, visual and verbal learners; very beginning spellers
through to competent spellers
Level I and II learners: use the method as outlined below
54 Practitioner’s Handbook for the Communications Modules
Level III learners: use the method as outlined, but instead of the word patterns
suggested, use only the Latin roots, to teach the formation and spelling of words from
roots, such as port, press; ject; spect; dict; tend; pend; fuse; etc.
This is a simple method for helping learners build up their ability to recognize and spell
the many word families, to learn many common affixes such as -ing, -ed, -less, -able, and
un-, re-, mis-, etc. Although the method is simplicity itself, it quickly builds up learners‘
abilities to spell longer words by adding affixes correctly and completely, increases their
confidence in their ability to spell, and lets them have fun. The success of the method is
due to the fun, the repetition that is varied each time, the success, the increased
confidence, the teamwork and co-operation, and the allowance for differences.
Another side benefit is increased skill and confidence in using the computer. It is
described here for use when the learners are each sitting in front of a computer. If no
computer is available, learners can write the words on a board or on paper.
Method
1. Start each session by asking learners to help each other open up the computers,
open the word processing program and increase the font size to about size 36 so that
the instructor can see their screens easily while moving around the classroom, and
learners can easily see nearby screens and compare answers. Learners can also
choose any font they like, and experimentation is encouraged. Asking learners to
help each other builds confidence in the helpers, gets things moving quickly and
builds a sense of community and teamwork in the class.
2. Make it clear that learners can look at the screens around them; this
exercise is not a spelling test, but a spelling practice. If someone
cannot spell ―crank‖ the first time it is dictated, they should get it
right by checking with the teacher or with a neighbour, and then
practice it while writing the next words, which will be cranks,
cranked, cranking, and cranky, with maybe crankier and crankiest
added, if the learners know the ―y to i‖ rule
3. Tell the learners that you will dictate a series of words based on a
particular spelling pattern, which they will type. (A suggestion for
order of patterns is given below.)
4. Write the pattern for the day on the board, with a blank line in front.
For example, if the pattern for the day is words ending in ―ank‖ the
instructor writes ―___ank‖ and announces that all the base words
dictated today will end in ―ank.‖
5. Start at the beginning of the alphabet and find the first word that can
be made in that pattern. In this example, start with ―bank.‖ Everyone
writes ―bank‖ and the instructor goes around to check the work.
6. Then begin to add affixes to that first word, writing the affix on the
board so that learners can see it. Using the same example, write ―+ s‖
on the board, and ask learners to write ―banks,‖ checking for the
spelling on the board if they need to. Go on by writing ―+ ing‖ on the
Affixes
-s
-ing
-ed
-er
-est
-en
-y
-ly
-ful
-less
-ness
un-
re-
de-
con-
pre-
in-
inter-
ex-
trans-
Practitioner’s Handbook for the Communications Modules 55
board, and dictating ―banking,‖ then on to ―banked,‖ ―banker,‖ and ―bankers,‖
writing the affixes on the board for reference, and going around to check learners‘
work after each word. Give a short sentence to go with each word as it is dictated.
7. Circulate to check every word as it is written. This checking goes really quickly,
since nearly everyone spells nearly every word correctly, and the large fonts on the
learners‘ screens are easy to see from a distance. Learners can have their spell
checkers on, which means they will correct many errors before the instructor gets to
them.
8. As you circulate, you may ask learners to say the word, or ask them to name all the
parts (base words plus affixes).
9. Again using the same example, the instructor goes on to ―dank‖ if she thinks they
know the word, or might like to know it. If this is a word that is not familiar to the
learners, and she does not want to confuse matters, she skips ―dank‖ entirely and
goes on to ―hank.‖ Then on to ―hank,‖ ―hanks,‖ and ―hanky.‖ Next comes ―lank.‖
While at ―lank,‖ she dictates ―blank,‖ ―blanks‖ ―blankly,‖ ―blanket,‖ ―blankets,‖
―blanker, ―blankest,‖ then ―clank,‖ ―clanks,‖ ―clanked,‖ ―clanking,‖ ―flank,‖
―flanks,‖ ―flanking,‖ ―flanked,‖ and so on, depending on what affixes the learners
know.
The blends are introduced at the place in the alphabet where learners are already
dealing with the second sound in the blend. Learners are asked to write ―blank‖
when they have already written ―lank,‖ rather than when they have written ―bank,‖
because it is easier to hear the two sounds of the blend when you start with the
second sound. It is harder to write ―blank‖ after ―bank‖ than after ―lank.‖ (Here is
another example: for the same reason, ask them to write ―train‖ ―training,‖
―trainer,‖ ―trainers,‖ etc. when they have finished writing ―rain,‖ ―rained,‖
―raining,‖ ―rainy,‖ etc. Then go on to ―brain,‖ ―brains,‖ ―brained,‖ and ―brainy.‖)
For the first few lessons keep the affixes relatively simple, i.e., ―-ed‖ ―-s‖ ―-ing‖
and ―-er‖ so you can check that learners can correctly add the consonants and the
blends at the front of the pattern you are presenting. Also in those early lessons you
can get learners used to you going around and asking them to say the words, and to
count the parts. ―Bankers‖ has three parts, although it has only two syllables.
After you are sure everyone can add consonants and blends to the beginning of the
pattern, you can add affixes quite quickly. Write the affix on the board as you use
it, so they can check the spelling if they need to. Soon learners memorize the
spelling of the common affixes.
Build up each word carefully, starting from the simple form that follows the word
pattern you are using. For example, ―thank,‖ ―thanks,‖ ―thanking,‖ ―thanked,‖
―thankful,‖ ―thankfully,‖ or ―fill,‖ ―fills,‖ ―filled,‖ ―filling,‖ ―refill,‖ ―refills,‖
―refilled,‖ ―refilling,‖ ―refillable.‖
By following the pattern, learners can write some long words, and may want to
keep track of the longest word made so far, and what is greatest number of affixes
added to a base word so far.
56 Practitioner’s Handbook for the Communications Modules
10. After a few days some learners will start to predict the words that you dictate,
another very useful skill to be encouraged. They may predict other words in the
pattern, so if you start with ―ash,‖ they will give you ―cash‖ and ―rash,‖ or they may
give you other endings for a basic word, for example, cashing and cashed and
cashable. You might prompt them to predict by asking, ―What words have I missed
in this pattern?‖ or ask them to type all the words they can think of using a given
basic word from the pattern. Learners who are more advanced will soon produce
many of the words themselves, while learners who are less able will wait for you to
dictate them.
11. If learners are typing with the spell checker on, they soon begin to use it as a tool to
see if a particular ending will make a real word. They might add ―est‖ to a word just
to see if it is a real word; this use of the spell checker is a ―real-life‖ use of
technology.
12. At the end of the lesson, learners can, if they want, select all the words they have
written, change the font size back to size 14 and print out the list of all the words
they spelled during the session. It‘s a big list of words they successfully wrote
today, and can probably read tonight.
Order of Patterns to Teach
First pattern: Words that don’t change when affixes are added
Begin with base words that don‘t change when you add affixes. That is, start with words
with two vowels in the middle, or two consonants at the end, and which don‘t take ―es‖ to
make the plural. Keep on with those patterns until learners are familiar with the
techniques for adding affixes, can count the number of parts in a word they have strung
together, can write most of the affixes without looking at the board, and feel confident
about their ability to spell long words simply by adding affixes to the base word. The
order you introduce these words in can vary, depending on your learner(s). If you are
following a phonics program, work with examples of the patterns you are teaching in
your program. If you are using a spelling program, use
words from the current lesson as your patterns for the
week. If there are particular words you want to teach from
other content areas, use their patterns, or if there are some
sight words that people are having trouble spelling (e.g.,
―sight,‖) use them. Writing ―unsightly‖ and ―rightfully‖
makes a more interesting lesson than just dictating the
base words, and concentrating on keeping track of the
affixes makes it possible for learners to practice ―ight‖
and make it automatic.
This is where learners begin to see the affixes as the
building blocks of the English language. When they start
with ―-esh‖ and get to ―refreshingly‖ they are very
pleased with themselves.
Patterns to start with
(words ending in two
vowels and a
consonant, or a vowel
and two consonants)
__ail __ain
__oat __eat
__eet __een
__ink __all
__act __ink
__ump etc.
Practitioner’s Handbook for the Communications Modules 57
Second Pattern: Words ending in silent “e”
Next, work with words that follow a rule when an affix is added, beginning with words
that end in silent ―e.‖ Teach the rule, ―Drop the ―e‖ when the part you are adding starts
with a vowel.‖ There are various ways to formulate this rule, so use the one learners are
familiar with.
Choose a word family you want to work with, for example, ―__ake‖ and dictate your way
through the alphabet as usual. Again, remind people that it is okay to check with their
neighbour. Teach the rule, and review it every day. When you are going around to check
the spelling, if you find that someone has made a mistake, say the rule and ask the learner
to correct the word. If they have spelled the word correctly, say so, and ask them to state
the rule: ―You‘ve got it spelled right. Why did you drop the ―e‖ when you wrote
―taking‖?‖
When people are automatic with a rule, it is time to go on to the next one, but keep
coming back to that one for review.
Third Pattern: The doubling rule
There are many ways to formulate this rule, so use the one that
learners are familiar with, if any. Work on the doubling rule for
several days, until learners are firm with it, without reviewing the
silent ―e‖ rule. Then you might alternate, on succeeding days,
silent ―e‖ base words with doubling base words until learners are
firm on both rules.
When they know both rules well, teach them how to make a table
using the word processing program, and ask them to make a table
with two columns and six rows. Then dictate two words that differ only by a silent ―e‖
and ask them to write one at the head of each column. For the first few days, dictate the
words down one column and then down the other. Ask learners to read the words across
the rows. Later you can dictate words across the rows, and ask them to read down each
column. You may go on to other patterns or other rules, but ask them to make one such
table for review every day, and later less frequently.
Fourth pattern: Words that take “es” when you add “s”
Words ending in -s, -z, -x, -sh, -ch take an ―e‖ before an ―s.‖ This rule is not so difficult for
learners because they can hear the difference between box and boxes that requires the ―e‖.
Fifth pattern: Changing “y” to “i”
This rule is complicated, so start by making sure everyone knows the difference between
a vowel and a consonant. Then the rule is: ―When the word ends with a consonant + y,
and you want to add something that starts with a vowel, change the y to i.
EXCEPTIONS: 1) No English word has two ―i‘s‖ except skiing, which comes from the
Norwegian. 2) When you are adding ―er‖, it is also correct not to change the y to i, which
explains why you will see fryers for sale on so many grocery flyers.
tap tape
taps tapes
tapped taped
tapper taper
tapping taping
58 Practitioner’s Handbook for the Communications Modules
Sixth pattern: Greek and Latin roots
Last come the words that have Greek and Latin roots where the root may not be a word
on its own. By this time, learners are very familiar with
many affixes and spelling rules, and are ready to look at
a base which is not a word in itself. Explain the meaning
of each root, and dictate all the words that come from it.
For example, ―spect,‖ is part of the Latin word that
means ―see‖ and all the words will have something to do
with seeing: inspect, inspection, inspector, respect,
disrespect, respective, respectively, respectable,
respectably, irrespective, introspection, introspective,
introspectively, spectator, spectacle, spectacles.
Personal Dictionary
What skills does it build? personal organization; study skills; spelling skills;
alphabetization skills
Who is it useful for? learners who are organized and have a place to study and keep their
things; learners whose low reading and spelling skills make looking words up in a real
dictionary frustrating
A personal dictionary makes it easy to find words that learners regularly have trouble
spelling; when they can look up the correct spelling quickly and easily, they may write
more confidently and fluently.
Many beginning readers do not know the order of the letters in the alphabet, so they may
need help initially to enter words. Consulting a dictionary during the writing process is
foreign to many learners, so inviting learners to get their personal dictionaries out before
they start writing may be helpful. This also makes it possible for them to immediately
enter in the dictionary any new word that they need help with during the writing session.
If the learner is not organized enough to have books and supplies at hand, a spelling
dictionary will not be used or useful, and lack of organization may be a bigger problem
than poor spelling.
Method
1. Buy a blank spelling dictionary for the learner or make one. For example, the
Quick Word Handbook for Everyday Writers (Canadian Edition):
http://www.curriculumassociates.com/products/detail.asp?title=qwhandbook
2. Learners enter any words they come across that they want to remember how to
spell.
Some Greek and Latin roots
dent (tooth) rupt (break)
dict (say) script (write)
duct (lead) spect (see)
fer (carry) struct (build)
ject (throw) tend (stretch)
pend (hang) vent (come)
port (carry)
Practitioner’s Handbook for the Communications Modules 59
3. When learners write with you, and can‘t spell a word, they should ask for help;
you may write the word on a piece of paper or the board. The learner should write
the word twice—once in the piece of writing and once in the spelling dictionary.
4. While writing, learners can consult the dictionary to find words they already
entered.
Teaching Grammar and Punctuation
The best way to teach grammar and punctuation is the same way you integrate phonics
instruction into reading—that is, you teach what‘s needed as it comes up; you might give
a mini lesson while the learner is in the editing phase of the writing process, or during
proofreading.
Research shows that teaching grammar in isolation does not improve student‘s written
work. When students learn grammar rules in the context of grammar lessons, and apply
them in artificial situations such as work sheets, they do not transfer what they learn to
their own writing. If you are helping the learner prepare to write the GED, you will have
to go over the rules laid out in the GED study guide, but putting the rules in the context of
personal writing will help them make more sense and be more easily remembered.
60 Practitioner’s Handbook for the Communications Modules
References
Beebe, L. (2006). From concrete to abstract: The benefits of using a guided
reflective writing technique with adult literacy students. Vancouver: RiPAL BC.
also available at http://www.ripal.literacy.bc.ca/pdf/RiPP_Leonne.pdf
Campbell, P. (2003). Teaching reading to adults: A balanced approach. Edmonton:
Grass Roots Press.
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